Notes

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the endnotes throughout:

AM Albert Mansbridge Papers, British Library

BBC British Broadcasting Corporation Written Archives Centre

BUL Brunel University Library

IWM Imperial War Museum

JMD J. M. Dent Records, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

MO Mass Observation Archive

OUA Oxford University Archives, Bodleian Library

RCL Rotherham Central Library

SLSL Southwark Local Studies Library

Introduction to the Third Edition

1. Nick Cohen, “Britain’s Rich Kids Do Better Than Ever,” New Statesman (21 March 2005): 31–32.

2. Richard Adams, “Social Mobility in UK ‘Virtually Stagnant’ Since 2014,” Guardian (30 April 2019).

3. Patrick Butler, “Social Mobility in Decline in Britain, Official Survey Finds,” Guardian (21 January 2020).

4. Aaron Reeves et al., “The Decline and Persistence of the Old Boy: Private Schools and Elite Recruitment 1897 to 2016,” American Sociological Review 82 (December 2017): 1139–66.

5. Tom Woodin, “Working-class Education and Social Change in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Britain,” History of Education 36 (July–September 2007), 483–85.

6. Neil Kevin Hargraves, “Residential Adult Education and the ‘Problem of Uniqueness’: Newbattle Abbey College 1960–1989,” History of Education 40 (January 2011): 59–82.

7. Andrew Marantz, “Free Speech Is Killing Us,” New York Times (4 October 2019).

8. Joel Kotkin, The Coming of Neo-Feudalism: A Warning to the Global Middle Class (New York and London: Encounter Books, 2020), 1–3. For a more American perspective, see Michael Lind, The New Class War: Saving Democracy from the Managerial Elite (New York: Porfolio/Penguin, 2020).

9. Kotkin, Neo-Feudalism, 6, 78–79, 108.

10. Kenan Malik, “Once, Politicians Treated Voters as Adults. Now They are Contemptuous,” Guardian (24 November 2019).

11. Tom Woodin, Working-class Writing and Publishing in the Late Twentieth Century: Literature, Culture and Community (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2018), 169.

12. John Merrick, “Culture is Ordinary: Why the Arts Must Not Become the Preserve of the Elite,” New Statesman (17 February 2020).

13. https://artsfuse.org/203793/book-interview-zena-hitz-on-the-pleasures-and-values-of-the-intellectual-life/

14. James Proctor and Bethan Benwell, Reading Across Worlds: Transnational Book Groups and the Reception of Difference (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 5–7.

15. Pamela Fisher and Roy Fisher, “The ‘Autodidact’, the Pursuit of Subversive Knowledge and the Politics of Change,” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 28 (December 2007): 515–29. But see also Jonathan Rose, “The Autism Literary Underground,” Reception 9 (2017): 56–81.

16. For background, see Frank Felsenstein and James J. Connolly, What Middletown Read: Print Culture in a Small American City (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2015).

17. Saikat Majumdar, “The Critic as Amateur,” New Literary History 48 (Winter 2017): 18.

18. Joan Judge, “In Search of the Chinese Common Reader: Vernacular Knowledge in an Age of New Media,” in The Edinburgh History of Reading, Volume 3: Common Readers, ed. Jonathan Rose (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020), 218–37.

19. Arun Kumar, “Bombay Nights,” Aeon (16 April 2019). See also Juned Shaikh, “Translating Marx: Mavali, Dalit and the Making of Mumbai’s Working Class, 1928–1935,” Economic and Political Weekly 46 (30 July 2011): 65–73.

20. Keith Breckenridge, “Love Letters and Amanuenses: Beginning the Cultural History of the Working Class Private Sphere in Southern Africa, 1900–1933,” Journal of Southern African Studies 26 (June 2000): 337–48; Hlonipha Mokoena, “An Assembly of Readers: Magema Fuze and his Ilanga lase Natal Readers,” Journal of Southern African Studies 35 (September 2009): 595–607; Corinne Sandwith, “The Appearance of the Book: Towards a History of the Reading Lives and Worlds of Black South African Readers,” English in Africa 45 (April 2018): 11–38; as well as the essays in Karin Barber, ed., Hidden Histories: Everyday Literacy and Making the Self (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).

A Preface to a History of Audiences

1. David Perkins, Is Literary History Possible? (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 25–27.

2. Jeffrey Richards, Happiest Days: The Public Schools in English Fiction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 2.

3. Robert Darnton, The Kiss of Lamourette (New York: Norton, 1990), 212.

4. Ibid., 157.

5. For an anthology and bibliography of recent work in the field, see Guglielmo Cavallo and Roger Chartier, eds., A History of Reading in the West (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999). The Supplemental Bibliography in Richard D. Altick, The English Common Reader 1800–1900, 2nd edn. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998) focuses specifically on Britain.

6. See, for example, Louise L. Stevenson, “Prescription and Reality: Reading Advisors and Reading Practice, 1860–1880,” Book Research Quarterly 6 (1990–91): 43–61.

7. See, for example, David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture: England 1750–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), ch. 3.

8. See Joseph McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), ch. 3.

9. Janice Radway is one of the few reader-response critics who has interviewed actual readers, in Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984). Where Radway’s readers were contemporary, Martyn Lyons and Lucy Taska showed that the same method could be used to explore recent history in Australian Readers Remember: An Oral History of Reading 1890–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

10. Ronald J. Zboray, A Fictive People: Antebellum Economic Development and the American Reading Public (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

11. David Paul Nord, “Reading the Newspaper: Strategies and Politics of Reader Response, Chicago, 1912–1917,” Journal of Communication 45 (Summer 1995): 66–93.

12. Clarence Carr, Authors and Audiences: Popular Canadian Fiction in the Early Twentieth Century (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2000).

13. In addition to Carlo Ginzburg’s The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), see Sara T. Nalle, “Literacy and Culture in Early Modern Castile,” Past & Present 125 (November 1989): 65–96.

14. Altick, Common Reader, 244.

15. David Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working Class Autobiography (London: Methuen, 1982), 109–95.

16. John Burnett, David Vincent, and David Mayall, eds., The Autobiography of the Working Class: An Annotated, Critical Bibliography, 3 vols. (New York: New York University Press, 1984–89). For scholars who want to investigate upper- and middle-class readers, the potential sample is even larger: more than 6,000 entries in William Matthews, comp., British Autobiographies (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1968).

17. A. E. Coppard, It’s Me, O Lord! (London: Methuen, 1957), 9.

18. Joel Wiener, William Lovett (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 2. Barbara English, “Lark Rise and Juniper Hill: A Victorian Community in Literature and History,” Victorian Studies 29 (1985): 7–35.

19. See also Chester Armstrong, Pilgrimage from Nenthead (London: Methuen, 1938).

20. Robert Collyer, Some Memories (Boston: American Unitarian Association, n.d.), 14–15, 23–24.

21. Literary theorists have speculated about hypothetical readers—Wolfgang Iser’s “implied reader,” Stanley Fish’s “informed reader,” Jonathan Culler’s “qualified reader,” Michael Riffaterre’s “superreader”—but they are not relevant here.

22. Janice Radway, “The Book-of-the-Month Club and the General Reader: On the Uses of ‘Serious’ Fiction,” Critical Inquiry 14 (Spring 1988): 518, 538.

23. Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Contingencies of Value: Alternative Perspectives for Critical Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 52–53.

24. George Haw, The Life Story of Will Crooks, MP (London: Cassell, 1917), 22.

25. Smith, Contingencies of Value, 50–53.

26. Bryan Forbes, A Divided Life (London: Heinemann, 1992), 8.

27. Nancy Sharman, Nothing to Steal: The Story of a Southampton Childhood (London: Kaye & Ward, 1977), 137.

28. Margaret Perry, untitled TS (1975), BUL, p. 9.

29. T. J. Jackson Lears, “Making Fun of Popular Culture,” American Historical Review 97 (December 1992): 1417–26. My criticisms of Lears, and my approach to the history of audiences, were anticipated by Lawrence W. Levine in “The Folklore of Industrial Society: Popular Culture and Its Audiences” and “Levine Responds,” American Historical Review 97 (December 1992): 1369–99, 1427–30.

30. For example, in James Curran, Anthony Smith, and Pauline Wingate, eds., Impacts and Influences: Essays on Media Power in the Twentieth Century (London: Methuen, 1987), only Curran’s essay, “The Boomerang Effect: The Press and the Battle for London 1981–6,” gives us any real sense of audience response.

31. Roger Chartier, The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modern France, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 3–8.

32. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), introduction.

33. Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (New York: Norton, 1995), 186–87.

34. Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure (New York: New American Library, 1961), 121.

35. McAleer, Popular Reading, ch. 3.

36. Shils defined “ideology” as an intellectual system marked by a high degree of “(a) explicitness and authoritativeness of formulation, (b) internal systemic integration, (c) acknowledged affinity with other contemporaneous patterns, (d) closure, (e) imperativeness of manifestation in conduct, (f) accompanying affect, (g) consensus demanded of exponents, and (h) association with a corporate collective form deliberately intended to realize the pattern of beliefs.” Edward Shils, “Ideology,” in The Intellectuals and the Powers and Other Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 23.

37. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, in The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965), 5:95–100, 109–12, 233–34.

38. M. K. Ashby, Joseph Ashby of Tysoe: A Study of English Village Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 5–7, 12–14, 21, 26–28, 30, 34, 57–58, 82, 93–95, 108–109, 115, 122, 243–44, 258.

Chapter One: A Desire for Singularity

1. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 112–13.

2. Margaret Aston, Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Late Medieval Religion (London: Hambledon, 1984), 193–217. Anne Hudson, The Lollards and Their Books (London: Hambledon, 1985), 141–63.

3. T. Wilson Hayes, “The Peaceful Apocalypse: Familism and Literacy in Sixteenth-Century England,” Sixteenth-Century Journal 17 (Summer 1986): 131–33.

4. J. W. Martin, “Miles Hogarde: Artisan and Aspiring Author in Sixteenth-Century England,” Renaissance Quarterly 34 (Autumn 1981): 379–81.

5. Hayes, “Peaceful Apocalypse,” 133–43. J. W. Martin, “Christopher Vitel: An Elizabethan Mechanick Preacher,” Sixteenth Century Journal 10 (Summer 1979): 17–18.

6. Margaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and Its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981), xvii, 30–34.

7. Christopher Hill, The English Bible and the Seventeenth-Century Revolution (London: Allen Lane and The Penguin Press, 1993), 14–31, 188, 198–200, 246–47, 428, 432.

8. David Cressy, Literacy and the Social Order: Reading and Writing in Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 132–35.

9. Peter Laslett, “Scottish Weavers, Cobblers and Miners Who Bought Books in the 1750s,” Local Population Studies 3 (Autumn 1969): 7–15.

10. Ned Landsman, “Evangelists and Their Hearers: Popular Interpretation of Revivalist Preaching in Eighteenth-Century Scotland,” Journal of British Studies 28 (April 1989): 120–49.

11. David Kirkwood, My Life of Revolt (London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1935), 3–4.

12. Joseph Livesey, Autobiography of Joseph Livesey (London: National Temperance League, 1886), 4–7.

13. William Thom, Rhymes and Recollections of a Hand-Loom Weaver, 3rd edn. (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1847), 13–15.

14. John Sinclair, The Statistical Account of Scotland (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1791–99), 1:456–57.

15. Ibid., 4:524.

16. Ibid., 14:483.

17. Ibid., 3:597–600.

18. Ibid., 7:59–60{{. See also The New Statistical Account of Scotland (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1845), 4:433.}}

19. Sinclair, Statistical Account, 15:171–72.

20. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor (New York: Dover, 1968), 1:295.

21. Patrocinio P. Schweickart, “Reading Ourselves: Toward a Feminist Theory of Reading,” in Elizabeth A. Flynn and Schweickart, eds., Gender and Reading: Essays on Readers, Texts, and Contexts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 41.

22. Joseph Wittreich, Feminist Milton (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987). Claudia N. Thomas, Alexander Pope and His Eighteenth-Century Women Readers (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994), 1–3, 10–13, 26, 45, 152–59, 188–93, 199–204, 240–45.

23. Donna Landry, The Muses of Resistance: Labouring-Class Women’s Poetry in Britain, 1739–1796 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 12–22, 43–55, 123–30.

24. Ibid., 154–58.

25. Ann Yearsley, “To Those Who Accuse the Author of Ingratitude,” in Poems on Various Subjects (Oxford and New York: Woodstock Books, 1994), 57–60.

26. Mary Waldron, Lactilla, Milkwoman of Clifton: The Life and Writings of Ann Yearsley, 1753–1806 (Athens, GA and London: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 37–46.

27. Ann Yearsley, “Addressed to Ignorance, Occasioned by a Gentleman’s desiring the Author never to assume a Knowledge of the Ancients,” in Poems, 93–99.

28. G. L. Craik, The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties Illustrated by Female Examples (London: C. Cox, 1847), 7–18.

29. Mary Ann Ashford, Life of a Licensed Victualler’s Daughter (London: Saunders & Otley, 1844), iii–iv.

30. Janet Hamilton, Poems, Essays, and Sketches (Glasgow: James Maclehose, 1870), 265–66.

31. Ellen Johnston, Autobiography, Poems and Songs (Glasgow: William Love, 1867), 9.

32. Quarterly Review 35 (December 1826): 149.

33. Charles Campbell, Memoirs of Charles Campbell (Glasgow: James Duncan, 1828), 3–6, 19.

34. Hugh Miller, My Schools and Schoolmasters, 14th edn. (Edinburgh: William P. Nimmo, 1869), 416–20.

35. Francis Place, The Autobiography of Francis Place (1771–1854), ed. Mary Thale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 222–23, 275–76.

36. Christopher Thomson, The Autobiography of an Artisan (London: J. Chapman, 1847), 5–8, 19–24, 319, 335–42.

37. George Howell, draft autobiography (1898–1908), Bishopsgate Institute, volume C/a, p. 22.

38. Jean Rennie, Every Other Sunday: The Autobiography of a Kitchenmaid (London: Arthur Barker, 1955), 47–48, 88, 162, 181–82, 196–99.

39. Dorothy Burnham, Through Dooms of Love (London: Chatto & Windus, 1969), 174, 184–87, 192.

40. Ben Adhem [Allen Clarke], Liverpool Evening Post (30 November 1935): 2.

41. John MacDonald, Travels (London: Author, 1790), 100, 141–43. John Jones, Attempts in Verse (London: John Murray, 1831), 173, 176. William Lanceley, From Hall-Boy to House-Steward (London: Edward Arnold, 1925), 25, 161. Louise Jermy, The Memories of a Working Woman (Norwich: Goose & Son, 1934), 84–86, 92–93, 144. Lavinia Swainbank, autobiographical extract in John Burnett, ed., Useful Toil (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), 221–24.

42. Margaret Powell, Below Stairs (London: Peter Davies, 1968), 114, 128–29, 139–40.

43. Margaret Powell, The Treasure Upstairs (London: Peter Davies, 1970), 33–38, 134–36.

44. Marshall McLuhan, Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), 158.

45. Walter J. Ong, The Presence of the Word (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970), 54.

46. Bernard Capp, Astrology and the Popular Press: English Almanacs 1500–1800 (London: Faber and Faber, 1979), 215–16, 221–22.

47. Thomas Hardy, “Memoir of Thomas Hardy,” in Testaments of Radicalism: Memoirs of Working-Class Politicians 1790–1885, ed. David Vincent (London: Europa, 1977), 101.

48. J. R. Clynes, Memoirs: 1869–1924 (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 35, 45.

49. William Johnson, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (1 March 1906): 613.

50. “The Labour Party and the Books That Helped to Make It,” Review of Reviews 33 (1906): 573–74 (a survey of the reading tastes of early Labour MPs).

51. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum (London: Penguin, 1990), 177–78, 228.

52. George Bourne, Change in the Village (New York: George H. Doran, 1912), 194, 244–59, 297–303.

53. Ann Kussmaul, ed., The Autobiography of Joseph Mayett of Quainton (1783–1839) (n.p.: Buckingham Record Society, 1986), 1–2, 40–42, 48, 52, 70–72, 75–77, 86, 96.

54. Uriah Plant, An Account of the Principal Events in the Life of Uriah Plant (London: Published for the author by Thomas Griffiths, 1829), xi–xii, 4–9, 27–28, 31–42, 56–58, 73, 99, 107, 282–83.

55. John Clare, John Clare’s Autobiographical Writings, ed. Eric Robinson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), 9, 25–26.

56. John Clare, “Journal”, in The Prose of John Clare, ed. J. W. and Anne Tibble (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951), 7 September 1824.

57. John Clare, “Self-Identity,” in The Prose of John Clare, 239.

58. Altick, Common Reader, 35–37, 108–23. Valentine Cunningham, Everywhere Spoken Against: Dissent in the Victorian Novel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), 48–56.

59. Elizabeth Mary Wright, The Life of Joseph Wright (London: Oxford University Press, 1932), 20–21.

60. Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan, 65–67.

61. Joseph Barker, The History and Confessions of a Man (Wortley: J. Barker, 1846), 140, 149–52, 186–87, 193–95, 209.

62. Elisabeth Jay, The Religion of the Heart: Anglican Evangelicals and the Nineteenth-Century Novel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 192–95.

63. Samuel Westcott Tilke, An Autobiographical Memoir (London: Author, 1840), xiv–xvi.

64. J. Barlow Brooks, Lancashire Bred (Oxford: Author, 1950–51), 1:156.

65. Altick, Common Reader, 123–28, 160–61.

66. Thomas Jones, Rhymney Memories (Llandysul: Gwasg Gomer, 1970), 48, 77–81, 97, 116–17, 121–22, 147–50.

67. John Johnson, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (10 May 1906): 787.

68. Cunningham, Everywhere Spoken Against, 56–62.

69. Edwin Muir, The Story and the Fable (London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1940), 113–14.

70. Richard Pyke, Men and Memories (London: Epworth, 1948), 18, 36–41, 47, 100.

71. Paul Thomas Murphy, Towards a Working-Class Canon: Literary Criticism in British Working-Class Periodicals, 1816–1858 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 15–18, 36–40, 45, 49–53, 98–104.

72. Joel H. Wiener, Radicalism and Freethought in Nineteenth-Century Britain: The Life of Richard Carlile (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1983), 8, 27–29, 65, 68–69, 111–12, 121, 208, 258–59.

73. Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 40–43.

74. “Preface,” Labourer 1 (1847), quoted in H. Gustav Klaus, The Literature of Labour: Two Hundred Years of Working-Class Writing (Brighton: Harvester, 1985), 49.

75. Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 10.

76. Wiener, Lovett, 44–48, 82–86, 99–102, 120–25.

77. William Lovett, The Life and Struggles of William Lovett (New York: Knopf, 1920), 44–46.

78. Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 54–61, 125–47.

79. Thomas Frost, Forty Years’ Recollections: Literary and Political (London: Sampson, Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, 1880), 14–15, 38–39.

80. Thomas Frost, Reminiscences of a Country Journalist (London: Ward & Downey, 1886), 225–26.

81. Robert Lowery, “Passages in the Life of a Temperance Lecturer,” in Brian Harrison and Patricia Hollis, eds., Robert Lowery: Radical and Chartist (London: Europa, 1979), 54–60, 67–72, 82.

82. Thomas Cooper, The Life of Thomas Cooper (New York: Humanities Press, 1971), 37–39.

83. Thomas Cooper, “Moral and Political Lessons of Gulliver’s Travels,” Cooper’s Journal (11 May 1850): 297–99.

84. Samuel Bamford, Early Days (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1849), 192–95, 209–10, 280–82.

85. The Independent Labour Party—which was, in effect, the left wing of the Labour Party until it broke away in 1932.

86. Edward Milne, No Shining Armour (London: John Calder, 1976), 13–14, 47.

87. Catherine Cookson, Our Kate (London: Macdonald, 1969), 158–60, 211. Obituary, New York Times (12 June 1998):A19.

88. Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 77–78.

89. “Labour Party and Books,” 577.

90. John Birch Thomas, Shop Boy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), 58–59, 64.

91. Walter Hampson, “Reminiscences of ‘Casey,’” Glasgow Forward (26 September 1931): 12.

92. T. A. Jackson, “Walter Scott—Who Made the Novel a Necessity,” Plebs 26 (January 1934): 4–7.

93. Ernie Trory, Mainly About Books (Brighton: Crabtree, 1945), 18–19, 70–72.

94. T. A. Jackson, TS autobiography, Marx Memorial Library (London), pp. 68–69, 72–73.

95. “Labour Party and Books,” 568–82.

96. Ben Batten, Newlyn Boyhood (Penzance: Author, n.d.), 54–56.

97. Jack Goring, untitled MS (1938), BUL, pp. 158–60.

98. Allen Clarke, “Should Young Courting Couples Go Holiday-Making Together,” Liverpool Weekly Post (4 August 1934): 2.

99. Sir Henry Jones, Old Memories (London: Hodder & Stoughton, n.d.), 68, 95.

100. Fred Gresswell, Bright Boots (London: Robert Hale, 1956), 122–24.

101. Henry Edward Hawker, Notes of My Life (Stonehouse: Star Press, 1919), introduction.

102. George Acorn, One of the Multitude (London: William Heinemann, 1911), 193, 239–40.

103. V. W. Garratt, A Man in the Street (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1939), 80–81, 92–99, 161.

104. G. J. Wardle, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (22 February 1906): 597.

105. Frederick Rogers, The Seven Deadly Sins (London: A. H. Bullen, 1907), 29.

106. Ben Tillett, Memories and Reflections (London: John Long, 1931), 77.

107. Edmund Stonelake, The Autobiography of Edmund Stonelake, ed. Anthony Mor-O’Brien (Bridgend: Mid Glamorgan County Council, 1981), 57–58.

108. “Labour Party and Books,” 570–71. Caroline Benn, Keir Hardie (London: Hutchinson, 1992), 11–12.

109. C. A. Glyde, “Memories of an Agitator,” Yorkshire Factory Times (22 February 1923): 2.

110. George Lansbury, My Life (London: Constable, 1928), 266–68.

111. Helen Crawfurd, TS autobiography, Marx Memorial Library (London), pp. 58–59, 129.

112. Mary Smith, The Autobiography of Mary Smith, Schoolmistress and Nonconformist (London: Bemrose & Sons, 1892), 16–18, 26–41, 94–95, 132–35, 145, 156, 161–65, 209, 242–47, 256–60.

113. Elizabeth Bryson, Look Back in Wonder (Dundee: David Winter & Son, 1966), 80–81, 124–25, 213–15.

114. Sam Shaw, Guttersnipe (London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., 1946), 120, 163–66.

115. W. J. Linton, Threescore and Ten Years 1820 to 1890: Recollections (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1894), 114.

116. George Jacob Holyoake, Sixty Years of an Agitator’s Life (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1892), vol. 1, ch. 36.

117. Fenner Brockway, Socialism over Sixty Years: The Life of Jowett of Bradford (1864–1944) (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1946), 28.

118. Robert Blatchford, My Eighty Years (London: Cassell, 1931), 169–70.

119. Robert Blatchford, The Nunquam Papers (London: Clarion Newspaper Co., 1895), 15–19.

120. Richard Hillyer, Country Boy (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), 135–37.

121. Blatchford, Eighty Years, xiii, 43–44, 139, 150, 196.

122. Annie Kenney, Memories of a Militant (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), 23–24.

123. J. Bruce Glasier, “How I Became a Socialist,” Labour Leader (10 May 1912): 299.

124. Robert Blatchford, My Favourite Books (London: Clarion Press, [1911]), 223–32.

125. Kenneth O. Morgan, Keir Hardie (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975), 7.

126. John Ward, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (15 March 1906): 655.

127. Philip Inman, No Going Back (London: Williams & Norgate, 1952), 35–36, 45–47.

128. Frederick Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature: Some Memories of Sixty Years (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1913), 137–39.

129. Robert Roberts, The Classic Slum (London: Penguin, 1990), 177–79.

130. James Murray, “To Pashendaele and Back” (c. 1976), IWM, p. 23{{. See also J. T. Murphy, New Horizons (London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1942), 32; and Bill Naughton, On the Pig’s Back: An Autobiographical Excursion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 3.}}

131. J. R. Clynes, “The Use of Books to Working Men,” Everyman 2 (18 April 1913): 5.

132. Raphael Samuel, East End Underworld: Chapters in the Life of Arthur Harding (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 274–75.

133. Haw, Will Crooks, 19–20. Tillett, Memories, 190{{. See also G. H. Roberts, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (17 May 1906): 806; John Wilson, Memories of a Labour Leader (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1910), 51; Lansbury, My Life, 129–30; Brooks, Lancashire Bred, 1:30; Arthur Fredrick Goffin, “A Grey Life” (1933), BUL, ch. 7.}}

134. “Labour Party and Books,” 575.

135. James Clunie, The Voice of Labour (Dunfermline: A. Romanes & Son, 1958), 19–20, 33, 39, 42.

136. James Clunie, Labour is My Faith: The Autobiography of a House Painter (Dunfermline: A. Romanes & Son, 1954), 82.

137. Percy Wall, “Hour at Eve,” BUL, chs. 1–2, 8, 17–18.

138. R. M. Fox, Smoky Crusade (London: Hogarth Press, 1937), 236, 239, 256–58.

139. Emrys Daniel Hughes, “Welsh Rebel,” National Library of Scotland, pp. 113, 128–31, 140, 151–54, 178–80, 190.

140. Jack Lawson, A Man’s Life (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1932), 77–81, 102–4, 119–20, 129.

141. Alice Foley, A Bolton Childhood (Manchester: Manchester University Extra-Mural Department, 1973), 55, 59–61, 65–73, 91–92.

142. Rudolf Rocker, The London Years (London: Robert Anscome, 1956), 144–45, 160–61, 177–79. William J. Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals 1875–1914 (London: Duckworth, 1975), 254–75.

143. Chaim Lewis, A Soho Address (London: Victor Gollancz, 1965), 18, 66–67, 93–99, 124.

144. Thomas Thompson, Lancashire for Me (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1940), 22–25.

Chapter Two: Mutual Improvement

1. Harold Begbie, Living Water: Chapters from the Romance of the Poor Student (London: Headley Bros., 1918), 114–18.

2. Altick, Common Reader, 205–206. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage, 1963), 743–44.

3. Fifty Years’ History of the Gallatown Mutual Improvement Association (1863–1913) (Kirkaldy: East End Printing Works, 1913), 117.

4. Eric Hopkins, Working-Class Self-Help in Nineteenth-Century England (London: UCL Press, 1995), 24, 51.

5. Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom, 30–31.

6. Jane Rendall, The Origins of the Scottish Enlightenment, 1707–1776 (London: Macmillan, 1978), 62.

7. James Mackenzie, Life of Michael Bruce (London: J. M. Dent, 1905), 11–13.

8. John C. Crawford, “The Origins and Development of Societal Library Activity in Scotland” (MA thesis, University of Strathclyde, 1981), pp. 177–89, 210–14, 220–21.

9. R. A. Houston, Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England 1600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 38–40, 174–78. Paul Kaufman, “A Unique Record of a People’s Reading,” Libri 14 (1964): 227–42. The Statistical Account of Scotland (9:588–93) records twenty wrights as heads of households in 1792, but given the growth in Crieff ’s population and industry, there were probably only half as many at mid-century.

10. Crawford, “Societal Library Activity,” pp. 28–31.

11. Scots Chronicle (25 October 1796): 3, (30 December 1796): 3, (20 January 1797): 3, (10 February 1797): 4, (19 May 1797): 4.

12. Samuel Brown, Some Account of Itinerating Libraries and Their Founder (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1856), 58–59, 63–64.

13. East Lothian Itinerating Libraries, Fourth Annual Report, 1824–25, p. 6.

14. Robert Skeen, Autobiography of Mr. Robert Skeen, Printer (London: Wyman & Sons, 1876), 5.

15. Alexander Bethune, Memoirs of Alexander Bethune (Aberdeen: George & Robert King, 1845), 231–32.

16. Alexander Bethune, “Sketch of the Life of John Bethune,” in John Bethune, Poems (Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1840), 44–47.

17. Ian R. Carter, “The Mutual Improvement Movement in North-East Scotland in the Nineteenth Century,” Aberdeen University Review 46 (Autumn 1976): 383–92.

18. William Donaldson, Popular Literature in Victorian Scotland: Language, Fiction and the Press (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1986), 5, 11, 21–32, 102–106.

19. David Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald (London: Jonathan Cape, 1977), 30.

20. Jane Cox, ed., A Singular Marriage: A Labour Love Story in Letters and Diaries: Ramsay and Margaret MacDonald (London: Harrap, 1988), 10–11.

21. G. E. Elton, The Life of James Ramsay MacDonald (London: Collins, 1939), 24–28.

22. Samuel Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 14.

23. Thomas Walter Laqueur, Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working Class Culture 1780–1850 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976), 88–89, 92–93, 96, 117–18, 154–58, 246. S. J. D. Green, “Religion and the Rise of the Common Man: Mutual Improvement Societies, Religious Associations and Popular Education in Three Industrial Towns in the West Riding of Yorkshire c. 1850–1900,” in Cities, Class and Communication: Essays in Honour of Asa Briggs, ed. Derek Fraser (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990), 29.

24. Place, Autobiography, 131, 175–76, 198–200.

25. John Buckley, A Village Politician: The Life-Story of John Buckley, ed. J. C. Buckmaster (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1897), 98–99.

26. Joseph Constantine, Fifty Years of the Water Cure (Manchester and London: John Heywood, 1892), 5–9, 15.

27. Lovett, Life and Struggles, 21–22, 35–37, 58–59, 138–50.

28. Lowery, “Passages in the Life,” 72–73.

29. John Bedford Leno, The Aftermath: With Autobiography of the Author (London: Reeves & Turner, 1892), 42, 49–50.

30. William Farish, The Autobiography of William Farish (privately printed, 1889), 11–12, 46–47, 59–60.

31. Frost, Forty Years’ Recollections, 198–203.

32. T. B. Graham, Nineteenth Century Self-Help in Education—Mutual Improvement Societies. Volume Two: Case Study: The Carlisle Working Men’s Reading Rooms (Nottingham: Department of Adult Education, University of Nottingham, 1983), 8–11. Robert Elliott, “On Working Men’s Reading Rooms, as Established since 1848 in Carlisle,” Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1861): 676–79. Mary Brigg, ed., The Journals of a Lancashire Weaver (Liverpool: Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1982), viii–xi.

33. Joseph Greenwood, “Reminiscences of Sixty Years Ago,” Co-partnership (December 1910): 182, (January 1911): 6, (February 1911): 22.

34. A Student of the Working Men’s College, London, “How to Make Colleges,” Working Men’s College Magazine 2 (June 1860): 98–99.

35. Mabel Tylecote, The Mechanics’ Institutes of Lancashire and Yorkshire before 1851 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1957), 230–31, 241–46.

36. Frank Curzon, “Some Statistics of the Huddersfield Mechanics’ Institution,” Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1859): 344–47.

37. Ben Brierley, Home Memories (Manchester: Abel Heywood, 1886), 35–36.

38. Charles Shaw, When I Was a Child (London: Methuen & Co., 1903), 221–23, 228.

39. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability, 193–94, 216–25.

40. J. F. C. Harrison, “The Victorian Gospel of Success,” Victorian Studies 1 (December 1957): 155–64; Kenneth Fielden, “Samuel Smiles and Self-Help,” Victorian Studies 12 (December 1968): 154–76.

41. Robert Blatchford, A Book About Books (London: Clarion Press, 1903), 233–54.

42. “Labour Party and Books,” 576. Thomas Summerbell, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (22 March 1906): 675.

43. Paul Davies, A. J. Cook (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), 2.

44. Beckles Wilson, “Library London,” in Living London, ed. George R. Sims (London: Cassell, 1902–1903), 3:97.

45. John Britton, The Auto-Biography of John Britton F.S.A. (London: Author, 1850), 1:2. Livesey, Autobiography, 81–82. William Marcroft, The Marcroft Family (London: John Heywood, 1886), 41–42. Thomas Burt, in “Labour Party and Books,” 569. John B. Turnbull, Reminiscences of a Stonemason (London: John Murray, 1908), 65–69. Robert Watchorn, The Autobiography of Robert Watchorn, ed. Herbert Faulkner West (Oklahoma City: Robert Watchorn Charities, 1958), 2. George Rowles, “Chaps among the Caps” (1968), BUL, p. 21.

46. Henry Coward, Reminiscences of Henry Coward (London: J. Curwen & Sons, 1919), v–vii. Thomas Burke, The Sun in Splendour (New York: George H. Doran, 1926), 232. Lansbury, My Life, 99. Edgar Wallace, Edgar Wallace: A Short Autobiography (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1930), 53. Frank Steel, Ditcher’s Row: A Tale of the Old Charity (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1939), 60. J. G. Graves, Some Memories (Sheffield: Author, [1944]), 42–43.

47. George Gregory, untitled TS, BUL, pp. 2, 36–37, 60–65, 71–103, 111, 115–23, 126–27.

48. Samuel Smiles, Life of a Scotch Naturalist: Thomas Edward, new edn. (London: John Murray, 1882), v–vii, 78–80, 91, 253–54, 323.

49. Samuel Smiles, Men of Invention and Industry (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1885), 321–63.

50. Henry H. Cawthorne, “The Spitalfields Mathematical Society (1717–1845),” Journal of Adult Education 3 (April 1929): 155–166.

51. Timothy Claxton, Memoir of a Mechanic (Boston: George W. Light, 1839), 34–36.

52. Gwyn A. Williams, Rowland Detrosier: A Working-Class Infidel 1800–34 (York: St. Anthony’s, 1965), 3–4, 7–9, 15–16.

53. G. E. Maxim, “Libraries and Reading in the Context of the Economic, Political and Social Changes Taking Place in Manchester and the Neighbouring Mill Towns, 1750–1850” (MA thesis, Sheffield University, 1979), pp. 569–72.

54. Anne Secord, “Science in the Pub: Artisan Botanists in Early Nineteenth-Century Lancashire,” History of Science 32 (1994): 269–315. Anne Secord, “Corresponding Interests: Artisans and Gentlemen in Nineteenth-Century Natural History,” British Journal of the History of Science 27 (1994): 383–408.

55. Lowery, “Passages in the Life,” 77–78, 114–15.

56. Allen Davenport, The Life and Literary Pursuits of Allen Davenport (Aldershot: Scolar, 1994), 26–28.

57. John A. Leatherland, Essays and Poems (London: W. Tweedie, 1862), 9–16.

58. Thompson, Lancashire for Me, 25.

59. Gallatown Mutual Improvement, 59–60, 63, 71–72, 76, 90–98, 103, 107–11, 120–27.

60. Green, “Religion and the Common Man,” 36–37.

61. Armstrong, Pilgrimage from Nenthead, 17–18, 42–43, 57–60, 70–71, 82–84, 87–90, 93–95, 101–103, 109–10, 118–23, 127–28, 201–4, 258, 261–67.

62. David Willox, “Memories of Parkhead, Its People and Pastimes,” Mitchell Library, pp. 100–102.

63. Inman, No Going Back, 44–45, 147.

64. F. H. Spencer, An Inspector’s Testament (London: English Universities Press, 1938), 78, 83–85, 100, 108–14.

65. Crawford, “Societal Library Activity,” 110, 238–40.

66. David Chadwick, “On Free Public Libraries and Museums,” Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1857): 575.

67. Elizabeth Rossiter, “A Student’s Wife’s Notion of College and Classes,” Working Men’s College Magazine 1 (October 1859): 153–54.

68. A Student’s Wife, “Will College Night Classes Be of Any Use to Women?” Working Men’s College Magazine 2 (January 1860): 2–4.

69. George Eliot, Felix Holt the Radical (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), 212.

70. Graham, Nineteenth Century Self-Help, 23, 38–39.

71. Green, “Religion and the Common Man,” 33.

72. “Metropolitan Associations,” Union Review 1 (January 1882): 13.

73. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, 24–26.

74. Barbara J. Blaszak, The Matriarchs of England’s Cooperative Movement: A Study in Gender Politics and Female Leadership, 1883–1921 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000), 75–78.

75. Margaret Penn, Manchester Fourteen Miles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947), 74–80. Stella Davies, North Country Bred: A Working-Class Family Chronicle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963), 76.

76. Foley, Bolton Childhood, 44–46, 55–56.

77. Gillian Scott, Feminism and the Politics of Working Women: The Women’s Co-operative Guild, 1880s to the Second World War (London: UCL Press, 1998), 68.

78. D. H. Lawrence, Sons and Lovers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 69.

79. Deborah Smith, My Revelation (London: Houghton Publishing, 1933), 18, 48–62, 84–85, 92, 97.

80. Elizabeth Andrews, A Woman’s Work is Never Done (Ystrad Rhondda: Cymric Democrat Publishing Society, n.d.), 6.

81. Ian Inkster, “Introduction: The Context of Steam Intellect in Britain (to 1851),” in The Steam Intellect Societies—Essays on Culture, Education and Industry circa 1820–1914 (Nottingham: Department of Adult Education, University of Nottingham, 1985), 11–16.

82. Tylecote, Mechanics’ Institutes, 67–68.

83. Green, “Religion and the Common Man,” 29–33.

84. James Dellow, Memoirs of an Old Stager (Newcastle: Andrew Reid & Co., 1928), 38–39.

85. T. Lloyd Roberts, Life Was Like That (Bala: A. J. Chapple, n.d.), 11–13.

86. Working Men’s Club and Institute Union, Annual Report, 1874–75, pp. 10–11, 20–21.

87. Richard Price, An Imperial War and the British Working Class (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), 47, 61–62.

88. Jean Everitt, “Co-operative Society Libraries,” Library History 15 (May 1999): 33–40.

89. John Attfield, With Light of Knowledge: A Hundred Years of Education in the Royal Arsenal Co-operative Society, 1877–1977 (London: RASC/Journeyman Press, 1981), 6–9, 12, 40, 45–48.

90. Alexander Hartog, Born to Sing (London: Dennis Dobson, 1978), 44–45.

91. Adult Education Committee of the Board of Education, The Drama in Adult Education (London: HMSO, 1926), 75–103, 113–20, 152–54, 163–69. C. O. G. Douie, “The Drama in Prisons,” Journal of Adult Education 1 (September 1926): 61–69. Beresford Ingram, “Education in Prisons,” Adult Education 10 (September 1937): 37. Winifred Albaya, Through the Green Door: An Account of the Sheffield Educational Settlement, Shipton Street: 1918–1955 (Sheffield: Sheffield District Education Committee, 1980), 169–72.

92. Arthur Gill, “I Remember! Reminiscences of a Cobbler’s Son” (1969), BUL, pp. 2–3, 144–46.

93. C. H. Rolph, Living Twice (London: Victor Gollancz, 1974), 84–88.

94. Hymie Fagan, “An Autobiography,” BUL, pp. 44–51.

95. Ralph L. Finn, No Tears i Aldgate (London: Robert Hale, 1963), 150–56.

96. Family Life and Work before 1918 Oral History Archive, Department of Sociology, University of Sussex.

97. Samuel Taylor, Records of an Active Life (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1886), 2–4, 9, 22–24.

98. Samuel Taylor, “Literary and Musical Entertainments for the People,” Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1858): 644–45.

99. Flora Thompson, Lark Rise to Candleford (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), 43–44, 109–11, 192, 252–53, 331–32, 350–59, 413–16, 433–36.

100. Ruth Johnson, Old Road: A Lancashire Childhood 1912–1926, compiled and written by Alfred E. Body (Manchester: E. J. Morten, 1974), 112–13, 116–17.

101. J. G. Glenwright, Bright Shines the Morning (London: Martini, 1949), 138–40.

102. Henry Byett, “Richard Jefferies and Alfred Williams—A Comparison,” AM.

103. Margaret Thomson Davis, The Making of a Novelist (London: Allison & Busby, 1982), 3–6.

104. Foley, Bolton Childhood, 11–12, 25.

105. H. M. Burton, There Was a Young Man (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1958), 35, 39–41, 47–49.

106. John Allaway, in Ronald Goldman, ed., Breakthrough: Autobiographical Accounts of the Education of Some Socially Disadvantaged Children (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1968), 14–17.

107. Derek Davies, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 35–39.

108. Elizabeth Flint, Hot Bread and Chips (London: Museum Press, 1963), 108–109.

109. Jack Lawson, Peter Lee (London: Epworth, 1949), 211.

110. Dennis Marsden, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 107–17.

111. Brian Jackson and Dennis Marsden, Education and the Working Class (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962), 100–103.

112. Jeremy Seabrook, Mother and Son (London: Victor Gollancz, 1979), 39, 151–53, 165.

Chapter Three: The Difference Between Fact and Fiction

1. Chartier, Cultural Uses of Print, 335–36.

2. David D. Hall, “The World of Print and Collective Mentality in Seventeenth-Century New England,” in Cultures of Print: Essays in the History of the Book (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 87.

3. Spufford, Small Books, esp. ch. 9. The Harvard College Library has a collection of 2,800 chapbooks, mostly from the mid-eighteenth to the early nineteenth centuries, of which just over a third are romances, folk stories, and fairy tales, while 5 percent deal with the supernatural. The rest offer songs, humor, history, biography, travel, crime, or religion. See Susan Pedersen, “Hannah More Meets Simple Simon: Tracts, Chapbooks, and Popular Culture in Late Eighteenth-Century England,” Journal of British Studies 25 (January 1986): 99–106.

4. Clare, Autobiographical Writings, 5.

5. Ibid., 42.

6. George Deacon, John Clare and the Folk Tradition (London: Sinclair Browne, 1983), 38.

7. Thomas Burt, Thomas Burt, MP, DCL, Pitman and Privy Councillor (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1924), 115{{. See also John Britton, The Beauties of Wiltshire (London: Author, 1825), 3:xvi–xvii; Robert Owen, The Life of Robert Owen (London: Frank Cass, 1967), 3–4; Anonymous, Chapters in the Life of a Dundee Factory Boy (Dundee: William Kidd, 1887), 44.}}

8. Ashby, Ashby of Tysoe, 34.

9. Albert Charles Adams, The History of a Village Shopkeeper (Edinburgh: John Menzies, 1876), 8–11.

10. Doreen M. Rosman, “‘What Has Christ to Do with Apollo?’: Evangelicalism and the Novel, 1800–1830,” Studies in Church History 14 (1977): 301–11. Elisabeth Jay, Religion of the Heart 195–202.

11. Pat Rogers, “Classics and Chapbooks,” in Literature and Popular Culture in Eighteenth Century England (Brighton: Harvester, 1985).

12. Miller, Schools and Schoolmasters, 28–30.

13. Bamford, Early Days, 40–41, 89–91.

14. Barker, History and Confessions, 116–18.

15. J. Campkin, The Struggles of a Village Lad (London: William Tweedie, 1859), 21–22.

16. James I. Hillocks, Life Story: A Prize Autobiography (London: William Tweedie, 1863), 30.

17. Leatherland, Essays and Poems, 4–5.

18. Thomas Carter, Memoirs of a Working Man (London: Charles Knight, 1845), 19–21, 24–31, 74–76.

19. Robert Roberts, The Life and Opinions of Robert Roberts, a Wandering Scholar, ed. J. H. Davies (Cardiff: William Lewis, 1923), 17–18, 46, 49, 105–106, 196.

20. Thompson, Lark Rise, 259–60.

21. V. S. Pritchett, A Cab at the Door (London: Chatto & Windus, 1968), 47–48.

22. Jones, Rhymney Memories, 42–43.

23. Fred Kitchen, Nettleworth Parva (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1968), 40.

24. Fred Kitchen, Brother to the Ox (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1942), 11, 13, 149–51, 199, 224.

25. Edward Storey, A Right to Song: The Life of John Clare (London: Methuen, 1983), 225.

26. William Miles, An Autobiography: From Pit Bank to Balliol College (London: Author, 1972), 18.

27. William Glynne-Jones, The Childhood Land (London: Batsford, 1960), 81–82.

28. Samuel, East End Underworld, 39–40.

29. Goffman, Frame Analysis, ch. 5.

30. Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan, 94–101, 288–94.

31. Thomas Wright, Some Habits and Customs of the Working Classes (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1867), 165.

32. Philip Boswood Ballard, Things I Cannot Forget (London: University of London Press, 1937), 108–109.

33. Alfred Gilchrist, Naethin’ at A’ (Glasgow: Robert Gibson & Sons, n.d.), 50.

34. Acorn, One of the Multitude, 134.

35. Roberts, Classic Slum, 176.

36. Harry Blacker, Just Like It Was: Memoirs of the Mittel East (London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1974), 28.

37. Ted Willis, Whatever Happened to Tom Mix? (London: Cassell, 1970), 47–50.

38. Jack Common, Kiddar’s Luck (London: Turnstile, 1951), 64.

39. Emlyn Williams, George: An Early Autobiography (New York: Random House, 1961), 152–58.

40. William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), ch. 5.

41. Thompson, Lancashire for Me, 15.

42. Garratt, Man in the Street, 114.

43. Hillyer, Country Boy, 31–32.

44. John Paton, Proletarian Pilgrimage (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1935), 41.

45. Thomas, Shop Boy, 139–40.

46. A Factory Girl, The Unfortunate Genius (London: Bookseller, 1852), 41. Cooper, Life, 8. Andrews, Woman’s Work, 2.

47. James Edwin Saunders, The Reflections and Rhymes of an Old Miller, ed. W. Ridley Chesterton (London: Hodder & Stoughton, [1938]), 32–34.

48. Common, Kiddar’s Luck, 60–61, 94–95.

49. T. A. Jackson, Solo Trumpet (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1953), 14–15.

50. Leatherland, Essays and Poems, 5.

51. Robert Story, Love and Literature (London: Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1842), 60–61.

52. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 6, 15.

53. William Heaton, The Old Soldier (London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1857), xvi–xvii.

54. Herbert Hodge, It’s Draughty in Front (London: Michael Joseph, 1936), 62.

55. Anonymous, Struggles for Life (London: W. & F. G. Cash, 1854), 40.

56. Elizabeth Rignall, “All So Long Ago” (1973), BUL, ch. 2. For a similar account, see Hughes, “Welsh Rebel,” pp. 19–20.

57. Harry Alfred West, “The Autobiography of Harry Alfred West: Facts and Comment,” BUL, pp. 11, 15, 44–45.

58. Janet Fyfe, Books Behind Bars: The Role of Books, Reading, and Libraries in British Prison Reform, 1701–1911 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992), 181, 195–96.

59. Bamford, Passages, 14, 363–64.

60. Klaus, Literature of Labour, 1985), 51–52.

61. John James Bezer, “The Autobiography of One of the Chartist Rebels of 1848,” in David Vincent, ed., Testaments of Radicalism: Memoirs of Working Class Politicians 1790–1885 (London: Europa, 1977), 167.

62. Hughes, “Welsh Rebel,” pp. 19–20, 128–31, 140.

63. “Labour Party and Books,” 573, 578.

64. Blatchford, Favourite Books, 191, 208.

65. Clunie, Labour is My Faith, 11–13.

66. Annie Kenney, Memories of a Militant (London: Edward Arnold, 1924), 106.

67. Rowland Kenney, Westering (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1939), 27–28.

68. Crawfurd, TS autobiography, pp. 49–53.

69. Edward Salmon, Juvenile Literature as It Is (London: Henry J. Drane, 1880), 15.

70. Robert W. Lovett, Robinson Crusoe: A Bibliographical Checklist of English Language Editions (1719–1979) (New York: Greenwood, 1991).

71. Kevin Carpenter, Desert Isles & Pirate Islands: The Island Theme in Nineteenth-Century English Juvenile Fiction: A Survey and Bibliography (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1984).

72. Martin Green, “The Robinson Crusoe Story,” in Imperialism and Juvenile Literature, ed. Jeffrey Richards (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 35–37.

73. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 171–73.

74. Ibid., 217–22.

75. Erhard Dahl, Die Kürzungen des Robinson Crusoe in England zwischen 1719 und 1819 vor dem Hintergrund des zeitgenössischen Druckgewerbes, Verlagswesens und Lesepublikums (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1977).

76. Rogers, “Classics and Chapbooks”.

77. In H. T. Dickinson, ed., The Political Works of Thomas Spence (Newcastle: Avero, 1982), 5–15.

78. Clare, Autobiographical Writings, 13.

79. Ebenezer Elliott, “Autobiography,” in John Watkins, ed., Life, Poetry and Letters of Ebenezer Elliott (London: John Mortimer, 1850), 12.

80. Greenwood, “Reminiscences of Sixty Years Ago,” 51.

81. “Labour Party and Books,” 571.

82. Campkin, Village Lad, 22. Allen Clarke, “Some Memories of Old-Time Excursions,” Liverpool Weekly Post (5 May 1934): 2. Eric Horne, What the Butler Winked At (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1923), 47–48.

83. Hartley Kemball Cook, In the Watch Below: The Books & Hobbies of Seamen (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1937), 60–61.

84. Thomas Jordan, untitled MS (1976), BUL, pp. 2, 9.

85. Louis Battye, I Had a Little Nut Tree (London: Secker & Warburg, 1959), 95–96.

86. Murray, “To Pashendaele and Back,” pp. 5, 15–16, 21.

87. Ian Watt, “Robinson Crusoe as Myth,” Essays in Criticism 1 (April 1951): 101.

88. Michael Gareth Llewelyn, Sand in the Glass (London: John Murray, 1943), 13.

89. Spike Mays, No More Soldiering for Me (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1971), 173–74.

90. Alison Uttley, The Farm on the Hill (London: Faber and Faber, 1941), ch. 3.

91. J. R. R. Adams, The Printed Word and the Common Man: Popular Culture in Ulster 1700–1900 (Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University of Belfast, 1987), 168–69.

92. Helen Small, “A Pulse of 124: Charles Dickens and a Pathology of the Mid-Victorian Reading Public,” in The Practice and Representation of Reading in England, ed. James Raven, Helen Small, and Naomi Tadmor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 271–74, 280–81.

93. P. R. Catchside, “Loveclough Printworks Library,” Library History 2 (Autumn 1970): 46–51.

94. Christopher M. Baggs, “The Miners’ Libraries of South Wales from the 1860s to 1939” (PhD diss., University of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1995), 510–11.

95. Charles H. Welch, An Autobiography (Banstead: Berean Publishing Trust, 1960), 33.

96. Acorn, One of the Multitude, 28–35.

97. John Sykes, Slawit in the ’Sixties (Huddersfield and London: Schofield and Sims, n.d.), 23–29.

98. Gilchrist, Naethin’ at A’, 14.

99. Wright, Habits and Customs, 166.

100. Allan Jobson, The Creeping Hours of Time (London: Robert Hale, 1977), 102.

101. G. A. W. Tomlinson, Coal-Miner (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 64.

102. Mrs. Preston, in Life as We Have Known It, ed. Margaret Llewelyn Davies (London: Hogarth Press, 1931), 119.

103. Eleanor Hutchinson, “The Bells of St. Mary’s,” BUL, ch. 3.

104. Grace Foakes, My Part of the River (London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1974), 48.

105. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 109.

106. Wall, “Hour at Eve,” ch. 1.

107. Neville Cardus, Second Innings (London: Collins, 1950), 45–47.

108. Norman Nicholson, Wednesday Early Closing (London: Faber and Faber, 1975), 142–45.

109. Samuel, East End Underworld, 47, 74–75, 274. The same criticism is offered in the anonymous “Autobiography of a Journeyman Shoemaker,” Saturday Evening Commonwealth (22 November 1856), 3.

110. Frost, Reminiscences of a Country Journalist, 151–53.

111. Frank R. Argent, “No Medals for Frankie,” SLSL, p. 22.

112. R. L. Lee, The Town That Died (London: Author, 1975), 88.

113. Ashby, Ashby of Tysoe, 94.

114. Donaldson, Literature in Victorian Scotland, 32.

115. Brierley, Home Memories, 21–22.

116. Nora Hampton, “Memories of Baptist End, Netherton, Dudley in the Period 1895–1919,” BUL, p. 1. Walter Citrine, Men and Work (London: Hutchinson, 1964), 11. James Whittaker, I, James Whittaker (London: Rich & Cowan, 1934), 15{{. See also Edward Blishen, This Right Soft Lot (London: Thames & Hudson, 1969), 74.}}

117. Walter Haydn Davies, The Right Place—The Right Time (Llandybie: Llyfrau’r, 1972), 52.

Chapter Four: A Conservative Canon

1. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 260–67.

2. Crawford, “Societal Library Activity,” 36–40, 48–50, 85–88, 112–18, 232–33, 246–51.

3. Lord Cockburn, Journal of Henry Cockburn (Edinburgh: Edmonston & Douglas, 1874), 1:73–74.

4. Hamilton, Poems, Essays, and Sketches, vii–ix, 235–36, 244–46, 361–63, 371.

5. Alexander Somerville, The Autobiography of a Working Man (London: C. Gilpin, 1848), 93.

6. Carter, Memoirs, 40–42, 57–58, 79–82, 117–18.

7. Clare, Autobiographical Writings, 45–46.

8. Story, Love and Literature, 96, 127–33, 167–68.

9. Robert White, Autobiographical Notes (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Eagle, 1966), 3–5, 21–22.

10. Harry Hanham and Michael Shortland, introduction to Hugh Miller’s Memoir: From Stonemason to Geologist, ed. Shortland (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995), 3–4.

11. Miller to Miss Dunbar, 25 October 1834, quoted in ibid., 16.

12. Miller, Schools and Schoolmasters, 51–56.

13. Jim Bullock, Them and Us (London: Souvenir, 1972), 69.

14. Jackson, TS autobiography, p. 90.

15. Patrick J. Dollan, untitled TS, Mitchell Library, pp. 26, 169–70, 191–93, 197–99.

16. Cardus, Second Innings, 70–71.

17. Mayhew, London Labour, 1:293–96.

18. Michael Thompson, Rubbish Theory: The Creation and Destruction of Value (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).

19. Charles Knight, Passages of a Working Life (London: Bradbury and Evans, 1864–65), 3:12.

20. Janet Hitchman, The King of the Barbareens (London: Putnam, 1960), 113–14.

21. MO file 47, pp. 22–23; file 48, pp. 26.

22. Emanuel Shinwell, Conflict without Malice (London: Odhams Press, 1955), 24–25.

23. Joseph Keating, My Struggle for Life (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co., 1916), 65–66, 72–74, 99, 112–14.

24. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 39–40, 43–45.

25. Charles Manby Smith, Curiosities of London Life (London: A. W. Bennett, [1853]), 102.

26. Russell Jackson, ed., Victorian Theatre (London: A. & C. Black, 1989), 45–50. Douglas A. Reid, “Popular Theatre in Victorian Birmingham,” in David Bradby, Louis James, and Bernard Sharratt, eds., Performance and Politics in Popular Drama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 74–77, 82–85.

27. R. W. Morris, “Autobiography of R. W. Morris,” BUL, p. 43.

28. F. W. Jowett, “Bradford Seventy Years Ago,” in Brockway, Socialism over Sixty Years, 20.

29. Brooks, Lancashire Bred, 1:136–37.

30. Jeremy Crump, “The Popular Audience for Shakespeare in Nineteenth-Century Leicester,” in Richard Foulkes, ed., Shakespeare and the Victorian Stage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 271–82.

31. Samuel Westcott Tilke, An Autobiographical Memoir (London: Author, 1840), xv.

32. Thompson, Working Class, 736.

33. Joss Marsh, Word Crimes: Blasphemy, Culture, and Literature in Nineteenth-Century England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 111–12.

34. R. G. Kirby and A. E. Musson, The Voice of the People: John Dougherty, 1798–1854: Trade Unionist, Radical and Factory Reformer (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), 175.

35. Shinwell, Conflict without Malice, 72–73.

36. Clynes, Memoirs: 1869–1924, 30–32, 49–50, 80–82. Edward George, From Mill Boy to Minister: An Intimate Account of the Life of the Rt. Honourable J. R. Clynes, MP (London: T. Fisher Unwin, [1918]), 41–42, 60–61.

37. Robert Smillie, My Life for Labour (London: Mills & Boon, 1924), 49–52.

38. Alice Foley, Interview 72, Family Life and Work before 1918 Archive, Department of Sociology, University of Sussex.

39. Crump, “Popular Audience for Shakespeare,” 279–80.

40. Johnson, Old Road, 107–109.

41. Crump, “Popular Audience for Shakespeare,” 278. Jackson, Victorian Theatre, 13.

42. Walter Freer, My Life and Memories (Glasgow: Civic Press, 1929), 132.

43. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 128–33.

44. Blatchford, Nunquam Papers, 119–22.

45. W. E. Adams, Memoirs of a Social Atom (London: Hutchinson, 1903), 233–34, 378–81, ch. 57.

46. Steel, Ditcher’s Row, 130–31, 238–39.

47. Nicholson, Wednesday Early Closing, 172–79.

48. Patricia Beer, Mrs. Beer’s House (London: Macmillan, 1968), 177–85.

49. Hillyer, Country Boy, 29–30, 134–35.

50. Clare Cameron, Rustle of Spring: Simple Annals of a London Girl (New York: George H. Doran Co., 1927), 118. Garratt, Man in the Street, 174. Williams, George, 180. David Scott Blackhall, This House Had Windows (London: Max Parrish, 1961), 61–62. Dennis Marsden, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 109. Amy Langley, untitled TS, BUL, part 1. Harold Brown, Most Splendid of Men: Life in a Mining Community 1917–25 (Poole: Blandford, 1981), 175. Vernon Scannell, Drums of Morning: Growing up in the Thirties (London: Robson, 1992), 188. Hampton, “Memories of Baptist End”, pp. 43, 49.

51. Thomas Burke, The Wind and the Rain (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1924), 143–45.

52. Martha Salmon Vogeler, “The Victorians and the Hundred Best,” Texas Quarterly (Spring 1968): 184–98.

53. C. H. Rolph, London Particulars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 82–84, 95–96, 132.

54. N. N. Feltes, Literary Capital and the Late Victorian Novel (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 41–55.

55. Bonar Thompson, Hyde Park Orator (London: Jarrolds, 1934), 208–9.

56. Harold Heslop, “From Tyne to Tone: A Journey,” BUL, pp. 167–68.

57. Jackson, TS autobiography, pp. 4–5, 25–26, 48–49, 125–27.

58. Jackson, Solo Trumpet, 18–19.

59. Murphy, New Horizons, 215–16.

60. Kathleen Woodward, Jipping Street: Childhood in a London Slum (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1928), 135–38.

61. Alan Gibson, A Mingled Yarn (London: Collins, 1976), 53.

62. J. W. and Anne Tibble, John Clare: A Life, rev. edn. (London: Michael Joseph, 1972), 164. Carter, Memoirs, 97.

63. Richard D. Altick, “From Aldine to Everyman: Cheap Reprint Series of the English Classics, 1830–1906,” in Altick, ed., Writers, Readers, and Occasions: Selected Essays on Victorian Literature and Life (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989).

64. Joseph O. Baylen, “Stead’s Penny ‘Masterpiece Library’,” Journal of Popular Culture 9 (Winter 1975): 710–25.

65. John R. Turner, The Walter Scott Publishing Company: A Bibliography (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), ix–xvi.

66. J. M. Dent, The House of Dent 1888–1938 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1938), 4–6, 9–11, 22–23.

67. Frank Swinnerton, Swinnerton: An Autobiography (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 220.

68. Dent, House of Dent, 4–26.

69. Ibid., 61–64, 75–77.

70. Ibid., 123–26.

71. John R. Turner, “The Camelot Series, Everyman’s Library, and Ernest Rhys,” Publishing History 31 (1992): 27–46.

72. Hugh Kenner, A Sinking Island: The Modern English Writers (New York: Knopf, 1988), 29–35.

73. Donald Armstrong Ross, ed., The Reader’s Guide to Everyman’s Library, 4th edn. (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1976) is a complete bibliography of the series.

74. E. F. Bozman, Everyman’s Library 1906–1956 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1956), 6.

75. J. M. Dent to A. Harvey-Smith (18 September 1909), Box 111, JMD. J. M. Dent to M. A. DeWolfe Howe (30 July 1920), Box 117, JMD.

76. C. J. Hogarth to J. M. Dent (5 November 1923) and J. M. Dent to C. J. Hogarth (8 November 1923), Box 129, JMD.

77. J. M. Dent to Miss H. Black (26 June 1919), Box 115, JMD. J. M. Dent to P. L. Elliott (25 October 1921), Box 123, JMD. J. M. Dent to J. M. Jones (19 December 1924), Box 133, JMD.

78. J. M. Dent to Eric S. Pinker (24 January, 26 February, 31 August, and 19 October 1923), Box 130, JMD.

79. J. H. Willis, Jr., Leonard and Virginia Woolf as Publishers: The Hogarth Press 1917–41 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 314.

80. J. M. Dent to Anton Bertram (5 September 1921), Box 122, JMD.

81. It published Their Eyes Were Watching God (1938), Voodoo Gods (1939), and The Man of the Mountain (1941).

82. See a review of forty Everyman volumes in Highway 5 (October 1912): 17–18.

83. Author’s interview with Frederick Padley, 24 August 1987.

84. For a more detailed discussion of this journal, see Jonathan Rose, “Everyman: An Experiment in Culture for the Masses,” Victorian Periodicals Review 26 (Summer 1993): 79–87.

85. Charles Sarolea to G. Bell and Sons, (24 October 1913), file 2, Charles Sarolea Papers, Edinburgh University Library.

86. C. B. Purdom, memorandum to Hugh Dent (2 February 1932), pp. 5–7, Box 174, JMD.

87. Letters to the editor from A. J. Key (21 November 1912); F. W. Gray (23 March 1913); Robert Boswell (26 June 1913); Sidney B. Reed (17 November 1913); and Robert J. Phalp (3 March 1914), file 17, Charles Sarolea Papers, Edinburgh University Library.

88. Murray, “To Pashendaele and Back,” pp. 27–31, 115–16.

89. Ernest Rhys, Wales England Wed (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1940), 273–74.

90. Ballard, I Cannot Forget, 26–28, 35–43, 94–97, 155–56.

91. D. R. Davies, In Search of Myself (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1961), 47–78.

92. Roger Dataller, Oxford into Coalfield (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1934), 103–104.

93. Roger Dataller, “A Yorkshire Lad,” RCL, p. 133.

94. N. B. Dolan, letter to the editor, Highway (February 1934): 20.

95. Tomlinson, Coal-Miner, 69–71.

96. Fred Bason, Fred Bason’s Diary, ed. Nicolas Bentley (London: Allen Wingate, 1950), 58–59, 144.

97. Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public (London: Chatto & Windus, 1932), 71.

98. Bristol Public Library, Annual Report, 1944–45, pp. 27–28.

99. “The Leisure of the Adult Student—A Sample Investigation in London,” Adult Education 9 (March 1937): 203–16.

100. MO file 2018, p. 100.

101. Marion Springall, “An Approach to Adult Education in a Rural Area,” Adult Education 17 (March 1945): 121.

102. Common, Kiddar’s Luck, 90–91.

103. Agnes Cowper, A Backward Glance at Merseyside, 2nd edn. (Birkenhead: William Brothers, 1952), 96–97.

104. Brian Maidment, ed., The Poorhouse Fugitives (Manchester: Coronet, 1987), 13–14, 97–98.

105. Alexander Baron, autobiographical note in Stanley J. Kunitz, ed., Twentieth Century Authors, First Supplement (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1955), 49.

106. K. T. Wallas, review of Alfred Williams, Songs of Wiltshire, Highway 2 (December 1909): 36–37.

107. Leonard Clark, Alfred Williams: His Life and Work (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1969), 15–22, 28, 45.

108. W. H. Davies, Later Days (London: Jonathan Cape, 1925), 38–39.

109. Bernard Shaw, preface to W. H. Davies, Autobiography of a Super-Tramp, 2nd edn. (London: A. C. Fifield, 1908), ix.

110. Peter Donnelly, The Yellow Rock (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1950), 213–14.

111. Kathleen Betterton, “White Pinnies, Black Aprons …,” BUL, pp. 5, 33–35, 54–55, 117–18, 126–28, 148, 154–57, 167, 179–81, 186–87, 191–92, 205, 233.

112. Jane Mitchell, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 125–41.

113. Ronald Goldman, in Goldman, Breakhrough, 73–89.

Chapter Five: Willingly to School

1. G. A. N. Lowndes, The Silent Social Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), 13–20; Brian Simon, Education and the Labour Movement, 1870–1920 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1965), 112–20.

2. Edmund Holmes, In Quest of an Ideal: An Autobiography (London: Richard Cobden-Sanderson, 1920), 63–64.

3. Phil Gardner, The Lost Elementary Schools of Victorian England (London: Croom Helm, 1984), 211.

4. Even “scientific” polling cannot entirely escape subjectivity. Not only are poll results open to interpretation: the interviewees must first interpret the questions put to them, usually without as much opportunity for probing, clarification, elaboration, and qualification as oral history affords. Poll interviewers, moreover, have been known to garble questions and (accidentally or deliberately) misrecord answers. See Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 122–23.

5. A glaring example is Stephen Humphries’s Hooligans or Rebels? An Oral History of Working-Class Childhood and Youth, 1889–1939 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), which is also based on the Thompson–Vigne project as well as other oral history archives. Humphries has a right to focus on discontented youth, if discontent is his subject, but Hooligans or Rebels? obscures the fact that most working-class children were neither, and it gives the highly misleading impression that none of these children enjoyed school.

6. Alec Ellis, Educating Our Masters: Influences on the Growth of Literacy in Victorian Working Class Children (Aldershot: Gower, 1985), 97–98, 114, 151–56.

7. Simon, Education, 118–19.

8. H. C. Dent, 1870–1970: Century of Growth in English Education (London: Longman, 1970), 18–19, 69–70. For a similar view, see Pamela Horn, The Victorian and Edwardian Schoolchild (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1989), 184–93.

9. George Orwell, “Such, Such Were the Joys,” in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968), 3:330–69; Cyril Connolly, Enemies of Promise (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1938).

10. Gardner, Lost Elementary Schools. See also J. H. Higginson, “Dame Schools,” British Journal of Educational Studies 22 (June 1974): 166–181; and D. P. Leinster-Mackay, “Dame Schools: A Need for Review,” British Journal of Educational Studies 24 (February 1976): 33–48. Higginson and Leinster-Mackay based their positive assessments mainly on the testimony of middle-class sources, who in fact attended relatively superior private schools rather than true dame schools.

11. “Second Report of a Committee of the Statistical Society of London, appointed to enquire into the State of Education in Westminster,” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 1 (August 1838): 194–96.

12. For a couple of exceptionally positive accounts, see Mary Weston, The Story of Our Sunday Trip to Hastings (London: S. W. Partridge, 1879), 8; and Israel Nichols, “Sixty Years in Suffolk: The Observations of an Ordinary Man,” S Knodishall 9, Suffolk Record Office, Ipswich, pp. 2–3.

13. John Askham, Sketches in Prose and Verse (Northampton: S. S. Campion, 1893), x–xiii, 10–17.

14. Collyer, Memories, 12.

15. William Gifford, Memoir of William Gifford (London: Hunt & Clarke, 1827), 7. Place, Autobiography, 30.

16. W. J. Hocking, Bench and Mitre: A Cornish Autobiography (London: Wells Gardner, Darton & Co., 1903), 27–29.

17. W. J. Francis, Reminiscences (Southend-on-Sea: Francis & Sons, 1926), 9–10.

18. William Cameron, Hawkie: The Autobiography of a Gangrel, ed. John Strathesk (Glasgow: David Robertson, 1888), 11, 15.

19. Sykes, Slawit in the ’Sixties, 20–29.

20. Jobson, Creeping Hours, 93–94.

21. John Harris, My Autobiography (London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1882), 23–26.

22. Joseph Burgess, “Nineteenth Century Lancashire Textile Operatives’ Tribulations, 1800–1895,” National Museum of Labour History, p. 105.

23. George H. Barber, From Workhouse to Lord Mayor (Tunstall: Author, 1937), 3–4.

24. Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan, 35–37.

25. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 5, 50, 58–59.

26. Shaw, When I Was a Child, 1–6, 132. For workingmen who expressed similar sentiments, see also Joseph Gutteridge, Lights and Shadows in the Life of an Artisan (Coventry: Curtis & Beamish, 1893), 274; William J. Milne, Reminiscences of an Old Boy (Forfar: John MacDonald, 1901), 40; Ben Turner, About Myself 1863–1930 (London: Cayme, 1930), 22–23; Blatchford, Eighty Years, 38–40; Henry Hughes, “Short Biography of Henry Hughes” (1896), trans. (1947) Albert B. Hughes, Newport Reference Library, p. 25; Joseph Arch, The Autobiography of Joseph Arch (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1966), 27–29; Tom Mann, Tom Mann’s Memoirs (London: McGibbon & Kee, 1967), 4.

27. Freer, Life and Memories, 128–29.

28. Lansbury, My Life, 20–21.

29. James Edwin Saunders, The Reflections and Rhymes of an Old Miller, ed. W. Ridley Chesterton (London: Hodder & Stoughton, [1938]), 24–27.

30. Flint, Hot Bread and Chips, 67–68.

31. “Autobiography of a Suffolk Farm Labourer,” Suffolk Times and Mercury (18 January 1895): 6.

32. Frank Galton, “Autobiography,” revised draft (1944), Coll Misc 315: Galton, British Library of Political and Economic Science, ch. 2. See also Burton, There Was a Young Man, 58.

33. John Eldred, I Love the Brooks (London: Skeffington, 1955), 47.

34. Lord Taylor of Mansfield, Uphill All the Way: A Miner’s Struggle (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972), 7.

35. E. Ellis, As It Was and Twenty-One Today (n.p.: Author, 1978), 6.

36. Winifred Albaya, A Sheffield Childhood (Sheffield: Sheffield Women’s Printing Co-operative, [1984]), 2.

37. William J. Belcher, untitled MS (1936), BUL, p. 5.

38. Garratt, Man in the Street, 21–25.

39. John Edmonds, “The Lean Years” (1970), BUL, pp. 77–79.

40. Frank Goss, “My Boyhood at the Turn of the Century: An Autobiography,” BUL, pp. 74–79.

41. For example, Robert E. Hayward, Where the Ladbrook Flows: Memories of Village Boyhood in Gastard, Wiltshire (Corsham: Chris J. Hall, 1983), 56.

42. Spike Mays, Reuben’s Corner (London: Eyre Methuen, 1980), 64–66, 75–76.

43. Quoted in John Burnett, ed., Destiny Obscure (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), 159.

44. H. M. Tomlinson, A Mingled Yarn (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1953), 11–13.

45. Wallace, Wallace, 16–18, 21–23.

46. John Allaway, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 7–9.

47. Mark Grossek, First Movement (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1937), 25–33.

48. George Hitchin, Pit-Yacker (London: Jonathan Cape, 1962), 51.

49. Alfred Green, Growing Up in Attercliffe (Sheffield: Urban Theology Unit, 1981), 36–37, 78–85.

50. Jackson, TS autobiography, pp. 13–14.

51. Gresswell, Bright Boots, 33–37, 66.

52. Joseph Stamper, So Long Ago … (London: Hutchinson, 1960), 191–92, 211–16.

53. Goffin, “Grey Life,” ch. 5.

54. Argent, “No Medals for Frankie,” pp. 39–46.

55. Elizabeth K. Blackburn, In and Out the Windows (Burnley: F. H. Brown, n.d.), 26–27, 48–50, 58.

56. Elizabeth K. Blackburn, When I Was a Little Girl: A Bunch of Childhood Memories 1907–1916 (Burnley: F. H. Brown, n.d.), 64–65.

57. Elizabeth K. Blackburn, When I Grew Up (Accrington: Ward Knowles, n.d.), 12–14, 17–18, 21–24.

58. Richard Hoggart, A Local Habitation (London: Chatto & Windus, 1988), 196.

59. Amy Frances Gomm, “Water Under the Bridge,” BUL, pp. 39–40.

60. Alfred S. Hall, “I Was a Camberwell Boy,” SLSL, p. 15.

61. Rolph, London Particulars, 29. For similar complaints about the teaching of history and geography, see A. Gordon James, “A Soul Remembering,” BUL, pp. 9–10; and Belding Colman, “Autobiography 1901–1951,” RCL, pp. 19–20.

62. Common, Kiddar’s Luck, 89–90.

63. For example, Brooks, Lancashire Bred, 1:53.

64. Edna Bold, “The Long and the Short of It: Being the Recollections and Reminiscences of Edna Bold” (1978), BUL, pp. 1, 14–15, 36.

65. Jack Lanigan, “Thy Kingdom Did Come,” BUL, p. 6.

66. Joseph H. Armitage, “The Twenty-Three Years; or, the Late Way of Life—and of Living,” BUL, pp. 29, 66.

67. Henry George Lock, “An Old Man Tries to Remember” (1956), BUL, pp. 1–2.

68. Catherine McLoughlin, untitled MS, BUL, p. 5.

69. Edward Balne, “Autobiography of an Ex-Workhouse and Poor Law Schoolboy” (1972), BUL, pp. 7–21.

70. Hilda Rose Fowler, “Look after the Little Ones” (1976), BUL, p. 11.

71. P. A. Heard, An Octogenarian’s Memoirs (Ilfracombe: Arthur H. Stockwell, 1974), 39–40.

72. Ernest Ambrose, Melford Memories: Recollections of 94 Years (Lavenham: Long Melford Historical and Archaeological Society, 1972), 2.

73. Batten, Newlyn Boyhood, 16.

74. Derrick V. Rugg, Across Cobble-Stones (Padstow: Tabb House, 1983), 38.

75. In Goldman, Breakthrough, 132.

76. Beer, Mrs. Beer’s House, 177.

77. Wally Horwood, “A Walworth Boy: Looking Back on Growing Up, 1922–1939,” SLSL, p. 206.

78. Hayward, Where the Ladbrook Flows, 58–59, 63.

79. T. Dan Smith, An Autobiography (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Oriel, 1970), 8.

80. Nancy Day, untitled MS, BUL, pp. 40–41.

81. Lottie Barker, “My Life as I Remember It, 1899–1920,” BUL, pp. 24, 30.

82. Elsie Elizabeth Goodhead, The West End Story (Derby: Derbyshire Library Service, 1983), 32.

83. Lowndes, Social Revolution, 16–17, quoted in Simon, Education, 115.

84. Paul Thompson, The Edwardians: The Remaking of British Society (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1985), 73.

85. Standish Meacham, A Life Apart: The English Working Class, 1890–1914 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1977), 171.

86. For example, Douglas Jennings, “Solarium: The Diary of a Nobody” (1955), BUL, p. 349; and Stan Dickens, Bending the Twig (Ilfracombe: Arthur H. Stockwell, 1975), 19–20.

87. George H. Gallup, ed., The Gallup International Public Opinion Polls, Great Britain, 1937–1975 (New York: Random House, 1976), 192.

88. Taffy Lewis, Any Road: Pictures of Small Heath, Sparkbrook and Further Afield 1902–39 (Birmingham: Trinity Arts, 1979), 10.

89. William Campbell, Villi the Clown (London: Faber and Faber, 1981), 17–18.

90. Edward Ezard, Battersea Boy (London: William Kimber, 1979), 103–104.

91. Thompson, Lark Rise, 182–86.

92. Edmonds, “Lean Years,” pp. 70–71.

93. Rolph, Living Twice, 30–31.

94. Gladys Teal, Grasp the Nettle (Leeds: Arthur Wrigley & Sons, [1978]), 9.

95. Kenney, Westering, 12, 311–15.

96. Ernest James Bourne, “Some Reminiscences of My Boyhood 1905–14,” Waltham Forest Local Studies Library, p. 19.

97. Aubrey S. Darby, A View from the Alley (Luton: Borough of Luton Museum and Art Gallery, 1974), 5, 9–10.

98. Thompson, Edwardians, 74.

99. Meacham, Life Apart, 174–75.

100. J. S. Hurt, Elementary Schooling and the Working Classes 1860–1918 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), 212.

101. Flint, Hot Bread and Chips, 108–11, 140, 143.

102. Tom Tremewan, Cornish Youth: Memories of a Perran Boy (1895–1910) (Truro: Oscar Blackford, 1968), 22–23.

103. MO file 2047, pp. 2, 8, 14, 19.

104. Ernest Green, Adult Education: Why This Apathy? (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1953), 28–34, 52–59.

105. John H. Goldthorpe et al., The Affluent Worker in the Class Structure (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 137–40.

106. Elizabeth Roberts, A Woman’s Place: An Oral History of Working-Class Women, 1890–1940 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984), 37.

107. W. Gareth Evans, Education and Female Emancipation: The Welsh Experience, 1847–1914 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1990), 166–68.

108. Jill Liddington and Jill Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us: The Rise of the Women’s Suffrage Movement (London: Virago, 1985), 35.

109. Ashby, Ashby of Tysoe, 246–47.

110. Elisabeth Dale, “School, Day and Sunday,” BUL.

111. See, for example, Annmarie Turnbull, “Learning Her Womanly Work: The Elementary School Curriculum, 1870–1914,” in Lessons for Life: The Schooling of Girls and Women 1850–1950, ed. Felicity Hunt (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987).

112. Ellen Wilkinson, in Myself When Young: By Famous Women of To-Day, ed. Margot Oxford and Asquith (London: Frederick Muller, 1938), 403–404, 408–10.

113. Roberts, Woman’s Place, 1–2, 30–34.

114. Gallup, Polls, 209, 223–24.

115. Joanna Bourke, Working-Class Cultures in Britain 1890–1960: Gender, Class and Ethnicity (London: Routledge, 1994), 62–71.

116. Andrews, Woman’s Work, 11.

117. Kathleen Betterton, “White Pinnies, Black Aprons …,” BUL, pp. 27, 117–18.

118. Adeline Hodges, “I Remember,” BUL, p. 31{{. See also Hamilton, Poems, Essays, and Sketches, ix; and Hannah Mitchell, The Hard Way Up, ed. Geoffrey Mitchell (London: Faber and Faber, 1968), 52–54, 57.}}

119. Roberts, Classic Slum, 50–51, 55.

120. D. H. Lawrence, “Education of the People,” in Phoenix: The Posthumous Papers of D. H. Lawrence (1936), ed. Edward McDonald (New York: Viking, 1968), esp. 594–613.

121. Vernon Scannell, The Tiger and the Rose (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1971), 81–82. Scannell, Drums of Morning, 30.

122. Kenney, Westering, 76–79.

123. Michael Pickering and Kevin Robins, “The Making of a Working-Class Writer: An Interview with Sid Chaplin,” in The British Working-Class Novel in the Twentieth Century, ed. Jeremy Hawthorn (London: Edward Arnold, 1984), 143.

124. Lennox Kerr, The Eager Years (London: Collins, 1940), 102, 108–109.

125. William Harry Sutton, untitled MS, BUL, pp. 6–7, 31.

126. John T. Macpherson, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (1 March 1906): 613.

127. Martha Martin, “The Ups and Downs of Life,” BUL, pp. 57–58.

128. Anita Elizabeth Hughes, “My Autobiography” (1977), BUL, pp. 4–5.

129. Shaw, When I Was a Child, 21.

130. Davies, Right Place, 90–91.

131. Wil John Edwards, From the Valley I Came (London: Angus & Robertson, 1956), 16.

132. Bernard Taylor, Uphill All the Way (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972), 11.

133. J. E. Patterson, My Vagabondage (London: William Heinemann, 1911), 64.

134. Thompson, Lancashire for Me, 21–25.

135. Foley, Bolton Childhood, 33–34.

136. Anne Kynoch, The King’s Seat (Letchworth: Wayfair, 1961), 12, 111–23.

137. Roberts, Classic Slum, 25.

138. Bernard Crick, George Orwell (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), chs. 2–3. Jonathan Rose, “Eric Blair’s School Days,” in The Revised Orwell, ed. Rose (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1992), 75–84.

139. Thompson, Voice of the Past, 112–13, 138–41.

Chapter Six: Cultural Literacy in the Classic Slum

1. Carl Philip Moritz, Journeys of a German in England in 1782, trans. and ed. Reginald Nettel (London: Jonathan Cape, 1965), 42–44, 59, 187.

2. William Chambers, Memoir of William and Robert Chambers, 9th edn. (Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers, 1876), 228–34. Sondra Miley Cooney, “Publishers for the People: W. & R. Chambers—The Early Years, 1832–1850” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1970), 52–56, 97–98.

3. Cooney, “Publishers for the People,” 107–10. Altick, Common Reader, 336–38.

4. Newcastle-upon-Tyne Working Men’s Club Library Register 1871–74, Newcastle Central Library.

5. Sinclair, New Statistical Account of Scotland, 13:37, 52–53.

6. Cooper, Life, 252. Bethune, Memoirs, 37–39, 43–52. Adams, Social Atom, 100–101. Holyoake, Agitator’s Life, 1:77. Richard Church, Over the Bridge (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1956), 130. Eldred, I Love the Brooks, 102.

7. Adrian Desmond, “Artisan Resistance and Evolution in Britain, 1819–1848,” Osiris 3 (1987): 89.

8. Harry Watkin, From Hulme All Blessings Flow: A Collection of Manchester Memories (Manchester: Neil Richardson, 1975), 56.

9. Benn, Keir Hardie, 38.

10. Elton, Ramsay MacDonald, 27.

11. John Wilson, Memories of a Labour Leader (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1910), 83.

12. Smillie, Life for Labour, 52–54.

13. Adams, Social Atom, 112–13. Jones, Old Memories, 69. Allen Clarke, “Adventuring in ‘The Realms of Gold’,” Liverpool Weekly Post (26 May 1934): 2. Alexander Falconer Murison, Memoirs of 88 Years (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1935), 80. J. G. Graves, Some Memories (Sheffield: Author, [1944]), 43–44. Willox, “Memories of Parkhead,” pp. 102–103.

14. Wright, Joseph Wright, 38–41. K. M. Elisabeth Murray, Caught in the Web of Words: James Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995), 25.

15. Goss, “My Boyhood,” pp. 9–10.

16. See, for example, C. W. Bowerman and Arthur Henderson, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (8 February 1906): 563, (8 March 1906): 613.

17. Dennis Smith, Conflict and Compromise: Class Formation in English Society 1830–1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), 138–41.

18. Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan, 21.

19. [Arnold Freeman], The Equipment of the Workers (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1919), chs. 1–3.

20. Ibid., ch. 8.

21. Florence Bell, At the Works (London: Virago, 1985), 144–45.

22. Florence Bell, “What People Read,” Independent Review 7 (1905): 426–40.

23. C. B. Hawkins, Norwich: A Social Study (London: Philip Lee Warner, 1910), 307.

24. [Freeman], Equipment, 235.

25. Thompson, Lark Rise, 198–99, 365, 415.

26. Wilfred Wellock, Off the Beaten Track: Adventures in the Art of Living, 2nd edn. (Rajghat: Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, 1963), 43, 195.

27. Stamper, So Long Ago, 185–86.

28. Chris Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 1884–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 109–10.

29. Shinwell, Conflict without Malice, 44–46, 72–73.

30. Wilfred Pickles, Sometime…Never (London: Werner Laurie, 1951), 20, 27–28.

31. “The Public for Poetry Broadcasts,” 27 October 1941, BBC R9/9/5/LR/392.

32. G. Launders, “Reminiscences: B.B.S.W. and Its Surroundings” (1936), Sheffield Local Studies Library, pp. 18–20.

33. Roger Elbourne, Music and Tradition in Early Industrial Lancaster 1780–1840 (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1980), 27–30.

34. William Millington, Sketches of Local Musicians and Musical Societies (Pendlebury: Pendlebury Journal, 1884).

35. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability, 177.

36. John Shinn, “A Sketch of My Life and Times” (1923), BUL, pp. 17–23, 26, 28, 32–37, 41, 44.

37. Ambrose, Melford Memories, 12.

38. Francis Anthony, A Man’s a Man (London: Duckworth, 1932), 63, 68–70.

39. Dave Russell, “‘What’s Wrong with Brass Bands?’: Cultural Change and the Brass Band Movement, 1918–c. 1964,” in Trevor Herbert, ed., Bands: The Brass Band Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991), 58–60, 75.

40. Marjory Todd, Snakes and Ladders (London: Longmans, Green, 1960), 106–107.

41. E. D. Mackerness, A Social History of English Music (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), 200–203.

42. Reginald Lennard, “Music in an Oxfordshire Village,” Highway 1 (February 1909): 76–77.

43. Davies, Right Place, 65–66.

44. Peter Crossley-Holland, ed., Music in Wales (London: Hinrischen, 1948).

45. Jennie Lee, My Life with Nye (London: Jonathan Cape, 1980), 16, 22.

46. Brown, Most Splendid of Men, 85, 110, 139.

47. Whittaker, I, James Whittaker, 174–76.

48. Waters, Socialists and Popular Culture, ch. 4.

49. William Martin Haddow, My Seventy Years (Glasgow: Robert Gibson & Sons, 1943), 48–49, 145–46, 163–64.

50. Jeremy Seabrook, What Went Wrong?: Working People and the Ideals of the Labour Movement (London: Gollancz, 1978), 136–37.

51. Arthur Barton, Two Lamps in Our Street (London: New Authors Limited, 1967), ch. 6.

52. Walter Greenwood, There Was a Time (London: Jonathan Cape, 1967), 59–60, 124–26, 171–73, 243–44.

53. Cardus, Second Innings, 99–108, 127.

54. Neville Cardus, Autobiography (London: Collins, 1947), 16–17.

55. Coppard, It’s Me, O Lord!, 91.

56. Blackburn, In and Out, 32.

57. Patrick McLoughlin, The Johnson Street Bullies (Bognor Regis: New Horizon, 1980), 256.

58. Elsie Gadsby, Black Diamonds, Yellow Apples: A Working-Class Derbyshire Childhood between the Wars (Ilkeston: Scollins & Titford, 1978), 1, 11.

59. Herbert Mannion, “I Was in a Gas Works,” in Seven Shifts, ed. Jack Common (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1938), 168.

60. J. R. Clynes, Memoirs: 1924–1937 (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 57.

61. Rolph, London Particulars, 112–13, 136–37, 162, 168.

62. Rolph, Living Twice, 39.

63. A. J. Mills, “Coward or Fool,” IWM, p. 13.

64. J. Ronald Andrew, The Wharncliffe Gardens Story (Hastings: Author, 1981–83), 1: 187–88, 195.

65. Sid Chaplin, A Tree with Rosy Apples (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Frank Graham, 1972), 155–57.

66. J. P. Mayer, Sociology of Film (London: Faber and Faber, 1946), 259. J. P. Mayer, British Cinemas and Their Audiences: Sociological Studies (London: Dennis Dobson, 1948), 106, 169, 175, 181, 183, 219.

67. Michael Stapleton, The Threshold (London: Hutchinson, 1958), 223–27.

68. Percy Edwards, The Road I Travelled (London: Arthur Barker, 1979), 22.

69. William Abington, “Thus It Was: Kimbolton in the Early 1900s,” County Record Office Huntington, pp. 60–61.

70. Louis Heren, Growing up Poor in London (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973), 42.

71. Georgie Wood, I Had to Be “Wee” (London: Huthinson, 1948), 58, 181–82.

72. “Listeners’ Living Habits, Autumn 1939,” 22 December 1939, BBC R9/9/3/LR/86.

73. “What Listeners Like,” May 1939, Table 1, BBC R9/9/3/LR/71.

74. F. M. Leventhal, “‘The Best for the Most’: CEMA and State Sponsorship of the Arts in Wartime, 1939–1945,” Twentieth Century British History 1 (1990): 299–301.

75. The Fifth Year: The End of the Beginning: Report on the Work of C.E.M.A. for 1944 (London: CEMA, 1945), 7, 31.

76. Gallup, Polls, 142.

77. Frank Chapple, Sparks Fly! A Trade Union Life (London: Michael Joseph, 1984), 23–24, 37.

78. MO file 2427, pp. 1–10.

79. MO file 2576, pp. 1–4.

80. MO file 3005, pp. 24–25.

81. Stan Dickens, Bending the Twig (Ilfracombe, Devon: Arthur H. Stockwell, 1975), ch. 21.

82. Fred Blackburn, George Tomlinson (London: William Heinemann, 1954), 5, 30.

83. Leslie Paul, Heron Lake: A Norfolk Year (London: Batchworth, 1948), 83.

84. Sidney Harrison, Teacher Never Told Me (London: Elek, 1961), 119–24, 168–71.

85. Capp, Astrology and the Popular Press, 120–22.

86. Roy Porter and Lesley Hall, The Facts of Life: The Creation of Sexual Knowledge in Britain, 1650–1950 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 6–7, 103–105 and ch. 2.

87. James Lackington, Memoirs, 7th edn. (London: Author, 1794), 95.

88. Jones, Rhymney Memories, 63.

89. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 129.

90. Common, Kiddar’s Luck, 181.

91. John Paton, Proletarian Pilgrimage (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1935), 58–59.

92. Gibson Cowan, Loud Report (London: Michael Joseph, 1938), 63.

93. Dickens, Bending the Twig, ch. 16.

94. Edith Hinson, Mary Ann’s Girl: Memories of Newbridge Lane (Stockport: Stockport Metropolitan Borough Recreation and Culture Division, 1984), 8.

95. Mary Bertenshaw, Sunrise to Sunset (Manchester: Pan Visuals, 1980), 99.

96. Porter and Hall, Facts of Life, esp. 8–9, 128–31.

97. Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom, 42–43.

98. David Vincent, introduction to J. D. Burn, The Autobiography of a Beggar Boy (London: Europa, 1978), 31.

99. John Strathesk, preface to Cameron, Hawkie, 6–7.

100. Michael Mason, The Making of Victorian Sexual Attitudes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 117–78{{. See also Michael Mason, The Making of Victorian Sexuality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 133–56.}}

101. Place, Autobiography, 45–47.

102. Barker, History and Confessions, 119–20.

103. James Bonwick, An Octogenarian’s Reminiscences (London: James Nichols, 1902), 31.

104. Thomas Okey, A Basketful of Memories (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1930), 11–12.

105. Ruth B. Bottigheimer, The Bible for Children: From the Age of Gutenberg to the Present (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996), ch. 8.

106. Bonwick, Reminiscences, 32.

107. Garratt, Man in the Street, 20.

108. Frank Richards, Old Soldier Sahib (n.p.: Harrison Smith & Robert Haas, 1936), 133–34.

109. Harry John Belsey, Bromley Memories: A Working-Class Childhood 1917–1921 (Chislehurst: Author, 1977), 42.

110. Robert Roberts, A Ragged Schooling (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976), 197–98.

111. Tom Barclay, Memoirs and Medleys: The Autobiography of a Bottle-Washer (Leicester: Edgar Backus, 1934), 19–20, 32.

112. Penny Summerfield, “An Oral History of Schooling in Lancashire 1900–1950: Gender, Class and Education,” Oral History 15 (Autumn 1987): 25–30.

113. Mrs. P. Marrin, untitled TS (1978), BUL, p. 1.

114. Woodward, Jipping Street, 93–96.

115. Jim Bullock, Bowers Row: Recollections of a Mining Village (Wakefield: EP Publishing, 1976), 100–101.

116. Hodge, Draughty in Front, 33–34.

117. Allen Clarke, “Adventuring in ‘The Realms of Gold,’” Liverpool Weekly Post (26 May 1934): 2.

118. Harry Dorrell, “Falling Cadence: An Autobiography of Failure,” BUL, p. 24.

119. Mary Bentley, Born 1896: Childhood in Clayton and Working in Manchester and Cheshire (Manchester: Neil Richardson, 1985), 32.

120. Margaret Wharton, Recollections of a GI War Bride: A Wiltshire Childhood (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1984), 132–33.

121. Nicholson, Wednesday Early Closing, 159–60, 168, 171.

122. Batten, Newlyn Boyhood, 24.

123. Forbes, Divided Life, 5–8.

124. Leslie Paul, First Love (London: SPCK, 1977), 19–20, 41.

125. Edna Bold, “The Long and the Short of It: Being the Recollections and Reminiscences of Edna Bold,” in Destiny Obscure, ed. John Burnett (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), 119–20.

126. Edith L. Evans, Rough Diamonds (Bognor Regis: New Horizon, 1982), 75–76.

127. Mays, Reuben’s Corner, 66–67.

128. Thompson, Lark Rise, 46, 56.

129. Grossek, First Movement, 30, 135–39.

130. Thomas Bell, Pioneering Days (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1941), 32–33.

131. Elsie Gadsby, Black Diamonds, Yellow Apples: A Working-Class Derbyshire Childhood between the Wars (Ilkeston: Scollins & Titford, 1978), 51.

132. Joseph Stamper, Less Than the Dust: The Memoirs of a Tramp (London: Hutchinson & Co., [1931]), 8–9.

133. Taylor, Uphill All the Way, 23–24. Williams, George, 186–87.

134. Garratt, Man in the Street, 107–108. Sir Ronald Gould, Chalk Up the Memory (Birmingham: George Philip Alexander, 1976), 20.

135. Foley, Bolton Childhood, 69.

136. F. Reid, “Socialist Sunday Schools in Britain, 1892–1939,” International Review of Social History 11 (1966): 29–30.

137. Margaret Bondfield, A Life’s Work (London: Hutchinson, 1948), 25–26, 127–28.

138. Ethel Mannin, Confessions and Impressions (London: Jarrolds, 1930), 39–41.

139. Harry McShane and Joan Smith, Harry McShane: No Mean Fighter (London: Pluto, 1978), 34–35.

140. Edmonds, “The Lean Years,” pp. 83–84.

141. Jennie Lee, The Great Journey (London: Macgibbon & Kee, 1963), 57–58. Lee, Life with Nye, 49–50.

142. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 119–20.

143. Tierl Thompson, Dear Girl: The Diaries and Letters of Two Working Women 1897–1917 (London: Women’s Press, 1987), 18–20, 39, 48, 50–52, 56, 60, 90.

144. Ibid., 57–58, 61–62, 95, 98.

145. Ibid., 74–75, 90, 95–98.

146. Ibid., 134–38, 160–64, 226.

147. Ibid., 133, 151–54, 168–69, 174–87, 211.

148. Ibid., 138.

149. Ibid., 174.

150. Ibid., 232.

151. Ibid., 95–96.

152. Ibid., 261–62.

153. Ibid., 203–205, 282–83.

154. Porter and Hall, Facts of Life, 208–209, 220.

155. Roberts, Classic Slum, 52, 231–32.

156. Teal, Grasp the Nettle, 14–15.

157. Margaret Powell, Climbing the Stairs (London: Peter Davies, 1969), 79. Margaret Powell, Albert, My Consort (London: Michael Joseph, 1975), 73.

158. Claire Davey, “Birth Control in Britain during the Interwar Years: Evidence from the Stopes Correspondence,” Journal of Family History 13 (1988): 329–45.

159. Marie Stopes, Mother England (London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1929), 99, 100, 115.

160. June Rose, Marie Stopes and the Sexual Revolution (London: Faber and Faber, 1992), 144–45, 156.

161. Hall, “Camberwell Boy,” p. 30.

162. Alfred S. Hall, untitled TS, SLSL, p. 19.

163. Elizabeth Ring, Up the Cockneys! (London: Paul Elek,1975), 61–63, 88.

164. Eliot Slater and Moya Woodside, Patterns of Marriage: A Study of Marriage Relationships in the Urban Working Classes (London: Cassell, 1951), 165–76, 292.

165. Ibid., 194–213, 294.

166. MO file 3110B, p. 11.

167. MO file 3110, pp. 28–29, 31, 42, 45, 72, 76.

168. Rolph, London Particulars, 82–86, 120–27.

169. Hall, “Camberwell Boy,” p. 17.

170. Aubrey Cyril Hicks, “Boyhood Memories 1902–1914” (1972–73), Buckinghamshire County Record Office, D/X 667, pp. 2, 125–27, 132, 152.

171. Henry Snell, Men, Movements, and Myself (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1936), 16.

172. George Bourne, The Bettesworth Book (London: Lamley, 1901), 276.

173. Bessie Harvey, “Youthful Memories of My Life in a Suffolk Village,” ed. A. M. Hassall, Suffolk Review 2 (October 1963): 201.

174. James Stevens, A Cornish Farmer’s Diary, ed. P. A. S. Pool (Penzance: Editor, 1977).

175. W. J. Paddock, A Country Boy: A Celebration of Life (Corsham: C. J. Hall, 1984), 8.

176. Roger Dataller, “Self-Expression in the Student,” Adult Education 9 (June 1937): 253–54.

177. “Winter Listening Habits: A Report on the First Random Sample Scheme, January 1938,” 1 September 1938, part 2, pp. 48–56, BBC R9/9/2/LR/67.

178. MO file 1209, pp. 1–7.

179. MO file 686, pp. 14–16; file 948, p. 9.

180. S. P. Mackenzie, Politics and Military Morale: Current-Affairs and Citizenship Education in the British Army, 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 87–88, 184–85.

181. MO file 305, pp. 1–2.

182. Alberto Manguel, A History of Reading (New York: Viking, 1996), 180–83.

183. Bernard Capp, The World of John Taylor the Water-Poet (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 49–54.

184. Mayhew, London Labour, 1:27–28.

185. Cooper, Life, 55–57.

186. Secord, “Science in the Pub,” 286–88, 297–99.

187. Adult Education Committee, Natural Science in Adult Education (London: HMSO, 1927), 28–29, 47.

188. Abington, “Kimbolton in the Early 1900s,” p. 51.

189. F. G. and D. Irene Thomas, “‘Fresh Woods and Pastures New’: Adult Education in Rural Devon: II,” Journal of Adult Education 5 (October 1931): 261–63, 269–75.

190. Quoted in Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 36–39.

191. Storey, Right to Song, 223. Clynes, Memoirs: 1869–1924, 34{{. See also Kerr, Eager Years, 102, 135; and Pickering and Robins, “Interview with Sid Chaplin,” 146.}}

192. Howard Spring, Heaven Lies About Us (London: Constable, 1939), 69–71.

193. Robert Blatchford, English Prose and How to Write It (London: Methuen, 1925), 2–4.

194. Jackson, TS autobiography, p. 182.

195. Emanuel Shinwell, Lead with the Left: My First Ninety-Six Years (London: Cassell, 1981), 25, 29, 32–35, 50–51, 71.

196. J. H. Thomas, My Story (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 30.

197. Haw, Will Crooks, 17.

198. Hillyer, Country Boy, 148–50, 176–77.

199. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 61.

200. Okey, Basketful of Memories, 100–101.

201. Ronald L. Cohen, “The Influence of Jewish Radical Movements on Adult Education among Jewish Immigrants in the East End of London 1881–1914” (MEd thesis, Queen Mary College, 1977).

202. Blacker, Just Like It Was, 31–32, 54, 86–88, 97–99, 163–64, 173–74, 181–83.

203. Arnold Wesker, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 176–79.

204. Finn, No Tears in Aldgate, 157–61, 188. Ralph L. Finn, Spring in Aldgate (London: Robert Hale, 1968), 73–74, 85–87.

205. Bill Naughton, A Roof Over Your Head (London: Pilot, 1945), 8–9. Naughton, On the Pig’s Back, 4–8, 19, 34–35.

206. Rose Gamble, Chelsea Child (London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1979), 143.

207. D. Felicitas Corrigan, George Thomas of Soho (London: Secker & Warburg, 1970), 49.

208. J. H. Engledow and William C. Farr, The Reading and Other Interests of School Children in St. Pancras (London: Mary Ward Settlement, [1933]), 9.

209. Bowles Fripp, “Report of an Inquiry into the Condition of the Working Classes of the City of Bristol,” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 2 (October 1839): 371.

210. MO file 2018, pp. 1–4, 16.

211. A. J. Jenkinson, What Do Boys and Girls Read? (London: Methuen, 1940), chs. 2, 16.

212. Ibid., 103–104, 244–45.

213. Ibid., 109–11, 251–52.

214. Ibid., 114, 255.

215. MO file 48, pp. 16–17, 26.

216. City and County of Bristol, Annual Report of the Public Libraries Committee, 1944–45, pp. 27–28.

217. MO file 2018, pp. 58, 69–71, 76, 79–82.

218. “Education in Industry,” Adult Education 15 (June 1943): 198–200.

219. Mary Craddock, Return to Rainton (London: Hutchinson, 1963), 109.

220. P. C. Vigor, Memories Are Made of This (Luton: Borough of Luton Museum and Art Gallery, 1983), 133–37.

221. Ferdynand Zweig, Labour, Life and Poverty (London: Victor Gollancz, 1948), 52–58, 127–98. Ferdynand Zweig, The British Worker (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1952), 217–18, 229–31.

222. Ferdynand Zweig, The Worker in an Affluent Society (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), ch. 16.

223. Gallup, Polls, 1457.

Chapter Seven: The Welsh Miners’ Libraries

1. For an account of the latter, see David Shavit, Hunger for the Printed Word: Books and Libraries in the Jewish Ghettos of Nazi-Occupied Europe (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997), ch. 1.

2. Baggs’s “Miners’ Libraries” is the definitive history of the movement. See particularly ch. 8 for the tricky calculations involved in estimating the number of libraries and the size of their collections. See also his “‘Well Done, Cymmer Workmen!’: The Cymmer Collieries Workmen’s Library, 1893–1920,” Llafur 5 (1990), no. 3: 20–27.

3. James Hanley, Grey Children (London: Methuen, 1937), 32–37.

4. Peter Stead, “Wales and Film,” in Wales Between the Wars, ed. Trevor Herbert and Gareth Elwyn Jones (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1988), 166.

5. D. J. Davies, The Tredegar Workmen’s Hall 1861–1951 (n.p., 1952), 80–93.

6. John Benson, British Coalminers in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longman, 1989), 152–54. J. Ginswick, ed., Labour and the Poor in England and Wales 1849–1851 (London: Frank Cass, 1983), 2:57–60.

7. Geraint H. Jenkins, Literature, Religion and Society in Wales, 1660–1730 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1978), 24, 129–30, 198–99, 209–10, 254, 288–90, 293–99, 303–304.

8. Davies, Right Place, 206–10.

9. Richard Lewis, Leaders and Teachers: Adult Education and the Challenge of Labour in South Wales, 1906–1940 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1993), 62.

10. Harold Marks, “Some WEA Statistics: How Efficient are the Districts?” Highway 32 (March 1940): 64.

11. Alec Ellis, “Rural Library Services in England and Wales before 1919,” Library History 4 (Spring 1977): 69.

12. Commission of Enquiry into Industrial Unrest, No. 7 Division, Report of the Commissioners for Wales, including Monmouthshire, Parl. Sess. Papers, 1917–18, vol. XV, Cd. 8688, pp. 12, 19, 28, 30.

13. Baggs, “Miners’ Libraries,” pp. 141, 148–50.

14. Lawson, Man’s Life, 109–15.

15. Davies, In Search of Myself, 18–19, 27–31, 36, 51–52.

16. H. V. Morton, In Search of Wales (London: Methuen, 1932), 247–49.

17. Stephen Walsh, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (29 March 1906): 691.

18. Keating, Struggle for Life, 26–27, 55–56, 65–66, 72–74, 81–83, 99, 110–13.

19. Robert Morgan, My Lamp Still Burns (Llandysul: Gomer, 1981), 90–91.

20. Tomlinson, Coal-Miner, 74–77, 119–20, 123–25.

21. Edwards, From the Valley I Came, 44–48, 67, 96–97, 138–39.

22. Morris, “Autobiography”, p. 8.

23. Wall, “Hour at Eve,” ch. 15.

24. Mrs. F. H. Smith, in Davies, Life as We Have Known It, 71–72.

25. Davies, Right Place, 104–105.

26. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, 4–7, 43.

27. The complete borrowing record for Tylorstown, the nearly complete record for the Markham Welfare Association Library, and a discussion of the methodological problems involved in using such documents, are in Jonathan Rose, “Marx, Jane Eyre, Tarzan: Miners’ Libraries in South Wales, 1923–52,” Leipziger Jahrbuch zur Buchgeschichte 4 (1994): 187–207. The borrowing records for all three miners’ libraries are held by the library of the University of Wales, Swansea.

28. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, 36.

29. Glenwright, Bright Shines the Morning, 82–83.

30. Mary Craddock, A North Country Maid (London: Hutchinson, 1960), 151.

31. Dataller, Oxford into Coalfield, 130, 180.

32. I write “probably” because not every book listed in a library catalog is actually on the shelves. Also, the catalog was apparently compiled in 1945, and some of these books might have been acquired in the interim.

33. Baggs, “Miners’ Libraries,” 510.

34. Bell, At the Works, 165–66.

35. Mary Lakeman, Early Tide: A Megavissey Childhood (London: William Kimber, 1978), 172.

36. Baggs, “Miners Libraries,” 386–92, 403, 423–30.

37. A. J. Lush, The Young Adult (Cardiff: University of Wales Press Board, 1941), 47, 50, 72, 79–82.

38. “Adult Education in the Rhondda Valley,” Bulletin of the World Association for Adult Education 40 (May 1929): 19–21.

39. Fagan, “An Autobiography,” p. 93.

40. T. Brennan, E. W. Cooney, and H. Pollins, Social Change in South-West Wales (London: Watts, 1954), 69–70.

41. Dai Smith, Aneurin Bevan and the World of South Wales (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1993), 209.

42. Davies, Right Place, 102–104.

43. Morgan, My Lamp Still Burns, 116.

44. The activity of Marxists on miners’ library committees is charted in Hywel Francis, “The Origins of the South Wales Miners’ Library,” History Workshop 2 (Autumn 1976): 183–205, esp. Appendix 6.

45. Miners’ Welfare Fund, Annual Report, 1929, pp. 38–39.

46. Hywel Francis and David Smith, The Fed: A History of the South Wales Miners in the Twentieth Century (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1980), 33, 48.

47. Kenneth O. Morgan, Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880–1980 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 211–12.

48. Baggs, “Miners’ Libraries,” 178. David E. Evans, “Report on the Condition of Libraries in the Aberdare Urban District Council, and County Borough of Merthyr Tydfil,” 17 May 1929; and Brinley Thomas, “Report on the Condition of Workmen’s Libraries in the Rhondda Urban District,” in South Wales Miners’ Library, Swansea.

49. B. L. Coombes, These Poor Hands: The Autobiography of a Miner Working in South Wales (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), 221–22. Jimmy O’Connor, Memories of a Market Trader (Peterborough: Minimax, 1984), 20. Alexander Baron recalled a sergeant in a Wessex battalion who spent his unemployed years in the public library reading Dickens, Thackeray, and Jane Austen: “Four books a week was nothin’ to me in those days.” Alexander Baron, From the City, From the Plough (New York: Ives Washburn, 1949), 160–62.

50. H. L. Beales and R. S. Lambert, eds., Memoirs of the Unemployed (London: Victor Gollancz, 1934), 79, 95–96, 105, 119, 127–28, 133–34, 145–46, 154, 170, 176–77, 208–209, 234, 239–40, 262.

51. Greenwood, There Was a Time, 184–85.

52. John Brown, I Was a Tramp (London: Selwyn & Blount, 1934), 201, 208, 215.

53. Lawson, Man’s Life, 77–80.

54. Baggs, “Miners’ Libraries,” 167–68, 268–71, 330.

55. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, 83–85.

56. Hywel Francis, Miners Against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1984), 29–39.

57. E. D. Lewis, The Rhondda Valleys (London: Phoenix House, 1959), 260–61.

58. Thomas Jones, “Workmen’s Libraries and Institutes,” in Leeks and Daffodils (Newtown: Welsh Outlook, 1942), 137.

59. Philip Massey, “Portrait of a Mining Town,” Fact 8 (1937): 10, 27, 50.

60. “Adult Education in the Rhondda Valley,” 22, 27.

61. Davies, Right Place, 239.

62. G. H. Armbruster, “The Social Determination of Ideologies: Being a Study of a Welsh Mining Community” (PhD diss. University of London, 1940), 154–57, 161.

63. Ferdynand Zweig, Men in the Pits (London: Victor Gollancz, 1949), 90–92, 108–109.

64. Norman Dennis, Fernando Henriques, and Clifford Slaughter, Coal Is Our Life (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1956), 127, 167–68.

65. Davies, Right Place, 226–28. Zweig, Men in the Pits, 90–92, 108–109.

66. South Wales Coalfield Project, National Register of Archives, pp. 237–39.

67. They were nearly closed in 1998, and were saved only by a last-minute restoration of a subsidy from the Rhonnda Cynon Taff County Borough Council. Rob Thompson, “Village Libraries Win a Stay of Execution,” Western Mail (4 March 1998).

68. Hans-Josef Steinberg, “Workers’ Libraries in Germany before 1914,” trans. Nicholas Jacobs, History Workshop 1 (Spring 1976): 166–80.

Chapter Eight: The Whole Contention Concerning the Workers’ Educational Association

1. Roger Fieldhouse, “The Ideology of English Adult Education Teaching 1925–1950,” Studies in Adult Education 15 (September 1983): 29–30.

2. Roger Fieldhouse, “Conformity and Contradiction in English Responsible Body Adult Education, 1925–1950,” Studies in the Education of Adults 17 (October 1985): 123.

3. Stuart Macintyre, A Proletarian Science: Marxism in Britain, 1917–1933 (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1986), 89–90.

4. Geoff Brown, “Independence and Incorporation: The Labour College Movement and the Workers’ Educational Association before the Second World War,” in Jane L. Thompson, ed., Adult Education for a Change (London: Hutchinson, 1980), 113–15.

5. Public Record Office T. 161/186/S. 17166, Lord Eustace Percy to Walker Guiness, 7 October 1925, quoted in Fieldhouse, “Conformity and Contradiction,” 123.

6. Bernard Jennings, “Revolting Students—The Ruskin College Dispute 1908–9,” Studies in Adult Education 9 (April 1977): 1–16. Harold Pollins, The History of Ruskin College (Oxford: Ruskin College Library, 1984), 14–25, 42. Richard Lewis, “The South Wales Miners and the Ruskin College Strike of 1909,” Llafur 2 (Spring 1976): 57–72. Lawrence Goldman, Dons and Workers: Oxford and Adult Education Since 1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), ch. 5.

7. Roger Dataller, A Pitman Looks at Oxford (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1933), 135–36.

8. Henry Smith, The Impersonal Autobiography of an Economist (Exeter: Henrietta Quinnell, 1992), 100.

9. Harold M. Watkins, Unusual Students (Liverpool: Brython, 1947), 82.

10. Roger Fieldhouse, Adult Education and the Cold War: Liberal Values under Siege 1946–51 (Leeds: Department of Adult and Continuing Education, University of Leeds, 1985), 33. Goldman, Dons and Workers, 266–86.

11. Harmut Kaelble, Social Mobility in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Europe and America in Comparative Perspective (Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985), 52.

12. Paton, Proletarian Pilgrimage, 205–206.

13. George Hodgkinson, Sent to Coventry (London: Robert Maxwell, 1970), 41, 43, 54–66.

14. Lawson, Man’s Life, 161–69.

15. Jack Ashley, Journey into Silence (London: Bodley Head, 1973), 68–73.

16. James Sexton, Sir James Sexton, Agitator: The Life of the Dockers’ M.P. (London: Faber and Faber, 1936), 211.

17. Frank Hodges, My Adventures as a Labour Leader (London: George Newnes, 1925), 13–15, 25–38.

18. Edwards, From the Valley I Came, 48, 67, 79, 103–105, 123–25, 154–85, 227–30, 243–44, 258–61.

19. An Old Student, “Looking Backwards: A Tutorial Class Anniversary,” Rewley House Papers (February 1929): 72–73.

20. J. Owen, J. Dover Wilson, and W. S. Dunn, Report on University Tutorial Classes in England (n.p.: Board of Education, 1922), 15–16, 18, 24.

21. Rowland Kenney, “Education for the Workers,” New Age (26 March 1914): 652–53.

22. Ethel Carnie and Lavena Saltonstall, letters to the Cotton Factory Times, 20 March, and 3, 10, 17 April 1914.

23. F. Cox, R. C. Carton, and A. W. Humphrey, letters to the Daily Herald, 8 July 1912.

24. Oxford University Extension Delegacy Tutorial Classes Committee Report, 1912, pp. 11–12.

25. Ibid., pp. 15, 24–28, 59–60.

26. “The Invasion of a University,” Highway 3 (September 1911): 187–88.

27. Oxford Tutorial Classes Report, 1912, p. 42.

28. “Summer Classes, 1912,” Highway 5 (October 1912): 15–16.

29. “Invasion of a University,” pp. 189–90.

30. Ibid., pp. 188–89.

31. Albert Mansbridge, University Tutorial Classes (London: Longman, Green, 1913), 13.

32. Lavena Saltonstall, letter to Halifax Evening Courier, 19 July 1910.

33. “Invasion of a University,” p. 188.

34. Sophie Green to Albert Mansbridge, 28 August 1922, AM, Add. 65265.

35. Barbara Wootton, “A Plea for Constructive Teaching,” Adult Education 10 (December 1937): 96–104.

36. W. E. Williams and A. E. Heath, Learn and Live (Boston: Marshall Jones, 1937), 206.

37. Fieldhouse, “Ideology of Adult Education,” 29.

38. Morris, “Autobiography,” part 2, pp. 120, 124.

39. Kitchen, Brother to the Ox, 244.

40. Marjorie Randle, “Brother to the Ox,” Highway 32 (January 1940): 71.

41. Harry Dorrell, “Falling Cadence,” pp. 152–55. Goldman, Breakthrough, 85–88.

42. Brown, “Independence and Incorporation,” 117.

43. For instance, George Brown, In My Way (London: Gollancz, 1971), 27–29, leaves the reader with the extremely misleading impression that his summer course at Balliol was sponsored by the NCLC as well as the WEA. See also Jack Jones, Union Man (London: Collins, 1986), 35, 48–49.

44. Lewis, Leaders and Teachers, 184, 225.

45. Davies, North Country Bred, 193–95.

46. L. C. Stone, letter to the editor, Highway 18 (November 1925): 30. This point was confirmed by one of the earliest WEA recruits, Frederick Padley, in an interview with the author, 24 August 1987.

47. Oxford University Tutorial Classes Committee, Class Reports, OUA, DES/RP/2/2, 1924–25, p. 38.

48. Ibid., 1937–38, p. 78.

49. Dataller, Oxford into Coalfield, 25, 71–75, 99.

50. Jack and Bessie Braddock, The Braddocks (London: MacDonald, 1963), 10–11{{. See also Edward Cain, “Memories,” BUL, p. 11; Davies, Right Place, 88, 97, 105–107; James Griffiths, Pages from Memory (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1969), 19, 24–25, 48; Harold Finch, Memoirs of a Bedwellty MP (Newport: Starling Press, 1972), 12–13, 37.}}

51. Durham Strong Words Collective, But the World Goes on the Same: Changing Times in Durham Pit Villages (Whiteley Bay: Strong Words, 1979), 62–65.

52. Bill Horrocks, Reminiscences of Bolton (Manchester: Neil Richardson, 1984), 27–32.

53. Smith, Autobiography, 16–20, 28–30.

54. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 108–109{{. See also Whittaker, I, James Whittaker, 310–11.}}

55. John Allaway, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 17–20.

56. H. Edmund Poole, The Teaching of Literature in the WEA (London: Workers’ Educational Association, 1938), 8.

57. D. B. Halpern, “The Balance of Subjects in WEA Classes, 1913–58,” Rewley House Papers 3 (1959–60): 24–25.

58. “The History of the Tunstall II Tutorial Class: 1913–34,” Rewley House Papers 8 (March 1935): 350–53.

59. Nancy Dobrin, Happiness (London: Regency, 1980), 13–14, 26–27, 31, 36, 50–51.

60. Louis Moss and Kathleen Box, Newspapers: An Inquiry into Newspaper Reading Amongst the Civilian Population (Wartime Social Survey, n.s. 37a, June–July 1943), 12.

61. Dobrin, Happiness, 59–60.

62. Edith Hall, Canary Girls and Stockpots (Luton: WEA Luton Branch, 1977), 39–40.

63. John Petty, Five Fags a Day (London: Secker & Warburg, 1956), 85–87; Harry Benjamin, Adventure in Living: The Autobiography of a Myope (London: Health for All Publishing, 1950), 39–45, 58–59; Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 111–18.

64. Gregory, untitled TS, pp. 99–100.

65. Albert Mansbridge, The Trodden Road (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1940), 49–50.

66. Albert Mansbridge, “University Tutorial Classes,” in The Kingdom of the Mind: Essays and Addresses 1903–37 (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1944), 28.

67. “The Historical Association,” Western Daily Press, 12 January 1914.

68. Ross Terrill, R. H. Tawney and His Times (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 39–40.

69. “Tunstall Tutorial Class,” 352.

70. Old Student, “Looking Backwards,” 70–71.

71. Report on Adult Education in Yorkshire for the Period Ending on the 31st July, 1927 (London: HMSO, 1928), 41.

72. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 129–31.

73. Ibid., 49–52.

74. George W. Norris, “The Testament of a Trade Unionist,” Highway 39 (May 1948): 158–59.

75. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, ch. 5

76. Lavena Saltonstall, “The Letters of a Tailoress,” Highway 3 (January–February 1911): 52, 77.

77. Fieldhouse, “Ideology of Adult Education,” 14–19, 23–27.

78. For example, J. M. Mactavish, “Karl Marx and Modern Socialism,” Highway 13 (June 1921): 149–51.

79. Anonymous review of M. Beer, The Life and Teachings of Karl Marx, Highway 14 (October 1921): 4.

80. Owen, Wilson, and Dunn, University Tutorial Classes, 17–18.

81. Henry Clay, “What Workpeople Read,” Highway 1 (September 1909): 182–83.

82. Box labeled “Early Tutorial Classes,” WEA Central Office Library, London.

83. “Leisure of Adult Student,” 212.

84. J. Corfield, Epoch in Workers’ Education: A History of the Workers’ Educational Trade Union Committee (London: WEA, 1969), ch. 3. Brown, “Independence and Incorporation,” 109–25. Chushichi Tsuzuki, “Anglo-Marxism and Working-Class Education,” in The Working Class in Modern British History, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).

85. Watkins, Unusual Students, 27–28.

86. Oxford University Tutorial Classes Committee, Class Reports, OUA, DES/RP/2/2, 1913–14, p. 34.

87. Ibid., 1924–25, pp. 55–56.

88. Miles, From Pit Bank to Balliol College, 48–50.

89. Dickens, Bending the Twig, 20, 160–61, 174.

90. “What the WEA Means to Its Members,” AM.

91. Harold Entwistle, Antonio Gramsci: Conservative Schooling for Radical Politics (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), 18–21, 43–44, 47–48, 78–86, 180–81.

92. Pickering and Robins, “Interview with Sid Chaplin,” 144.

93. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 3–13.

94. Ibid., 17.

95. Ibid., 108–10.

96. Ibid., 3–6.

97. Ibid., 19–23.

98. Ibid., 16.

99. Ibid., 21–23.

100. Ibid., 24–25.

101. Ibid., 19–23.

102. Ibid., 40–42.

103. J. E. Thomas, Radical Adult Education: Theory and Practice (Nottingham: Department of Adult Education, University of Nottingham, 1982), 15–16, 60.

104. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 49–52.

105. Ibid., 13–16, 92.

106. Ibid., 159–60, 163–65.

107. Ibid., ch. 6.

108. Mary Stocks, The Workers’ Educational Association: The First Fifty Years (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1953), 52–53.

109. Adult Education Committee, The Development of Adult Education for Women (London: HMSO, 1922), 3–7.

110. Roseanne Benn, “Women and Adult Education,” in A History of Modern British Adult Education, ed. Roger Fieldhouse (Leicester: NIACE, 1996), 381.

111. Plebs 28 (March 1936): 68.

112. H. Edmund Poole, “English Literature as a Subject in WEA Classes,” Adult Education 12 (June 1940): 170.

113. Joseph J. Senturia, “Sex and Subject Selection,” Journal of Adult Education 4 (April 1930): 166–73.

114. Miller, Schools and Schoolmasters, 514–15.

115. “Leisure of the Adult Student,” 203–16.

116. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 168–69.

117. Ibid., ch. 3.

118. Oxford University Tutorial Classes Committee, Class Reports, OUA, DES/RP/2/2, 1918–19, pp. 5–7.

119. Brown, “Independence and Incorporation,” 109.

120. They are listed in the WEA annual report for 1938, pp. 110–60. G. F. Brown, “Working Class Adult Education,” in A. H. Thornton and M. D. Stephens, eds., The University and Its Region: The Extra-Mural Contribution (Nottingham: Department of Adult Education, University of Nottingham, 1977), 54.

121. A. E. Zimmern to Albert Mansbridge, 29 July 1945, AM, Add. 65258, f. 106v.

122. Stocks, Workers’ Educational Association, 143.

123. John Langley, Always a Layman (Brighton: QueenSpark, 1976), 31, 39–40.

124. Smith, Autobiography, 8–10, 16–20, 35, 40–41, 68–71, 74–76, 140–42.

125. Owen, Wilson, and Dunn, University Tutorial Classes, 15–16.

126. Poole, Teaching of Literature, 11{{. See also Report on Adult Education in Yorkshire, 26–29.}}

127. Linden R. West, “The Tawney Legend Re-examined,” Studies in Adult Education 4 (October 1972): 105–19.

128. WEA Annual Report, 1939, p. 71.

129. Adult Education Committee, The Scope and Practice of Adult Education (London: HMSO, 1930), 77–79.

130. Secord, “Science in the Pub,” 280.

131. Adult Education Committee, Natural Science in Adult Education (London: HMSO, 1927), 33–34.

132. Williams and Heath, Learn and Live, 139–40.

133. Association of Tutorial Class Tutors, “Report on the Teaching of Science in Tutorial Classes,” memorandum to Central Joint Advisory Committee on Tutorial Classes, 18 July 1924, AM, Add. 65198, ff. 183–84.

134. Paddy Molloy, “The Ugly Duckling (that Never Became a Swan),” TS, Ruskin College Library, chs. 8–9.

135. E. W. F. Malone, “The WEA—A New Phase II,” Adult Education 23 (September 1960): 117.

136. Report on Adult Education in Yorkshire, 25.

137. J. E. Floud, A. H. Halsey, and F. M. Martin, Social Class and Educational Opportunity (London: Heinemann, 1957), 44–61.

138. Sidney Weighell, A Hundred Years of Railway Weighells (London: Robson, 1984), 43, 87–88.

139. Pearl Jephcott, Rising Twenty: Notes on Some Ordinary Girls (London: Faber and Faber, 1948), 11–16, 62–63, 108–13.

140. Green, Adult Education, 28–34, 52–59.

141. Roy Shaw, “Adult Education and the Working Class,” Studies in Adult Education 2 (1970): 3.

142. Bryan Luckham, “The Characteristics of Adult Education Students,” Studies in Adult Education 3 (October 1971): 118–36. Bryan Luckham, “The Image of Adult Education,” Studies in Adult Education 4 (April 1972): 2–5.

143. Naomi Sargant, “The Open University,” in Fieldhouse, British Adult Education, 290–93.

144. Richard Hoggart, A Sort of Clowning (London: Chatto & Windus, 1990), 137.

Chapter Nine: Alienation from Marxism

1. Ross McKibbin, “Why Was There No Marxism in Great Britain?” in The Ideologies of Class: Social Relations in Britain 1880–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 32–36.

2. Hugh McLeod, “New Perspectives on Victorian Class Religion: The Oral Evidence,” Oral History 14 (Spring 1986): 35.

3. Macintyre, Proletarian Science, chs. 2–3.

4. Mary Brookshank, No Sae Lang Syne: A Tale of This City (Dundee: Dundee Printers, n.d.), 36.

5. Davies, Right Place, 88.

6. Davies, In Search of Myself, 38–44, 53, 139–40.

7. Clunie, Labour is My Faith, 30–31. Clunie, Voice of Labour, 30–31.

8. Goss, “My Boyhood,” pp. 188–89.

9. Bell, Pioneering Days, 69.

10. Citrine, Men and Work, 30.

11. Fagan, “Autobiography,” pp. 71, 74, 83–87.

12. T. H. James, “We Tread But One Path” (1966), RCL, p. 32.

13. Murphy, New Horizons, 61, 181–83, 307–308.

14. James Griffiths, Pages from Memory (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1969), 13–14, 197–98.

15. Hodge, Draughty in Front, 64–66, 76–77, 86–87, 258–60, 280–82.

16. Fox, Smoky Crusade, 136–37, 176–85, 353.

17. R. M. Fox, The Triumphant Machine (London: Hogarth Press, 1928), 2, 85–87.

18. Smith, Bevan and South Wales, 200–9.

19. John Atkins, Neither Crumbs nor Condescension: The Central Labour College 1909–1915 (Aberdeen: Aberdeen People’s Press and London: Workers’ Educational Association, 1981), 13.

20. Macintyre, Proletarian Science, 151.

21. Lewis, Leaders and Teachers, 156–67.

22. Heslop, “From Tyne to Tone,” pp. 118–19, 130–34, 138–39.

23. Jack Hilton, Caliban Shrieks (London: Cobden-Sanderson, 1935), 125–28.

24. Jackson, TS autobiography, pp. 125–27.

25. McShane and Smith, Harry McShane, 264–66.

26. For example, Shinwell, Conflict Without Malice, 27; George Hardy, Those Stormy Years (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1956), 28; Dorrell, “Falling Cadence,” pp. 50.

27. McShane and Smith, Harry McShane, 29–30, 36.

28. Hughes, “Welsh Rebel,” p. 223.

29. Quoted in Davies, In Search of Myself, 153–54.

30. Murphy, New Horizons, 181.

31. Roberts, Classic Slum, 220.

32. Coppard, It’s Me, O Lord!, 149–50.

33. George N. Barnes, From Workshop to War Cabinet (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1924), 42.

34. Ewan MacColl, “Theatre of Action, Manchester,” in Raphael Samuel, Ewan MacColl, and Stuart Cosgrove, eds., Theatres of the Left 1880–1935: Workers’ Theatre Movements in Britain and America (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 222.

35. Campbell, Villi the Clown, 16.

36. Margaret McCarthy, Generation in Revolt (London: William Heinemann, 1953), 78–79, 96.

37. Ifan Edwards, No Gold on My Shovel (London: Porcupine Press, 1947), 173–78.

38. William Holt, I Haven’t Unpacked (London: George G. Harrap, 1939), 194–252.

39. A. T. Collinson, “One Way Only: An Autobiography of an Old-Time Trade Unionist” (1966), BUL, pp. 158–59, 173–74.

40. Chapple, Sparks Fly!, 34–35.

41. Les Moss, Live and Learn: A Life and Struggle for Progress (Brighton: QueenSpark, 1979), 20–23, 74–81.

42. Ashley, Journey into Silence, 73.

43. Brown, I Was a Tramp, 225–26, 249.

44. McCarthy, Generation in Revolt, 148–49, 159–61, 192, 238–41, 244, 252–53.

45. Jennie Lee, This Great Journey (New York: Farrar & Reinhart, 1942), 154–56, 177–78.

46. Craddock, North Country Maid, 46–48, 132–33.

47. George Scott, Time and Place (London: Staples, 1956), 86–89, 93–97, 102.

48. R. L. Wild, Wild Oats (Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1959), 31, 141–44.

49. Armbruster, “Social Determination”, 63–73, 85–92, 96–110, 120–23, 173–75, 187–90, 198, 215–17, 224–26, 250–51.

50. Andrew Thorpe, “The Membership of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1920–1945,” Historical Journal 43 (September 2000): 777–800, esp. 781, 795–99.

51. Chris Williams, Democratic Rhondda: Politics and Society, 1885–1951 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1966), 168–204.

52. W. A. Gape, Half a Million Tramps (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1936), 325–26.

53. Hanley, Grey Children, 168, 211–12.

54. H. L. Elvin, “Marx and the Marxists as Literary Critics,” Adult Education 10 (June 1938): 266–73.

55. Raphael Samuel, “Workers’ Theatre 1926–36,” in Bradby, James, and Sharratt, eds., Performance and Politics, 216–28; Raphael Samuel, “Theatre and Socialism in Britain (1880–1935),” in Samuel, MacColl, and Cosgrove, Theatres of the Left, 21, 27–34, 50–54, 58.

56. Ewan MacColl, “Theatre of Action,” 208–10, 231, 240, 254.

57. Jackson, Solo Trumpet, vii.

58. Ibid., 11–12.

59. Crawfurd, TS autobiography, pp. 58–63, 71–73, 174, 203.

60. Holt, I Haven’t Unpacked, 194–252.

61. Jack Jones, Unfinished Journey (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1937), 61, 192–97, 207, 215–17; and Give Me Back My Heart (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1950), 173–77.

62. William Gallacher, Revolt on the Clyde (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1936), 1.

63. William Gallacher, Rise Like Lions (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1951), 129–30, 181. William Gallacher, The Last Memoirs of William Gallacher (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1966), 25, 35.

64. Trory, Mainly About Books, 18–19, 25, 54–55, 66–68, 98–99.

Chapter Ten: The World Unvisited

1. George Orwell, “Boys’ Weeklies,” in Collected Essays, 1:481–82.

2. Patrick A. Dunae, “Boys’ Literature and the Idea of Empire, 1870–1914,” Victorian Studies 24 (1980): 105–21.

3. John M. MacKenzie, ed., Propaganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984).

4. Guy A. Aldred, No Traitor’s Gait! (Glasgow: Strickland, 1955), 111–14, 145–47, 269, 274–81.

5. J. Randolph Cox, “Paperback Detective: The Evolution of the Nick Carter Series from Dime Novel to Paperback, 1886–1990,” in Pioneers, Passionate Ladies, and Private Eyes: Dime Novels, Series Books, and Paperbacks, ed. Larry E. Sullivan and Lydia Cushman Schurman (Binghamton, NY: Haworth, 1996), 119–32.

6. Aldred, Traitor’s Gait!, 39–40.

7. Louis James, “Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons,” Victorian Studies 17 (September 1973): 90–93.

8. P. W. Musgrave, From Brown to Bunter: The Life and Death of the School Story (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 142–43.

9. Jenkinson, What Do Boys and Girls Read?, 16, 174.

10. Frederick Willis, Peace and Dripping Toast (London: Phoenix House, 1950), 56–57.

11. Ezard, Battersea Boy, 98–102.

12. Hoggart, Local Habitation, 166.

13. Paul Fletcher, The Clatter of Clogs: Life in Lancashire during the Twenties as Seen through the Eyes of a Boy (Bolton: Clog-Lamp Press, 1972), 102–4.

14. Mills, “Coward or Fool,” p. 19.

15. Roberts, Classic Slum, 160–61.

16. Clifford Hanley, Dancing in the Streets (London: Hutchinson, 1958), 64–65.

17. Argent, “No Medals for Frankie,” p. 5a.

18. Horwood, “Walworth Boy,” p. 100.

19. Stamper, So Long Ago, 178–79, 182.

20. Percy S. Bustin, “My Two Square Miles of London: Reminiscences of a Bermondsey Boy” (1970–74), SLSL, pp. 29–30, 47–48.

21. W. Lionel Fraser, All to the Good (London: Heinemann, 1963), 19, 24–25.

22. Forbes, Divided Life, 6–8, 114–24.

23. John Harrison, My Village: Sheriff Hill, County Durham (Gateshead: Author, 1979), 17.

24. Balne, “Poor Law Schoolboy,” pp. 6–8, 11–15, 18–21, 35.

25. Burke, Wind and the Rain, ch. 3.

26. Taylor, Uphill All the Way, 8–9.

27. W. F. Turner, “The Pleasures of the Young in the Early Twenties,” Waltham Forest Museum Local Studies Library, pp. 3, 9.

28. Ted Furniss, The Walls of Jericho (Sheffield: Rebel Press, 1979), 3.

29. Richard Heaton, Salford: My Home Town (Manchester: Neil Richardson, 1982), 1.

30. Scott, Time and Place, 25–28.

31. Mark Benney, Low Company: Describing the Evolution of a Burglar (London: Peter Davies, 1936), 88, 134–35, 218–19.

32. Battye, Little Nut Tree, 97–98, 136.

33. Beer, Mrs. Beer’s House, 97–98.

34. Betterton, “White Pinnies, Black Aprons …,” p. 65c.

35. John Macadam, The Macadam Road (London: Jarrolds, 1955), 18.

36. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 109–10, 113–14.

37. Gomm, “Water under the Bridge,” p. 127.

38. Common, Kiddar’s Luck, 35–36. Scannell, Tiger and the Rose, 74. Jackson and Marsden, Education and the Working Class, 92.

39. Dennis Marsden, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 118–19.

40. Citrine, Men and Work, 24–25, 33, 37, 46.

41. Scott, Time and Place, 27–28, 99–101.

42. Rolph, London Particulars, 59–61.

43. Harry Young, “Harry’s Biography,” BUL, chapter titled “Boys’ Magazines, Boys’ Weeklies,” p. 2.

44. Fagan, “Autobiography,” pp. 16–17, 37–38, 54–55.

45. Wall, “Hour at Eve,” chs. 1, 7–8, 15, 17.

46. Michael Foot, Aneurin Bevan (London: McGibbon & Kee, 1962), 1:22, 307, 395, 448.

47. Acorn, One of the Multitude, 50.

48. Janet Wolff, Aesthetics and the Sociology of Art, 2nd edn. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 23–24.

49. The field of mass media studies has grappled with the same problems of audience reception. See John Eldridge, Jenny Kitzinger, and Kevin Williams, The Mass Media and Power in Modern Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), part 3.

50. Blacker, Just Like It Was, 66.

51. Willy Goldman, East End My Cradle (London: Faber and Faber, 1940), 43, 66–69.

52. Chaim Bermant, Coming Home (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1976), 39–40, 54, 79–89, 116–17, 124, 134–35.

53. Adam Rushton, My Life (Manchester: S. Clarke, 1909), 107.

54. George Ratcliffe, Sixty Years of It (London: A. Brown & Sons, n.d.), 79.

55. Price, Imperial War, 14, 67, 75–95, 145–47, 172–73.

56. Freer, Life and Memories, 131–32.

57. Rose Gibbs, In Service: Rose Gibbs Remembers (Orwell: Ellison’s Editions, 1981), 1–2.

58. Margaret Powell, My Mother and I (London: Michael Joseph, 1972), 50.

59. Gresswell, Bright Boots, 81–84.

60. Garratt, Man in the Street, 63–64.

61. M. D. Blanch, “British Society and the War,” in The South African War: The Anglo-Boer War 1899–1902, ed. Peter Warwick (London: Longman, 1980), 210–38.

62. Tremewan, Cornish Youth, 12, 17.

63. Willis, Peace and Dripping Toast, 132–35.

64. Shinwell, Lead with the Left, 23, 32.

65. Jones, Unfinished Journey, 97–101.

66. Cardus, Autobiography, 21.

67. Roberts, Classic Slum, 140–44, 162–63, 179–82.

68. May A. M. Rainer, “Emma’s Daughter” (1977), BUL, p. 31.

69. Hymie Fagan, in Margaret Cohen and Hymie Fagan, eds., Childhood Memories, Ruskin College Library, p. 36.

70. Humphries, Hooligans or Rebels?, 41–44.

71. Grace Foakes, Between High Walls: A London Childhood (London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1972), 18–19.

72. Mills, “Coward or Fool,” pp. 17–18.

73. Ethelwyn Watts, How Long is Forever: Memories of a Cornish Maid (Redruth: Dyllansow Truran—Cornish Publications, [1982]), 21.

74. Hall, “Camberwell Boy,” pp. 13, 15. Hall, untitled TS, p. 20.

75. Angela Hewins, Mary, After the Queen: Memories of a Working Girl (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 12–13.

76. Burnham, Dooms of Love, 33–34, 37–38, 208–9.

77. Gamble, Chelsea Child, 60–61.

78. Heren, Growing Up Poor, 18–20, 57–59.

79. Whittaker, I, James Whittaker, 121–25.

80. Walter Southgate, That’s the Way It Was: A Working Class Autobiography 1890–1950 (Oxted: New Clarion, 1982), 32–34, 45.

81. Phyllis Willmott, A Green Girl (London: Peter Owen, 1983), 10–11, 121–22.

82. Uttley, Farm, 148–49.

83. Clare, Autobiographical Writings, 63.

84. Watkin, From Hulme, 51, 70, 74–75.

85. Aldred, Traitor’s Gait!, 41.

86. Bourke, Working-Class Cultures, 139.

87. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 132.

88. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, 39–42.

89. Clynes, Memoirs: 1869–1924, 33.

90. Pyke, Men and Memories, 17–18.

91. Allen Clarke, “A Romance That Staggered the Nation,” Liverpool Weekly Post (27 October 1934): 2.

92. Roberts, Classic Slum, 162–63.

93. Wilfred Pickles, Between You and Me (London: Werner Laurie, 1949), 29–30.

94. Robert Clough, A Public Eye (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1981), 17.

95. Davies, Right Place, 236–38.

96. Smith, Autobiography, 1–3, 9–10.

97. Macadam, Macadam Road, 21–22.

98. Bernard Kops, The World is a Wedding (New York: Coward-McCann, 1963), 15.

99. James Hanley, Broken Water (London: Chatto & Windus, 1937), 253–61.

100. Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan, 226–28.

101. Bonwick, Reminiscences, 6–7, 12–13, 16–19, 51–52, 55–57, 112–13, 178–79.

102. Anon., “Life of a Blacksmith,” Saturday Evening Commonwealth (Glasgow), (17 January 1857): 3.

103. James Tilleard, “On Elementary School Books,” Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1859): 388–89, 393–96.

104. Thompson, Lark Rise, 33–34, 110, 180–81.

105. Alfred Williams, Life in a Railway Factory (London: Duckworth, 1915), 157–58.

106. Batten, Newlyn Boyhood, 18.

107. Lee, Town That Died, 29–30, 41.

108. Burton, There Was a Young Man, 40–41, 63–64, 73, 99.

109. Charles E. B. Russell and Lilian M. Rigby, Working Lads’ Clubs (London: Macmillan, 1908), 187–91.

110. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire, 220.

111. Herbert Morrison, Herbert Morrison: An Autobiography (London: Odhams, 1960), 19–20. Fagan, “Autobiography,” p. 41. Sam Smith, “Bosley Cloud: A North Country Childhood,” BUL, p. 33. H. J. Bennett, I Was a Walworth Boy (London: Peckham Publishing Project, 1980), 30–31. William Holt, Under a Japanese Parasol (Halifax: F. King and Sons, 1933), 111–12. Lanigan, “Thy Kingdom Did Come,” pp. 22, 63. John Allaway, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 9. John Edwin, I’m Going—What Then? (Bognor Regis: New Horizon, 1978), 8–9.

112. Dataller, “Yorkshire Lad,” pp. 11–13.

113. Somerville, Autobiography, 89–92.

114. “Jacques,” “Glimpses of a Checquered Life,” Saturday Evening Commonwealth (Glasgow), (1 November 1856): 3, (15 November 1856): 3.

115. Reading in Tottenham (Tottenham: Borough of Tottenham Libraries and Museum Department, 1952), 22–24.

116. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire, 101.

117. For example, Daisy England, Daisy England (London: Regency, 1981), 102; Maggie Newberry, Reminiscences of a Bradford Mill Girl (Bradford: City of Bradford Metropolitan Council, Libraries Division, 1980), 82; Blackburn, When I Grew Up, 16.

118. Fred Scholes, in Oldham Chronicle (1 November 1975): 21.

119. Denis A. Gibson, “The Struggle for Existence,” Ruskin College Library, p. 32.

120. Edna Matthews, “Looking Back: Village Life in the Early 20’s,” BUL, pp. 8–10.

121. Mary Wade, To the Miner Born (Stocksfield: Oriel, 1984), 57–59.

122. Anonymous, Struggles for Life, 72–81, 256–57.

123. Michael Home, Winter Harvest: A Norfolk Boyhood (London: Macdonald, 1967), 73, 78–79.

124. Nicholson, Wednesday Early Closing, 94–95.

125. Ashby, Ashby of Tysoe, 114.

126. Michael Gareth Llewelyn, Sand in the Glass (London: John Murray, 1943), 5.

127. Foley, Bolton Childhood, 78.

128. Wharton, GI War Bride, 77.

129. Colin Bonwick, English Radicals and the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977).

130. Quoted in Sinclair, Statistical Account, 6:145–46.

131. Buckley, Village Politician, 47–49.

132. Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1925), 1:18–21.

133. Cooney, “Publishers for the People,” 81.

134. Altick, Common Reader, 300–301.

135. Ellis, Educating Our Masters, 131.

136. Ian Michael, The Teaching of English: From the Sixteenth Century to 1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 220–38.

137. G. D. Lillibridge, Beacon of Freedom: The Impact of American Democracy upon Great Britain 1830–1870 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955). Frank Thistlewaite, The Anglo-American Connection in the Early Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959).

138. Murphy, Working-Class Canon, 91, 125–26.

139. Pickering and Robins, “Interview with Sid Chaplin,” 142.

140. W. H. Davies, Beggars (London: Duckworth, 1909), 90–91.

141. Harry Lauder, Roamin’ in the Gloamin’ (London: Hutchinson, 1928), 133. Morgan, Keir Hardie, 7.

142. George Cocking, From the Mines to the Pulpit (Cincinnati: Author, 1901), 64–66{{. See also Penn, Manchester Fourteen Miles, 55.}}

143. Heren, Growing Up Poor, 13–14, 203.

144. Lakeman, Early Tide, 170–71.

145. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 161–62.

146. V. S. Pritchett, As Old as the Century (New York: Random House, 1982), 38, 42–43.

147. Bondfield, Life’s Work, 37, 93, 96, 111–14.

148. McCarthy, Generation in Revolt, 49–64, 95.

149. Roberts, Classic Slum, 213–14.

150. Joe Ayre, “The Socialist,” BUL, p. 11.

151. Dorrell, “Falling Cadence,” p. 5.

152. Jack Common, The Ampersand (London: Turnstile Press, 1954), 61–62.

153. Wild, Wild Oats, 4–5.

154. This fear was pervasive among the interwar intelligentsia. See D. L. LeMahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communication and the Cultivated Mind in Britain between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), ch. 3.

155. Thomas Burke, London in My Time (London: Rich and Cowan, 1934), 35–36.

156. Thomas Burke, Out and About London (New York: Henry Holt, 1919), 176–90.

157. Thomas Burke, Living in Bloomsbury (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1939), 29.

158. Kevin Williams, Get Me a Murder a Day!: A History of Mass Communication in Britain (London: Arnold, 1998), 78–79.

159. Kenneth S. Lynn, Charlie Chaplin and His Times (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 96.

160. Stapleton, Threshold, 113–14.

161. Horwood, “Walworth Boy,” pp. 26, 91–92, 97.

162. Jim Wolveridge, “Ain’t It Grand” or “This Was Stepney” (London and West Nyack: Journeyman, 1981), 20, 41–42, 65–66.

163. Willis, Tom Mix, 3, 47–49, 144.

164. Dorothy Tildsley, Remembrance: Recollections of a Wartime Childhood in Swinton (Manchester: Neil Richardson, 1985), 21–22.

165. MO file 1095, pp. 14–17; file 1569, p. 30.

166. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 182–83.

167. Ibid., 197–98. Mayer, British Cinemas, 140–41.

168. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 183.

169. Mayer, British Cinemas, 118–19.

170. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 258.

171. Mayer, British Cinemas, 33, 38, 57, 66–70, 74, 122.

172. Herbert Hodge, A Cockney on Main Street (London: Michael Joseph, 1945), 33–34, 59–61, 65–66, 70, 78–87, 117.

173. Orwell, “Boys’ Weeklies,” 478–79.

174. Bryan Forbes, Notes for a Life (London: Collins, 1974), 28–29, 37–38.

175. Scannell, Drums of Morning, 36–37, 73–74, 77–78.

176. Sharman, Nothing to Steal, 85.

177. Alf Strange, Me Dad’s the Village Blacksmith (Denbigh: Gee & Son, 1983), 18, 155.

178. Perry, untitled TS, p. 27.

179. G. K. Evans, Public Opinion on Colonial Affairs (Social Survey, n.s. 119, June 1948), 5, 7, 10, 19, 23.

180. MO file 3046, pp. 11–18.

Chapter Eleven: A Mongrel Library

1. Richard Hoggart, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 95–103.

2. Hoggart, Sort of Clowning, 129–30, 134–35, 144. Richard Hoggart, An Imagined Life (London: Chatto & Windus, 1992), 89–98, 224–26, 240–42.

3. Hayden White, “Method and Ideology in Intellectual History: The Case of Henry Adams,” in Dominick LaCapra and Steven L. Kaplan, eds., Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspectives (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 307–8.

4. Burke, Bloomsbury, 312–13.

5. John Johnson, “How I Got On: Life Stories by the Labour MPs,” Pearson’s Weekly (10 May 1906): 787.

6. Steel, Ditcher’s Row, 111.

7. Salmon, Juvenile Literature, 189–192. Patrick A. Dunae, “Penny Dreadfuls: Late Ninteenth-Century Boys’ Literature and Crime,” Victorian Studies 22 (1979): 133–50.

8. Okey, Basketful of Memories, 20–22.

9. J. H. Howard, Winding Lanes (Caernarvon: Calvinistic Methodist Printing Works, [1938]), 27–30.

10. Snell, Men, Movements, and Myself, 15.

11. Alfred Cox, Among the Doctors (London: Christopher Johnson, 1950), 17.

12. Smillie, Life for Labour, 15.

13. Frederick Willis, 101 Jubilee Road: A Book of London Yesterdays (London: Phoenix House, 1948), 109–10.

14. Paton, Proletarian Pilgrimage, 45–46.

15. Frost, Reminiscences, 176–79, 256–61. Frost, Forty Years’ Recollections, 77–95, 317–24.

16. Southgate, That’s the Way It Was, 57–58.

17. Acorn, One of the Multitude, 49–50.

18. Blatchford, Book About Books, 140–52.

19. Blatchford, Favourite Books, 21–28.

20. Howard Spring, In the Meantime (London: Constable, 1942), 54.

21. Spring, Heaven, 93–94.

22. One man explained his choice of J. G. Brandon’s Death in Downing Street in those terms: “Well, it’s written snappy, you see. … Modern writers may not be up to the standard of the old writers, Dickens, Thackeray and Scott, but they’re snappy—they’re quick reading.” As another said of a Nicholas Blake novel, “You don’t have to have a lot of concentration to read these books.” MO file 48, p. 20{{; see also file 2018, pp. 83–91.}}

23. Holt, Japanese Parasol, 110–17; Holt, I Haven’t Unpacked, 46, 52; William Holt, I Still Haven’t Unpacked (London: George G. Harrap, 1953), 13, 19–20.

24. Brierley, Home Memories, 32.

25. Stamper, So Long Ago, 162, 213–14.

26. Bourdieu, Distinction, 323–28.

27. [Freeman], Equipment of the Workers, 59.

28. Goring, untitled MS, p. 114.

29. Neil Bell, My Writing Life (London: Alvin Redman, 1955), 14–15.

30. Donnelly, Yellow Rock, 215.

31. George Smith, The Autobiography of George Smith, LL.D. 1800–1868 (London: Dangerfield Printing Co., 1923), 15–16, 40.

32. Thomas Wood, “Methodism in Bingley Over 130 Years Ago,” Keighley News (10 March 1956): 5, (24 March 1956): 9.

33. Ralph Whitlock, A Family and a Village (London: John Baker, 1969), 131–32.

34. Chaplin, Tree with Rosy Apples, 87.

35. Stapleton, Threshold, 230–31.

36. James Williams, Give Me Yesterday (Gwasg Gomer: J. D. Lewis & Sons, 1971), 26–27, 138–45.

37. Adams, Social Atom, 101.

38. Acorn, One of the Multitude, 49–50.

39. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 11.

40. Davies, North Country Bred, 62.

41. Burton, There Was a Young Man, 95–97.

42. Wild, Wild Oats, 2, 10–12.

43. George Howell, draft autobiography, vol. B/b/4, pp. 3–5.

44. Muir, Story and the Fable, 83–91.

45. Cardus, Second Innings, 24–25, 48–71.

46. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 107–109.

47. Derek Davies, in Goldman, Breakthrough, 29–32.

48. Charles Chaplin, My Autobiography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964), 48–49, 123, 134, 247–49, 441. David Robinson, Chaplin: His Life and Art (London: Collins, 1985), 235.

49. Blishen, Right Soft Lot, 164.

50. Winifred Foley, A Child in the Forest (London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1974), 51–52.

51. Nellie Carbis, Nellie Carbis Looks Back (Kendal: Titus Wilson & Son, 1978), 30–31. Lily Need, “Struggling Manor,” Keele University, p. 13. Newberry, Bradford Mill Girl, 37.

52. Winifred M. Renshaw, An Ordinary Life: Memories of a Balby Childhood (Doncaster: Doncaster Library Service, 1984), ch. 25.

53. Muriel Box, Odd Woman Out (London: Leslie Frewin, 1974), 42.

54. Ashby, Ashby of Tysoe, 242.

55. Burnham, Dooms of Love, 200–201, 212.

56. Pat Phoenix, All My Burning Bridges (London: Arlington, 1974), 19–20.

57. Wharton, GI War Bride, 81–82.

58. Lee, Great Journey, 17.

59. Lee, Life with Nye, 39.

60. Angela Rodaway, A London Chilhood (London: B. T. Batsford, 1960), 82–83.

61. Kenney, Memories of a Militant, 1.

62. Jenkinson, What Do Boys and Girls Read?, 16, 174, 217.

63. Salmon, Juvenile Literature, 21–31.

64. Todd, Snakes and Ladder, 42–43.

65. “What Children Read,” Co-Partnership (April 1911): 55.

66. Barbara Sicherman, “Sense and Sensibility: A Case Study of Women’s Reading in Late-Victorian America,” in Cathy N. Davidson, ed., Reading in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

67. McAleer, Popular Reading, 197–99.

68. Orwell, “Boys’ Weeklies,” 471–72.

69. Mary Cadogan, Frank Richards: The Chap Behind the Chums (New York: Viking, 1988), 71–85.

70. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability, 209.

71. Michael Pickering, “White Skin, Black Masks: ‘Nigger’ Minstrelsy in Victorian England,” in J. S. Bratton, ed., Music Hall: Performance and Style (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986), 70–91{{. See also George F. Rehin, “Harlequin Jim Crow: Continuity and Convergence in Blackface Clowning,” Journal of Popular Culture 9 (Winter 1975): 682–701.}}

72. Joseph Arch, Joseph Arch: The Story of His Life (London: Hutchinson, 1898), 29.

73. Mayhew, London Labour, 3:190–91.

74. Joseph Burgess, A Potential Poet? (Ilford: Burgess Publications, 1927), 72.

75. Philip S. Foner, British Labor and the American Civil War (New York and London: Holmes & Meier, 1981).

76. George Cooper, The Story of George Cooper—Stockport’s Last Town Crier 1824–1895 (n.p.: [1975]), 28.

77. Baggs, “Miners’ Libraries,” 363, 384.

78. Shaw, When I Was a Child, 65. Roger Langdon, The Life of Roger Langdon (London: Elliot Stock, 1909), 33–34. Hampson, “Reminiscences of ‘Casey,’” 12.

79. Samuel Fielden, “Autobiography of Samuel Fielden,” in The Autobiographies of the Haymarket Martyrs, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: Humanities Press, 1969), 142.

80. Gallacher, Rise Like Lions, 90. Crawfurd, TS autobiography, p. 10.

81. Bess and Ralph Anstis, eds., The Diary of a Working Man 1872–1873: Bill Williams in the Forest of Dean (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1994), entry for 18 December 1872, p. 85.

82. Anonymous, Narrow Waters: The First Volume of the Life and Thoughts of a Common Man (London: William Hodge, 1935), 67–68. For a similar reaction, see Foley, Child in the Forest, 181.

83. Bryson, Look Back in Wonder, 71.

84. George Clifton Hughes, “Shut the Mountain Gate,” BUL, pp. 124–25.

85. Rolph, Living Twice, 12–13, 37–39.

86. Leslie Paul, The Living Hedge (London: Faber and Faber, 1946), 104–6.

87. William Lax, Lax: His Book (London: Epworth, 1937), 91–94.

88. Elton, Ramsay MacDonald, 29{{. See also Roberts, Ragged Schooling, 114; and James Spenser, Limey Breaks In (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1934), 18–20.}}

89. Fagan, “Autobiography,” pp. 18–19.

90. Bustin, “My Two Square Miles of London,” pp. 74–75.

91. Coombes, These Poor Hands, 139–40.

92. Patrick McLoughlin, The Johnson Street Bullies (Bognor Regis: New Horizons, 1980), 118–21.

93. Battye, Little Nut Tree, 75.

94. Mayer, British Cinemas, 184.

95. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 248–49.

96. Douglas A. Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victorians: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978), ch. 3. James D. Young, Socialism and the English Working Class: A History of English Labour 1883–1939 (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), chs. 2, 6.

97. Waters, Socialists and Popular Culture, esp. ch. 6.

98. B. L. Coombes, Miners Day (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1945), 40.

99. John Eldridge, Jenny Kitzinger, and Kevin Williams sum up some of these criticisms in The Mass Media and Power in Modern Britain, 155–59.

100. Thompson, Lark Rise, 252–53.

101. Beer, Mrs. Beer’s House, 100–1, 104–15, 194–96.

102. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 43–44, 48.

103. Michael R. Booth, Theatre in the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 163–67.

104. Leslie Halward, Let Me Tell You (London: Michael Joseph, 1938), 79–80.

105. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 231, 234, 253–54.

106. Mayer, British Cinemas, 72{{. See also Mayer, Sociology of Film, 236.}}

107. Mayer, British Cinemas, 32–33.

108. Ibid., 116; Mayer, Sociology of Film, 184–85.

109. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 231{{. See also Mayer, British Cinemas, 81–82.}}

110. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 227, 235. Mayer, British Cinemas, 38.

111. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 259.

112. Mayer, British Cinemas, 27, 36, 52–53, 67.

113. Mayer, Sociology of Film, 225–26.

114. Ibid., 248–50{{; see also 257–58.}}

115. LeMahieu, Culture for Democracy, 119–20, 155–56.

116. Jacob Holkinson, “The Life of Jacob Holkinson, Tailor and Poet,” Saturday Evening Commonwealth (Glasgow), (31 January 1857): 3.

117. Smith, Curiosities of London Life, 122.

118. Charles Manby Smith, The Little World of London (London: Arthur Hall, Virtue, 1857), 9–10.

119. Carter, Memoirs, 18–21, 26–28, 79–82, 145.

Chapter Twelve: What Was Leonard Bast Really Like?

1. The cartoon appeared in the 4 December 1883 issue, and is reproduced in Marsh, Word Crimes, 130.

2. Collyer, Memories, 23–24.

3. John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (London: Faber and Faber, 1992), chs. 1–2.

4. Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 180–81.

5. Charles Knight, introduction to Carter, Memoirs, viii–ix.

6. Douglas and Isherwood, Goods, 76–80, 89.

7. Jack Goody, introduction to Literacy in Traditional Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 11–20.

8. K. G. Ghurye, Preservation of Learned Tradition in India (Bombay: Popular Book Depot, 1950), 24–25.

9. Defoe, Crusoe, 216–17.

10. Lawrence Stone, “Literacy and Education in England 1640–1900,” Past and Present 42 (February 1969): 73.

11. Gifford, Memoir, 7, 13–19.

12. Smith, Autobiography, 14.

13. Alan Richardson, Literature, Education, and Romanticism: Reading as Social Practice, 1780–1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 95–103, 124, 267–70.

14. Patrick Brantlinger, The Reading Lesson: The Threat of Mass Literacy in Nineteenth-Century British Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998).

15. Craik, Pursuit of Knowledge, 2:3.

16. P. J. Keating, The Working Classes in Victorian Fiction (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 26–28.

17. Hugh Miller, “Literature of the People,” in Essays, 3rd edn. (Edinburgh: William P. Nimmo, 1870), 291–99.

18. John Younger, The Light of the Week (London: Partridge & Oakley, 1849), v, xi.

19. Hardy, Jude the Obscure, 87, 116–21, 128–29.

20. Begbie, Living Water, 119.

21. A. L. Rowse, A Cornish Childhood (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1979), 208–9.

22. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 107, 112–16.

23. Anne Tibble, One Woman’s Story (London: Peter Owen, 1976), 17, 27–29, 66, 129.

24. Stamper, So Long Ago, 29–30, 42, 109–12, 152–54, 161–62, 169–71.

25. Willis, Tom Mix, 92–93, 110 152–53.

26. Virginia Woolf, “Introductory Letter,” in Life as We Have Known It, xv, xxxviii–xxxix.

27. Mrs. Garrett, in Life as We Have Known It, 123–24.

28. Quentin Bell, Virginia Woolf (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972), 2:205.

29. Leonard Woolf, Growing: An Autobiography of the Years 1904 to 1911 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 63–66. For an even more contemptuous treatment of Board school graduates, see his short story “Pearls and Swine,” reprinted in A Bloomsbury Group Reader, ed. S. P. Rosenbaum (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1993), 34–36.

30. E. M. Forster, Howards End (London: Edward Arnold, 1973), ch. 6.

31. Ibid., 142.

32. Ibid., 320.

33. Ibid., 146.

34. Ibid., 336.

35. Forster to G. H. Ludolf, 16 July 1919, in Selected Letters of E. M. Forster (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983–85), 1:305–6.

36. Forster to Florence Barger, 10 November 1920, in Selected Letters of E. M. Forster, 1:319.

37. Nicola Beauman, Morgan: A Biography of E. M. Forster (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993), 345–46.

38. P. N. Furbank, E. M. Forster: A Life (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977–78), 2:159.

39. Beauman, Morgan, 53.

40. Forster, Howards End, 47–48.

41. W. J. Brown, So Far … (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1943), 27–28.

42. Armstrong, Pilgrimage from Nenthead, 156–64.

43. Haw, Will Crooks, 22–23, 176.

44. Brockway, Socialism over Sixty Years, 88–89.

45. George, From Mill Boy to Minister, 28–29.

46. Hodgkinson, Sent to Coventry, 4–5, 24.

47. Harry Brearley, Knotted String: Autobiography of a Steel-Maker (London: Longmans, Green, 1941), 50.

48. Dataller, “Yorkshire Lad,” p. 29.

49. Rushton, My Life, frontispiece.

50. W. J. Brown, I Meet America (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1942), 51, 138.

51. Peter D. McDonald, British Literary Culture and Publishing Practice 1880–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 99–100.

52. Brown, So Far, 43–46.

53. Ibid., 49–55.

54. Anonymous, Narrow Waters, 42, 61, 64–65, 79–80.

55. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 193–95.

56. Joseph Toole, Fighting through Life (London: Rich & Cowan, 1935), 10, 48–50, 66–69, 85–86; ch. 6.

57. Cardus, Autobiography, 37–58.

58. Cardus, Second Innings, 127–36.

59. Thomas Burke, The Real East End (London: Constable, 1932), 7–13.

60. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, 210.

61. William Lax, Adventure in Poplar (London: Epworth, 1933), 16.

62. Burke, Out and About, 124–33.

63. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 184.

64. Lewis, Soho Address, 129.

65. Garratt, Man in the Street, 263–64, 274–76.

66. Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature, 43–46, 55–57, 142–45, 156; ch. 8.

67. William Margrie, A Cockney’s Pilgrimage in Search of Truth (London: Watts & Co., 1927), 58–59.

68. Jackson, TS Autobiography, pp. 18–19.

69. Davies, North Country Bred, 83–89.

70. Bold, “Long and the Short of It” (1978), pp. 1, 14–16, 22–23, 36, 42–43.

71. Margaret Penn, The Foolish Virgin (London: Jonathan Cape, 1951).

72. Ring, Up the Cockneys!, foreword and pp. 32, 38, 41–42, 63–64, 127–31, 162.

73. Carey, Intellectuals and Masses, ch. 3.

74. Matthew Arnold, Friendship’s Garland, in Complete Prose Works, 5:21–22.

75. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 183–84.

76. Thomas Burke, The Outer Circle: Rambles in Remote London (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 13–14.

77. Ibid., 59–64.

78. Richard Church, Over the Bridge (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1956), 18–19, 74, 198.

79. Ibid., 207–21, 229–31.

80. Richard Church, The Golden Sovereign (London: Heinemann, 1957), 9–10, 13–14, 27, 73, 91–92, 106–10, 124–25, 168–71, 187–94, 202–203, 232–34. Richard Church, The Voyage Home (London: Heinemann, 1964), 66–71, 80–81, 88, 166, 171, 209–11.

81. H. E. Bates, The Vanished World (London: Michael Joseph, 1969), 143–48.

82. G. Launders, “Reminiscences of Old Grimesthorpe” (1938), Sheffield Central Library, p. 22. John Miles Thomas, Looking Back: A Childhood in Saint David’s Eighty Years Ago (Camarthen: privately published, 1977), 62.

83. Macadam, Macadam Road, 18–19, 24–28, 32–34, 87–88.

84. Forster, Howards End, 142.

85. Peter Keating, The Haunted Study: A Social History of the English Novel, 1875–1914 (London: Secker & Warburg, 1989), 34.

86. W. J. Reader, Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 147, 211.

87. Forster, Howards End, 60.

88. Patterson, Vagabondage, 329–30, 351.

89. Thomas Burke, Son of London (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1946), 156–70.

90. Patrick MacGill, Children of the Dead End (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1914), 15–16, 136–40, 227–29, 271–73.

91. Thompson, Lancashire for Me, 26, 35.

92. Clough, Public Eye, 11–14.

93. Allen Clarke, “The ‘Good Old Days’ When Children Were Bred for the Factories,” “Sad End to Works of Youthful Poet,” “Early Endeavours to Join the Happy Slaves of the Press,” “Drama, Romance, and the Moon of My Delight,” “Flirting, Frolics, and Visions on Manhood’s Threshold,” Liverpool Weekly Post (21 April 1934): 2, (28 April 1934): 2, (16 June 1934): 2, (14 July 1934): 2, (21 July 1934): 2.

94. Bell, Writing Life, 25–26, 30–43, 253–54.

95. Coppard, It’s Me, O Lord!, 39–40, 60–63, 66, 71–72, 84–85, 121–22, 131–32, 153–58, 161–69, 176, 185, 239.

96. Spring, Heaven, 11–12, 16, 23, 51.

97. Spring, Meantime, 129–31.

98. Spring, Heaven, 101–107.

99. Spring, Meantime, 133–36, 161–64.

100. Smith, Bevan and South Wales, 178, 190, 194. Foot, Bevan, 1:36–37, 56, 59–63, 89–90.

101. José Enrique Rodó, Ariel, trans. F. J. Stimson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1922), 68–69, 112–13, 117.

102. John Campbell, Aneurin Bevan and the Mirage of British Socialism (New York: Norton, 1987), 63–71, 265.

103. Roger Dataller, From a Pitman’s Note Book (New York: Dial Press, 1925), 12, 91–92, 131, 135–36.

104. Dataller, Oxford into Coalfield, 26, 35–36.

105. Ibid., 76.

106. Ibid., 197–200. Dataller, “Yorkshire Lad,” pp. 133–34.

107. Dataller, “Self Expression in the Student,” 254–56.

108. Roger Dataller, The Plain Man and the Novel (London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1940), 154–57, 170–71.

109. Joyce Piell Wexler, Who Paid for Modernism?: Art, Money, and the Fiction of Conrad, Joyce, and Lawrence (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1997), esp. introduction, ch. 1, and p. 133.

110. Edward Short, I Knew My Place (London: Macdonald, 1983), 88–91.

111. Barclay, Memoirs and Medleys, 55–64, 69–74.

112. Muir, Story and the Fable, 119–24, 129–53, 166–67, 170–74, 180.

113. [Edward Moore], We Moderns (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1918), 156, 160–61, 172, 242, 246.

114. Willis, Leonard and Virginia Woolf as Publishers, 118–19, 137–38.

115. Paton, Proletarian Pilgrimage, 212–13.

116. Hugh MacDiarmid, Lucky Poet: A Self-Study in Literature and Political Ideas (London: Methuen, 1943), vi, xvii–xx, 4, 29, 39–44, 50, 76–78, 103–104, 137–38, 236–37, 349, 423. Alan Bold, MacDiarmid (London: John Murray, 1998), 46–50, 65, 144–47, 230, 238, 245, 252, 260–61, 266, 409–11.

117. For example, Ross McKibbin, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 477–88. But for an exceptionally perceptive and sympathetic treament of its American counterpart, see Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).

118. In her Collected Essays (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967), 2:196–203.

119. For a treatment of cultural triage see David Grimsted, “Books and Culture: Canned, Canonized, and Neglected,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 94 (1984): 297–335.

120. Patrick Brantlinger describes the fervent and pervasive intellectual hostility toward this stratum of culture in Bread and Circuses: Theories of Mass Culture as Social Decay (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1983).

121. Garratt, Man in the Street, 291–92, 298–302.

122. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public, 85.

123. Geoffrey Crossick, “The Emergence of the Lower Middle Class in Britain: A Discussion,” Hugh McLeod, “White Collar Values and the Role of Religion,” and G. L. Anderson, “The Social Economy of Late-Victorian Clerks,” in The Lower Middle Class in Britain 1870–1914, ed. Crossick (London: Croom Helm, 1977), 19, 35–37, 84, 113–33{{. See also Michael Savage, “Career Mobility and Class Formation: British Banking Workers and the Lower Middle Classes,” in Building European Society: Occupational Change and Social Mobility in Europe 1840–1940, ed. Andrew Miles and David Vincent (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), 196–216.}}

124. T. R. Gourvish, “The Standard of Living,” in The Edwardian Age: Conflict and Stability 1900–1914, ed., Alan O’Day (London: Macmillan, 1979), 23–24.

125. Bell, Virginia Woolf, 2:39.

126. Richard H. Brodhead, The School of Hawthorne (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 5.

127. Ronald Schuchard, “T. S. Eliot as an Extension Lecturer, 1916–1919,” Review of English Studies n. s. 25 (1974): 163–73, 292–304.

128. Cardus, Second Innings, 242.

129. Cardus, Autobiography, 16, 256–60.

130. Church, Bridge, 226–27.

131. Ezra Pound, “The New Sculpture,” Egoist 1 (16 February 1914): 68.

132. Timothy Materer, “Make It Sell! Ezra Pound Advertises Modernism,” and Leonard Diepeveen, “‘I Can Have More Than Enough Power to Satisfy Me’: T. S. Eliot’s Construction of His Audience,” in Marketing Modernisms: Self-Promotion, Canonization, and Rereading, ed. Kevin J. H. Dettmar and Stephen Watt (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996).

133. Michael H. Levenson, A Genealogy of Modernism: A Study of English Literary Doctrine 1908–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 146–64.

134. Woolf, “Middlebrow,” 202.

135. “The Third Programme,” 3 February 1947, BBC R9/9/11/LR/47/161.

136. MO file 3105, p. 19. Another survey in the mid-1950s found that 35 percent of Third Programme listeners were working-class: see J. R. Williams, “Notes and Comments,” Highway 48 (November 1956): 3–4.

137. Kate Whitehead, The Third Programme: A Literary History (Oxford: Clarendon Press: 1989), 14–18, 24–29, 48–62, ch. 11.

138. Bermant, Coming Home, 116–17.

139. Harold Rosenberg, “Everyman a Professional,” in The Tradition of the New (New York: Horizon, 1959), 58–73.

140. Beauman, Morgan, 336.

Chapter Thirteen: Down and Out in Bloomsbury

1. Maurice Barrès, Le Quartier Latin: Ces messieurs—ces dames (Paris: C. Dalou, 1888), 13.

2. Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris (New York: Viking, 1986), ch. 1.

3. Cameron, Rustle of Spring, 25, 122–27, 139, 156–62, 169, 180–83, 186–89, 247–61, 278–84.

4. Todd, Snakes and Ladders, 133–34, 139–42, 145–55.

5. Carter, Memoirs, 19. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability, 170–71.

6. Rodaway, London Childhood, 91–92, 96–98.

7. Ibid., 114, 128–29, 152–58.

8. Benney, Low Company, 86, 110–16, 122–28, 262–64, 272–74, 288–89, 297, 312–14.

9. Thompson, Hyde Park Orator, 123.

10. Michael Murphy explores the relationship between modernism and advertising in “‘One Hundred Per Cent Bohemia’: Pop Decadence and the Aestheticization of Commodity in the Rise of the Slicks,” in Marketing Modernisms, ed. Dettmar and Watt, esp. pp. 85–86.

11. Ethel Mannin, Young in the Twenties (London: Hutchinson, 1971), 17.

12. J. E. Morpurgo, Allen Lane: King Penguin (London: Hutchinson, 1980), 56–57, 110, 132–34.

13. Mannin, Confessions, 14–15, 45–49.

14. Ibid., 230–32.

15. Mannin, Twenties, 101.

16. Andy Croft, “Ethel Mannin: The Red Rose of Love and the Red Flower of Liberty,” in Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women Writers, 1889–1939, ed. Angela Ingram and Daphne Patai, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 205–25.

17. Mannin, Confessions, 73, 85, 90–92. Mannin, Twenties, 53, 55, 59.

18. Ethel Mannin, Privileged Spectator (London: Jarrolds, 1939), 72–73, 309–11, 321.

19. Frederick Willis, A Book of London Yesterdays (London: Phoenix House, 1960), 195–97.

20. Ibid., 179–81.

21. Douglas and Isherwood, Goods, 79, 95.

22. Dudley Barker, G. K. Chesterton (New York: Stein & Day, 1975), 71–76.

23. Willis, London Yesterdays (1960), 195.

24. Thomas Burke, Nights in Town: A London Autobiography (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1915), 253–54, 364–72.

25. Thomas Burke, The London Spy (New York: George H. Doran, 1922), ch. 11.

26. Burke, Nights in Town, 340–44.

27. Burke, Real East End, 5.

28. Burke, Bloomsbury, 39–47, 211–15.

29. Even George Scott, who won a scholarship to Oxford and achieved “affluence” in the 1950s, found himself crammed in a three-room flat with his wife and two children, writing on a washing machine in a kitchen laced with boiler fumes: “He has, after all, a room of his own.” Scott, Time and Place, 220.

30. Goldman, East End My Cradle, chs. 22–24, 26, 28.

31. Pritchett, Cab at the Door, 14–16, 102–107, 111, 124–27, 195–96, 234.

32. Paul, First Love, 33, 51–55, 61–62.

33. No new edition of any work by Jefferies was published between 1910 and 1933. George Miller and Hugoe Matthews, Richard Jefferies: A Bibliographical Study (Aldershot: Scolar, 1993), sections B and C.

34. Paul, First Love, 38–39, 88, 94, 98–99.

35. The existence of such guerrilla scout troops is confirmed by Roberts, A Ragged Schooling, 94–95.

36. Leslie Paul, Angry Young Man (London: Faber and Faber, 1951), 50–60{{. See also Mark Drakeford, Social Movements and Their Supporters: The Green Shirts in England (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), chs. 2–4.}}

37. Paul, Living Hedge, 155.

38. Paul, First Love, 63–73, 87. Paul, Angry Young Man, 62–74, 121–25.

39. John Springhall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements 1883–1940 (London: Croom Helm, 1977), ch. 7, 134.

40. Paul, Angry Young Man, 203–206, 292–93, 296.

41. Guy Hunter, “Vocation and Culture—A Suggestion,” Adult Eucation 25 (Summer 1952): 13.

42. Barton, Two Lamps in Our Street, 83–84, 91, 125–31.

43. Lee, Great Journey, 96–97.

44. Bates, Vanished World, 156–57.

45. Ethel Mannin, Brief Voices: A Writer’s Story (London: Hutchinson, 1959), 200.

46. Morrison, Herbert Morrison, 18–20, 24–29, 142–43.

47. Jack Dash, Good Morning, Brothers! (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1969), 64–66, 78–79, 165.

48. Kops, World is a Wedding, 34–35, 92–93, 104, 107, 110–11, 114.

49. Ibid., 15, 29, 179–88.

50. “Norwegian Wood,” in The Beatles Lyrics Illustrated (New York: Dell, 1975), 87.

51. Kops, World is a Wedding, 260.

52. Ibid., 232–35.

53. Aldous Huxley, “Selected Snobberies,” in Music at Night and Other Essays (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1970), 197–202.

54. Bourdieu, Distinction, 84–85, 96.

55. Ibid., 229. Douglas and Isherwood, Goods, 198–203.

56. Frederick C. Wigby, A Shilling, a Shutknife and a Piece of String (Wymondham: Geo. R. Reeve, 1984), 120–24.

57. Martin Vander Weyer, “An Act of Creation,” in The World in 1999 (London: The Economist Publications, 1998), 68–69.

58. Glyn Hughes, Millstone Grit (Newton Abbot: Readers Union, 1975), 21–22, 100–101, 134–39.

59. Justin Lewis, Art, Culture, and Enterprise: The Politics of Art and the Cultural Industries (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 14–20, 36–40, 77, 114–15.

60. This trend may be more advanced in the United States, where it was recently analyzed by David Brooks in Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000). Brooks is a sharp and perceptive journalist, and his conclusions deserve to be tested by more rigorous sociological methods.