Exam preparation materials

Notes

Prologue: Unnatural Nation

1

Thetranslation is by Qurratulain Hyder.

2

See Ralph Russell and Khurshidul Islam, ed. and trans., Ghalib, 17971869: Life and Letters (1969: reprint Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), chapter 7.

3

John Strachey, India (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench and Co., 1888), pp. 2–5.

4

Thebest single-volume treatment remains Sumit Sarkar, Modern India: 1885–1947 (London: Macmillan, 1985). For amore up-to-date account see Sekhar Bandopadhyay, From Plassey to Partition (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2004), an additional merit of which is its excellent bibliography.

5

Interview in the Adelaide Advertiser, November 1891, quoted in the ‘NB’ column of The Times Literary Supplement, 9 March 2001.

6

E. H. D. Sewell, An Outdoor Wallah (London: Stanley Paul and Co., 1945), p. 110, emphasis added. These words were written in 1934.

7

Winston Churchill, India: Speeches and an Introduction (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1931), pp. 38, 120, 125 etc.

8

These quotes are taken from Devesh Kapur, ‘Globalization and the Paradox of Indian Democracy’, mimeo, Department of Political Science, University of Texas at Austin, December 2005.

9

DonTaylor, ‘This New, Surprising Strength of Mrs Gandhi’, Evening Standard, 21 August 1969, emphasis in original.

10

The Statesman (New Delhi), 10 August 1998.

11

Adam Przeworski, Michael E. Alvarez, José António Cheibub and Fernando Limongi, Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-being in the World, 19501990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), quoted in Kapur, ‘Globalization’.

12

Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), p. 4.

13

Krishna Kumar, What is Worth Teaching? 3rd edn (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2004), p. 109.

14

Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (London: William Heinemann, 2005), p. xiii.

15

Marc Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Essential Characteristics (1931; reprint London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978), preface.

1. FREEDOM AND PARRICIDE

1

Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (New Delhi: Government of India, 1958– ;hereafter cited as CWMG), vol. 42, pp. 398–400.

2

Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography, with Musings on Recent Events in India (1936; reprint London: The Bodley Head, 1949), p. 209.

3

The Indian Annual Register, 1930,part I (Jan.–June), p. 23.

4

This account of the ceremonies is based on Jim Masselos; ‘“The magic touch of being free”: The Rituals of Independence on 15 August’, in Masselos, ed., India: Creating a Modern Nation (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1990); Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudesia, The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia (London: Routledge, 2000), chapter 2; The Statesman,15 August 1947; reports in Philip Talbot Papers, Centre for South Asian Studies, University of Cambridge (hereafter CSAS); reports and correspondence in Mountbatten Papers (Mss Eur F200), Tyson Papers (Mss Eur F341), and Saumarez Smith Papers (Mss EurC409), all in the Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London (hereafter OIOC).

5

Actually, as Salman Rushdie once remarked, half the world had not yet gone to sleep, and the other half was already awake. This witticism did not stop Rushdie from including Nehru’s speech in an anthology of Indian writing that he edited – the only piece of non-fiction to find a place in the volume.

6

As related in Rajmohan Gandhi, The Good Boatman: A Portrait of Gandhi (New Delhi: Viking, 1993).

7

This section on Gandhi and the run-up to independence draws on D. G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamch and Gandhi, 2nd edn (1963; reprint New Delhi: Publications Division, 1990), vols 7 and 8; N. K. Bose, My Days with Gandhi (1953; reprint Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1990); N. K. Bose and P. H. Patwardhan, Gandhi in Indian Politics (Bombay: Lalvani Publishing House, 1967); and relevant volumes of CWMG.

8

The words of the then viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, speaking on 8 August 1940.

9

B. R. Nanda, ‘Nehru, the Indian National Congress and the Partition of India, 1935–47’, in C. H. Philips and Mary Doreen Wainwright, eds, The Partition of India: Policies and Perspectives (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970), p. 183.

10

The Statesman,16 August 1947.

11

The new governor was R. F. Mudie, a British member of the Indian Civil Service who had elected to stay on and work for the government of Pakistan. The quote is from a typescript in the Mudie Papers, OIOC (Mss Eur F164/12).

12

Quoted in Gyanendra Pandey, Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 98.

13

See L/P and J/8/575, OIOC.

14

Robin Jeffrey, ‘The Punjab Boundary Force and the Problem of Order, August 1947’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 8, no. 4, 1974.

15

‘Partition’ (1968), in W. H. Auden, Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson(New York: Vintage, 1991), pp. 803–4.

16

Quoted in Urvashi Butalia, The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India (Delhi: Viking, 1998), p. 65.

Before he left India Radcliffe burnt all his notes and papers. He never wrote about his experiences in the subcontinent either. Auden was cynical about this silence, saying that ‘he quickly forgot the case, as a good lawyer must’.

17

This and subsequent quotes from Rees are from his papers deposited in the OIOC (especially files Mss Eur F274/66 to Mss Eur F274/70).

18

Quoted in H. M. Seervai, Partition of India: Legend and Reality (Bombay: Emenem Publications, 1989), p. 148.

19

Nehru to Rees, 3/9/1947, Mss Eur F274/73, OIOC.

20

Baroo, ‘Life in the Punjab Today’, Swatantra, 4 October 1947.

21

See Mss Eur F200/129.

22

Donald F. Ebright, Free India; the First Five Years: An Account of the 1947 Riots, Refugees, Relief and Rehabilitation (Nashville: Parthenon Press, 1954), p. 28. Later estimates have pushed up the number of dead to a million or more.

23

Note by Major William Short dated 17 October 1947, in Mss Eur F200/129, OIOC.

24

As reported in Pyarelal, ‘In Calcutta’, Harijan, 14 September 1947.

25

This quote, and much of the preceding two paragraphs, draw from Denis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), chapter 5, ‘The Calcutta Fast’.

26

See Richard Symons, In the Margins of Independence: A Relief Worker in India and Pakistan, 19421949 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2001).

27

The violence against the Meos is described in Shail Mayaram, Resisting Regimes: Myth, Memory and the Shaping of a Muslim Identity (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997).

28

Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 8, pp. 112–31.

29

‘To Members of the R.S.S.’, Harijan, 28 September 1947.

30

Nehru to Patel,30 September 1947, in Durga Das, ed., Sardar Patels Correspondence, 1945–50, 10 vols (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press, 1971-74), cited hereafter as SPC, vol. 4, pp. 297–9.

31

Entry dated 13 September 1947, in Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1953), p. 189.

32

‘A.I.C.C. Resolutions’, Harijan, 23 November 1947.

33

Golwalkar, We, or Our Nation Defined (1938; Nagpur: Bharat Prakashan, 1947), pp. 55–6, quoted in Mohan Ram, Hindi against India: The Meaning of DMK (New Delhi: Rachna Prakashan, 1968), p. 64.

34

Hindustan Times,8 December 1947.

35

Tendulkar, Mahatma, vol. 8, pp. 246–66.

36

Robert Payne, The Life and Death of Mahatma Gandhi (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1969), pp. 637–41; see also Ashis Nandy’s fascinating essay on Gandhi and Godse in his At the Edge of Psychology and other Essays (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980).

37

Patel spoke in Hindustani. The English translation used here is from The Statesman, 31 January 1948.

38

Quoted in Sucheta Mahajan, Independence and Partition: The Erosion of Colonial Power in India (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2000), pp. 320–1.

39

See the correspondence between Nehru and Patel in SPC, vol. 6, pp. 8–31.

2. THE LOGIC OF DIVISION

1

Khizar Hayat Tiwana to Major Short, 15 August 1947, Short Papers, OIOC (Mss Eur. 189/19).

2

There is a massive literature on Partition, which includes: (i) memoirs by key civil servants and military officials who served in the government at the time; (ii) biographies of the important politicians involved in the negotiations – Nehru, Gandhi, Jinnah, Patel, Mountbatten et al.; (iii) regional studies of Partition in the Punjab and in Bengal; and (iv) wider analytical overviews. To this must be added the volumes of original documents published both in Britain (the Transfer of Power project) and in India (the Towards Freedom Project plus the published correspondence of Nehru, Patel,Gandhi, et al.). A fine recent overview, with much of the relevant literature cited therein, is Sucheta Mahajan, Independence and Partition: The Erosion of Colonial Power in India (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2000). An earlier work representing most of the competing points of view is C. H. Philips and Mary Doreen Wainwright, eds, The Partition of India: Policies and Perspectives (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970).

3

See the revealing portrait in the memoir of Jinnah’s former junior, M. C. Chagla, Roses in December: An Autobiography (1973; reprint Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1994), chapter 5.

4

Lord Birkenhead to Lord Reading, quoted in John Grigg, ‘Myths about the Approach to Indian Independence’, in Wm. Roger Louis, ed., More Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), p. 211.

5

See Khalid bin Sayeed, Pakistan: The Formative Phase, 1857–1948,2ndedn(Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1969), esp. chapter 6. Two magisterial treatments of Muslim consolidation during late colonial rule are C. S. Venkatachar, ‘1937–47 in Retrospect: A Civil Servant’s View’, in Philips and Wainwright, The Partition of India; and Hamza Alavi, ‘Misreading Partition Road Signs’, Economic and Political Weekly, 2–9 November 2002.

6

Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power, 19451951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 221.

7

‘The Pakistan Nettle’, in Moon Papers, OIOC (Mss. Eur F230/39).

8

This account of the 1946 elections is based largely on Sho Kuwajima, Muslims, Nationalism and the Partition: 1946 Provincial Elections in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1998), supplemented by David Gilmartin, Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) and ‘A Magnificent Gift: Muslim Nationalism and the Election Process in Colonial Punjab’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 40, no. 3, July 1998; and I. A. Talbot, ‘The 1946 Punjab Election’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, 1980.

9

See Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps, 18891952 (London: Allen Lane, 2002), part V.

10

Faiz Ahmad Faiz, ‘Subh-e-Azadi’ (Freedom’s Dawn), as translated from the Urdu by V. G. Kiernan in Poems by Faiz (1958; reprint Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 123–4.

11

Humayan Kabir, ‘Muslim Politics, 1942–7’, in Philips and Wainwright, The Partition of India, p. 402.

12

Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten (London: Collins, 1985), p. 439.

13

Andrew Roberts, ‘Lord Mountbatten and the Perils of Adrenalin’, in his Eminent Churchillians (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1994).

14

Jenkins to Mountbatten, 3 May 1947, Mss Eur F200/125, OIOC.

15

Jenkins to Mountbatten, 30 July 1947, Mss Eur F200/127, OIOC.

16

J. D. Tyson to ‘Dear Folk’, 5 May 1946, Mss Eur E341/40, OIOC.

17

Note by Sir Francis Burrows,14 February 1947, Mss Eur F200/24, OIOC.

18

See Malcolm Darling, At Freedoms Door (London: Oxford University Press, 1949).

19

Nicholas Mansergh, editor-in-chief, Constitutional Relations between Great Britain and India: Transfer of Power, 194247, 12 vols (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1970–1983), cited hereafter as TOP, vol. 12, items 200, 209, 389 and 489.

20

Quoted in Richard Symons, In the Margins of Independence: A Relief Worker in India and Pakistan, 19241949 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 3.

3. APPLES IN THE BASKET

1

Pothan Joseph, ‘Mountbatten Quits India’, Swatantra, 19 June 1948.

2

Brian Hoey, Mountbatten: The Private Story (London: Pan Books, 1995), pp. 3, 4,201.

3

Denis Judd, ed., A British Tale of Indian and Foreign Service: The Memoirs of Sir Ian Scott (London: Radcliffe Press, 1999), p. 147.

4

See Penderel Moon, ed., Wavell: The Viceroys Journal (London: Oxford University Press, 1973).

5

The books I have in mind are Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1951); H. V. Hodson, The Great Divide: BritainIndiaPakistan (London: Hutchinson, 1969); Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins, Freedom at Midnight (New Delhi: Rupa, 1975); and Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten: The Official Biography (London: Collins, 1985). For an early revisionist view, see Leonard Mosley, The Last Days of the British Raj (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1961).

6

Ziegler, Mountbatten, p. 424.

7

V. P. Menon, Integration of the Indian States (1956; reprint Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1997). There have been some fine studies of individual princely states, and of British policy towards the Maharajas. However, no one since Menon has attempted an analytical overview of the demise of the princely order, with its (often profound) implications for the history of independent India.

8

For a brilliant brief survey of British relations with princely India, see K. M. Pannikar, Indian States, Oxford Pamphlet on Indian Affairs, no. 4 (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1942). See also the essays in Robin Jeffrey, ed., People, Princes and Paramount Power: Society and Politics in Indian Princely States (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978).

9

Quoted in Mario Rodrigues, Batting for the Empire: A Political Biography of Ranjitsinhji (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2003).

10

Ian Copland, The Princes of India in the Endgames of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 227.

11

W. H. Morris-Jones, ‘The Transfer of Power, 1947: A View from the Sidelines’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 16, no. 1, 1982, pp. 17–18.

12

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 1: 18891947 (London: Cape, 1975), p. 359.

13

See Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press, 1991), pp. 408–11; SPC, vol. 5, passim.

14

The phrase was coined by Pannikar, and is the underpinning of his classic Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1959).

15

‘Maharaja of Bikaner’s Appeal to the Princes’, appendix 2 to SPC, vol. 5, pp. 518–24. This appeal was almost certainly drafted by K. M. Pannikar.

16

Penderel Moon to Major Billy Short, 29 March 1947, Mss Eur F179/16, Short Papers, OIOC.

17

A representative view is that of the last head of this department, Sir Conrad Corfield. See his ‘Some Thoughts on British Policy and the Indian States, 1935–47’, in C. H. Philips and Mary Doreen Wainwright, eds, The Partition of India: Policies and Perspectives (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970), pp. 527–34.

18

Menon to Sir P. Patrick (under-secretary of state for India), 8 July 1947, in TOP, vol. 12, pp. 1–2.

19

SPC, vol. 5, pp. 536–8.

20

TOP, vol. 12, pp. 36, 51.

21

Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten, p. 140.

22

‘Press Communiqué of an Address by Rear-Admiral Viscount Mountbatten of Burma to a Conference of the Rulers and Representatives of Indian States’, TOP, vol. 12, pp. 347–52.

23

See TOP, vol. 12, pp. 585–8; Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 369f.

24

The words are those of Vallabhbhai Patel, from his statement to the princes of 5 July 1947. See SPC, vol. 5, p. 537.

25

‘Satyagraha Movement in Mysore’, Swatantra, 27 September 1947; H. S. Doreswamy, From Princely Autocracy to Peoples Government (Bangalore: Sahitya Mandira, 1993), chapter 9.

26

Menon, Integration of the Indian States, pp. 153–4, 179.

27

See E. M. S. Namboodiripad, ‘Princedom and Democracy’, New Age, August 1956 (a review article on V. P. Menon’s Integration of the Indian States).

28

Robert Trumbull, As I See India (London: Cassell and Co., 1952), pp. 76–7.

29

See speeches at Jaipur, Gwalior and Bikaner in Time Only to Look Forward: Speeches of Rear Admiral The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, as Viceroy of India and Governor-General of the Dominion of India, 19478 (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1949), pp. 76–8, 91–3, 102–4.

30

These paragraphs summarize a story told over several hundred pages in Menon, Integration of the Indian States.

31

Menon to V. Shankar (private secretary to Vallabhbhai Patel), 9August 1949, in G. M. Nandurkar, ed., Sardar’s LettersMostly Unknown: Post-Centenary, vol. 2 (Ahmedabad: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Smarak Bhavan, 1981), pp. 74–6.

32

As told to me by C. S. Venkatachar, who succeeded V. P. Menon as secretary of the Ministry of States.

33

Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 367–8.

34

The Travancore story has been principally reconstructed here from TOP, vol. 12, pp. 76–7, 203–4, 232–3, 281–2, 298–9, 335–6, 414, 421–2, 453; supplemented by A. Sreedhara Menon, Triumph and Tragedy in Travancore: Annals of Sir C. P.s Sixteen Years(Kottayam: Current Books, 2001), esp. pp. 231–53. But see also A. G. Noorani, ‘C. P. and Independent Travancore’, Frontline, 4 July 2003, and K. C. George, Immortal Punnapra-Vayalar (Thiruvananthapuram: Communist Party of India, 1975).

35

The best, presumably, was Jawaharlal Nehru.

36

Draft letter dated 18 July 1947 from Nawab of Bhopal to Lord Mountbatten, Mss EurD1006 (Major A. E. G. Davy Papers), OIOC.

37

My account of the Bhopal case is based on TOP, vol. 12, pp. 144–5, 291–7, 436–8, 644, 671–2; Copland, The Princes of India, pp. 235–6, 253; Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 365, 375; Menon, Integration of the Indian States, pp. 118–19.

38

TOP, vol. 12, pp. 603–4, 659–62, 767; Menon, Integration of the Indian States, pp. 116–18; K. M. Pannikar to Vallabhbhai Patel, undated, but probably from late July 1947, in G. M. Nandurkar, ed., Sardar’s LettersMostly Unknown, II: Birth Centenary, vol. 5 (Ahmedabad: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Smarak Bhavan, 1978), pp. 55–6.

39

R. M. Lala, ‘Junagadh’, the Current, 27 September 1950; Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten, pp. 191–2; Mosley, Last Days, pp. 181–3.

40

Shah Nawaz was the father of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and grandfather of Benazir Bhutto, both future prime ministers of Pakistan.

41

Patel’s feelings on Junagadh are described in Malcolm Darling to Guy Wint, 7 December 1947, Box 60, Darling Papers, CSAS.

42

‘Report by Secretary,Ministry of States, on Junagadh’, in SPC,vol. 7, pp. 688–95.

43

This account is principally based on Menon, Integration of the Indian States, pp. 124–49;Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 427-40.

44

Rafi Ahmed, ‘Hyderabad Politics’, Swatantra, 29 November 1947.

45

K. M. Munshi, The End of an Era (Hyderabad Memoirs) (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1957), pp. 10–11.

46

TOP, vol. 12, pp. 31–2, 87; ‘Viswamitra’, ‘Monckton and Mountbatten’, Swatantra, 15 May 1948.

47

Coupland, quoted in V. B. Kulkarni, K. M. Munshi (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1983), p. 117; Patel,quoted in Munshi, End of an Era, p. 1.

48

Lucien D. Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State (19381948) (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2000), esp. chapter 5.

49

Amit Kumar Gupta, The Agrarian Drama: The Leftists and the Rural Poor in India, 193451 (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996), pp. 291–317, 412–22 etc.

50

See Swami Ramananda Tirtha, Memoirs of Hyderabad Freedom Struggle (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1967), pp. 181–2.

51

Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration, p. 178.

52

See TOP, vol. 12, pp. 613–15.

53

Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration, pp. 230, 235; ‘Viswamitra’, ‘Monckton and Mountbatten’.

54

See TOP, vol. 12, p. 121.

55

Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration, pp. 208–10.

56

‘Conflict in Hyderabad’, The Times, April 1948, clipping in Theodore Tasker Papers, Mss Eur D798/30–36, OIOC.

57

Wilfrid Russell, Indian Summer (Bombay: Thacker and Co., 1951), p. 210.

58

C. H. V. Pathy, ‘A Close-up of Syed Kasim Razvi’, Swatantra, 29 May 1948.

59

Avivid account of the society and politics of Hyderabad, c. 1947–8, is contained in Asokamitran’s novel The Eighteenth Parallel, translated from the Tamil by Gomathi Narayanan (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1993).

60

O. V. Ranga Rao, ‘Exodus of C. P. Muslims to Hyderabad’, Swatantra, 11 October 1947; Lanka Sundaram, ‘Nizam’s Acts of War and India’s Duty’, Swatantra, 1 November 1947.

61

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 19471956 (London: Cape, 1979), pp. 40–1; SPC, vol. 5, pp. 236–9; SPC, vol. 7, pp. 150–1, 186–7, 194 etc.

62

See Mirza Ismail, My Public Life: Recollections and Reflections (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1954), pp. 105–28.

63

Quoted in Munshi, End of an Era, p. 176.

64

Ibid., pp. 230–1; Gandhi, Patel, pp. 482–3; Benichou, From Autocracy to Integration, pp. 236–7.

65

Sri Prakasa, Pakistan: Birth and Early Days (Meerut: Meenakshi Prakashan, 1965), p. 122.

66

Pattabhi Sitaramayya, ‘The Hyderabad Tangle’, Swatantra,12 June 1948.

67

Abbas, ‘Three Days in Hyderabad’, Swatantra, 24 June 1950.

68

P. J. Griffiths, ‘India and the Future’, The Nineteenth Century, August 1947.

69

See editorial in the Economic Weekly, 8 January 1955.

70

Democracy on the March (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1950), pp. 1, 9–10etc.

71

Menon, Integration of the Indian States, p. 493.

4. A VALLEY BLOODY AND BEAUTIFUL

1

Foran overview, see Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1992).

2

Karan Singh, Autobiography, revised edn (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 18–19.

3

Quotedin Ajit Bhattacharjea, Kashmir: The Wounded Valley (New Delhi: UBS, 1994), p. 67.

4

V. K. Chinnammalu Amma, ‘Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah’, Swatantra, 22 May 1948; Trilok Nath Moza, ‘Sher-i-Kashmir Sheikh Abdullah’, Swatantra, 5 June 1948.

5

These paragraphs on Kashmir politics in the 1930s and 1940s draw largely from Bhattacharjea, Kashmir, pp. 65–76, and Lamb, Kashmir, pp. 89–95.

6

Malika Pukhraj, Song Sung True: A Memoir, ed. And trans. Saleem Kidwai (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 2003), pp. 200–1.

7

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 1: 18891947 (London: Cape, 1975), pp. 322–3.

8

SPC, vol. 1, pp. 13–15.

9

TOP, vol. 9, p. 71.

10

SPC, vol. 1, pp. 29–30; Hasan Zaheer, The Times and Trials of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy, 1951: the First Coup Attempt in Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 72–3.

11

Mountbatten to Sir Akbar Hydari(governor of Assam), 17 June 1947, Mountbatten Papers, Mss Eur F200/13, OIOC.

12

See Ramchandra Kak’s note, ‘Jammu and Kashmir in 1946–47’, written in 1960 as a retrospective defence of the idea of independence. Copy in R. Powell Papers, Mss Eur D862, OIOC.

13

TOP, vol. 11, p. 592.

14

TOP, vol. 12, pp. 3–5, 368.

15

D. G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, 2nd edn (1963; reprint New Delhi: Publications Division, 1990), vol. 8, pp. 67–8.

16

Michael Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953), pp. 23–4.

17

Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press, 1991), p. 439.

18

SPC, vol. 1, pp. 45–7.

19

See Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir, 2nd edn (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 70–1.

20

SPC, vol. 1, pp. 56, 62.

21

Quoted in Prem Shankar Jha, Kashmir, 1947: Rival Versions of History (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 32–3.

22

R. B. Batra, quoted in Sisir Kumar Gupta, Kashmir: A Study in IndiaPakistan Relations (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1966), p. 106.

23

Lamb’s Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy is the best case for Pakistan; Jha’s Kashmir, 1947 an answer from the Indian point of view.

24

see Richard Symons, In the Margins of Independence: A Relief Worker in India and Pakistan, 1942-1949 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 78–9.

25

This and the next few paragraphs are based on Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, pp. 122–34; Brecher, Struggle for Kashmir, pp. 25–33; Gupta, Kashmir, pp. 110–15; Zaheer, Rawalpindi Conspiracy, pp. 82–7, 94–6 etc.

26

Lt. Gen. L. P. Sen, Slender was the Thread: Kashmir Confrontation, 194748 (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1969), pp. 34–8.

27

Stanley Wolpert, Jinnah of Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 348.

28

Untitled typescript dated 3November 1947 by Major J. E. Thomson, Powell Papers, Mss Eur D862, OIOC; extracts from report in Daily Express, 11 November 1947, in White Paper on Jammu and Kashmir (New Delhi: Government of India, 1948), pp. 24–5.

29

Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, p. 143.

30

Amar Devi Gupta, ‘A 1947 Tragedy of Jammu and Kashmir State: The Cleansing of Mirpur’, Mss Eur C705, OIOC.

31

Lord Birdwood, ‘Kashmir’, International Affairs, July 1952.

32

See the eyewitness accounts reproduced in Dewan Ram Prakash, Fight for Kashmir (New Delhi: Tagore Memorial Publications, 1948), pp. 34–9.

33

This account is based on V. P. Menon, Integration of the Indian States (1956; reprint Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1997), pp. 397–400; Gandhi, Patel, pp. 442–4. However, Prem Shankar Jha (Kashmir, 1947, pp. 63–4) claims that the Instrument of Accession was signed by Maharaja Hari Singh in Srinagar on the night of the 25th/26th itself, that is before he fled to Jammu.

34

S. N. Prasad and Dharm Pal, History of Operations in Jammu and Kashmir (194748) (New Delhi: Ministry of Defence, 1987), pp. 28f., 379.

35

Major L. E. R. B. Ferris, quoted in Lt. Col. Maurice Cohen, Thunder over Kashmir (1955; reprint Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1994), pp. 3–4.

36

Nehru to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, 28 October 1947, Vijayalakshmi Pandit Papers, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi (hereafter NMML).

37

As told by the veteran Punjab politician Khizr Hyat Tiwana to the ex-Punjab civil servant Malcolm Darling. See diary note of 9 January 1948, Box 60, Darling Papers, CSAS.

38

Baroo, ‘Kashmir Interlude’, Swatantra, 29 November 1947.

39

Bhattacharjea, Kashmir, pp. x–xii.

40

Lord Mountbatten, ‘Note of a Discussion with Mr Jinnah in the presence of Lord Ismay at Government House, Lahore, on 1 November 1947’, in SPC, vol. 1, pp. 73–81.

41

Prasad and Pal, History of Operations, pp. 39–40.

42

Ibid., p. 60; Sen, Slender was the Thread, pp. 111–12.

43

Nehru to Hari Singh, 13 November 1947, in S. Gopal, general ed., Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru: Second Series (New Delhi: Nehru Memorial Fund,1984–), hereafter SWJN2, vol. 5, pp. 324–7.

44

CWMG, vol. 90, pp. 122–3.

45

C. Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir, 19478 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2002), p. 78.

46

Nehru to Hari Singh, 1 December 1947, in SPC, vol. 1, pp. 100–6.

47

H. V. Hodson, The Great Divide: Britain-India-Pakistan (London: Hutchinson, 1969), pp. 466–7; Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, pp. 164–5.

48

Brecher, Struggle for Kashmir, pp. 55–75; Reports of the United Nations Special Commission for India and Pakistan, June 1948 to December 1949 (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, 1950), pp. 53f., 281f.

49

Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir (1954; revised edition Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 109.

50

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 19471956 (London: Cape, 1979), pp. 26–7; Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy, pp. 17, 111, 134. Cf. also Rajbans Krishen, Kashmir and the Conspiracy against Peace (Bombay: People’s Publishing House, 1951).

51

H. V. Hodson to Philip Noel-Baker, 2 March 1948, copy in Short Papers, Mss Eur F189/1, OIOC.

52

See Hodson, The Great Divide, pp. 469–70.

53

Untitled note by Major General T. W. Rees, Rees Papers, Mss Eur F274/72, OIOC.

54

Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy, pp. 144–51,167–8, 177–83.

55

Air Chief Marshal P. C. Lal, My Years with the IAF (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1987), pp. 58–67.

56

Sen, Slender was the Thread, p. 242; Prasad and Pal, History of Operations, pp. 276–7.

57

Penderel Moon to Major Billy Short, 18 October 1948, Short Papers, Mss Eur F189/22, OIOC, emphasis added.

58

Korbel, Danger in Kashmir, pp. 146–9. Korbel was the father of Madeleine Albright, who was to herself deal with the Kashmir question in the 1990s when she was secretary of state in President Clinton’s administration.

59

See material in File74, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

60

Swatantra,14 August 1948.

61

Anon., ‘South India and Kashmir’, Swatantra, 25 February 1950.

62

Sheikh Abdullah to C. Rajagopalachari, 27 April 1948, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

63

J. K. Banerji, I Report on Kashmir (Calcutta: The Republic Publications, 1948), pp. 9–10.

64

Y. D. Gundevia, ed., The Testament of Sheikh Abdullah (Dehra Dun: Palit and Palit, 1974), pp. 90–1.

65

V. V. Prasad, ‘New Delhi Diary’, Swatantra, 9 October 1948.

66

P. N. Kaula and K. L. Dhar, Kashmir Speaks (Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1950), p. 71.

67

K. A. Abbas, ‘The EnchantedValley’, Swatantra, 23 April 1949.

68

‘Marching through Kashmir’, Time, 10 October 1949.

69

Korbel, Danger in Kashmir, p. 25.

70

Kingsley Martin, ‘Kashmir and UNO’, and ‘As Pakistan Sees it’, The New Statesman and Nation, 21 and 28 February 1948.

71

Quoted in Dewan Ram Parkash, Fight for Kashmir (New Delhi: Tagore Memorial Publications, 1948), p. 99.

72

A. Lakshmana Rao, ‘Brigadier Usman’, Swatantra, 10 July 1948.

73

Parkash, Fight for Kashmir, p. 174.

74

K. A. Abbas, ‘Will Kashmir Vote for India?’, the Current, 26 October 1949.

75

Wares Ishaq, ‘Kashmir Will Vote for Pakistan’, the Current, 2 November 1949.

76

Representative here are the interpretations in Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy.

77

On Gurdaspur see Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, esp. pp. 115–16; and, for a rebuttal, Jha, Kashmir, 1947, p. 81.

78

Zaheer, Rawalpindi Conspiracy, pp. 144–5.

79

The quotes that follow are taken from Brecher, Struggle for Kashmir, pp. ix–x.

5. REFUGEES AND THE REPUBLIC

1

DonaldF. Ebright, Free India, the First Five Years: An Account of the 1947 Riots, Refugees, Relief and Rehabilitation (Nashville: Parthenon Press, 1954), pp. 46–7, 62–3 etc.

2

A. N. Bali, Now it Can be Told (Jullundur: The Kashvani Prakashan Ltd, 1949), esp. chapter 9.

3

V. V. Prasad, ‘New Delhi Diary’, Swatantra, 25 December 1947.

4

This account is principally based on M. S. Randhawa, Out of the Ashes: An Account of the Rehabilitation of Refugees from West Punjab in Rural Areas of East Punjab (Bombay: privately published, 1954); and Gyanesh Kudaisya, ‘The Demographic Upheaval of Partition: Refugees and Agricultural Resettlement in India, 1947–67’, South Asia, vol. 18, no. 1, 1995.

Of the roughly 2.5 million farmers who came from West Punjab about 80% were resettled in East Punjab. Others were given land in the Ganganagar area of the former Bikaner state, and in the Terai regions of Uttar Pradesh. In both places there are now flourishing communities of Sikh farmers.

5

Ian Stephen, ‘A Day in Qadian’, The Statesman, 9 January 1949. Mohammad Zafrullah Khan, Pakistan’s eloquent spokesman in the UN on the Kashmir question, was an Ahmadiya. So was the physicist Abdus Salam, the only Pakistani to be awarded a Nobel Prize. In the 1980s, under the regime of General Zia-ul-Haq, the Ahmadiyas were declared as heretics (for their belief in a living Prophet), and have since faced discrimination and persecution.

6

See L. C. Jain, The City of Hope: The Faridabad Story (New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co., 1998), which also describes the corrosion of the co-operative spirit by the bureaucracy. See also ‘Experiments in Living: Faridabad-Nilokheri-Etawah’, The Times of India, 14 February 1952.

7

Dorothy Jane Ward, India for the Indians (London: Arthur Barker Ltd, 1949), pp. 187–9.

8

See V. N. Dutta, ‘Punjabi Refugees and the Urban Development of Greater Delhi’, in R. E. Frykenberg, ed., Delhi through the Ages (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993).

9

Anon., ‘A Glimpse into Crowded Bombay’, Swatantra, 7 August 1948.

10

H. L. Mansukhani, ‘The Resettlement of Sind Refugees’, Swatantra, 11 September 1948.

11

Anon., ‘A Glimpse into Crowded Bombay’.

12

R. M. Lala, ‘Kolwada: Landmark of Swaraj’, the Current, 3 May 1950.

13

Gardner Murphy, In the Minds of Men: The Study of Human Behavior and Social Tensions in India (New York: Basic Books, 1953), pp. 170–5.

14

Taya Zinkin, Reporting India (London: Chatto and Windus,1962), pp. 25–6, 31.

15

Prafulla K. Chakrabarti, The Marginal Men: The Refugees and the Left Political Syndrome in West Bengal (Calcutta: Naya Udyog, 1999), p. 33.

16

Joya Chatterji, ‘Right or Charity? The Debate over Relief and Rehabilitation in West Bengal, 1947–50’, in Suvir Kaul, ed., The Partitions of Memory: The Afterlife of the Division of India (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001), p. 99.

17

Sir Jadunath Sarkar, ‘Brothers from over the River: The Refugee Problem of India’, The Modern Review, September 1948.

18

Chakrabarti, Marginal Men, chapter 3.

19

See letters and statements of1948–50 in Voice of New India, A Tale of Woes of East Pakistan Minorities (Calcutta: D. R. Sen, 1966), pp. 13–51.

20

The Current, 4 February 1953.

21

‘Squatters’ Colonies’, Economic Weekly, 5 June 1954.

22

See undated memorandum (c. 1954?) in File 6, Meghnad Saha Papers, Seventh Instalment, NMML.

23

See ‘Report of a Tour of Inspection of some of the Refugee Homes in North-west India’ (1955), reproduced in Seminar, no.510, February 2002.

24

‘Congress may Lose West Bengal – if Refugees Remain Unsettled’, Economic Weekly, 10 July 1954.

There is now a growing literature of memoirs written (or spoken) by Bengali refugees. For a sampling of works in English, see Jasodhara Bagchi and Subhoranjan Dasgupta, eds, The Trauma and the Triumph: Gender and Partition in Eastern India (Kolkata: Stree, 2003); Gargi Chakravartty, Coming out of Partition: Refugee Women of Bengal (New Delhi: Bluejay Books, 2005); Manas Ray, ‘Growing Up Refugee’, History Workshop Journal, no. 53, 2002.

25

See R. M. Lala, ‘Refugees’, the Current, 29 March 1950.

26

SWJN2, vol. 4, pp. 115–17. (The original broadcast was in Hindi.)

27

Aparna Basu, Mridula Sarabha: Rebel with a Cause (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), chapter 8.

28

Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin, Borders and Boundaries: Women in India’s Partition (New Delhi: Kali for Women), pp. 91–3, 97–8. Cf. also Urvashi Butalia, The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India (New Delhi: Viking, 1998), chapter 4.

29

See Chitra Bhanu, ‘Food Situation Getting Worse in Malabar’, Swatantra, 29 July 1947; ‘Famine Conditions in East Godavari’, Swatantra, 4 October 1947; P. V. C. Rao, ‘The Food Debacle’ and ‘Lesson of Gujerat Famine’, Swatantra, 7 August 1948 and 12 February 1949.

30

Clare and Harris Wofford, India Afire (New York: The John Day Co., 1951), pp. 105–6, 113–15; ‘Communists in Hyderabad’, Swatantra, 28 May 1949.

31

Ananth Rao Kanangi, ‘Communists in Andhra’, the Current, 3 May 1950.

32

Quoted in John H. Kautsky, Moscow and the Communist Party of India (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956), p. 49.

33

G. S. Bhargava, ‘Balchandra Triambak Ranadive’, Swatantra, 22 April 1950.

34

D. Jayakanthan, A Literary Man’s Political Experiences, trans. M. S. Venkataramani (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976), pp. 19–22.

35

Gene D. Overstreet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), chapter 13.

36

Quoted in M. R. Masani, The Communist Party of India: A Short History (Bombay: Bhavan’s Book University, 1967), pp. 78–9.

37

Pravda, 25 November 1949, quoted in Mahavir Singh, Soviet View of the Indian National Congress (New Delhi: Sanchar Publishing House, 1991), p. 22.

38

Penderel Moon to his father, 5February 1949, Moon Papers, Mss Eur F230/23, OIOC.

39

Anon., ‘Rounding up of Communists in Hyderabad’, Swatantra, 4 June 1949; Wofford and Wofford, India Afire, pp. 118–19.

40

Amit Kumar Gupta, The Agrarian Drama: The Leftists and the Rural Poor in India, 1934–51 (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996), pp. 464–5.

41

SWJN2, vol. 4, pp. 52–3.

42

See correspondence in G. M. Nandurkar, Sardar’s Letters – Mostly Unknown – Post-Centenary, vol. 2 (Ahmedabad: Sardar Patel Smarak Bhavan, 1981), pp. 20–2, and vol. 3 (1983), pp. 42–3.

43

Baroo, ‘Enter the Sangh’, Swatantra, 10 September 1949. For a sympathetic contemporary portrait of the RSS, see Jagat S. Bright, Guruji Golwalkar and R.S.S. (Delhi: New India Publishing Co., 1951).

44

Letter quoted in the Current, 19 October 1949.

45

N. S. Muthana, ‘Golwalkar’s Climb on Congress Ladder’, the Current, 9 November 1949.

46

News report in the Current, 16 November 1949.

47

Dewan Chaman Lall, quoted in Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudesia, The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia (London: Routledge, 2000).

48

R. G. Casey, An Australian in India (London: Hollis and Carter, 1947), p. 114.

49

Albert Mayer, Pilot Project, India: The Story of Rural Development at Etawah, Uttar Pradesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), p. 13.

6. IDEAS OF INDIA

1

Hindustan Times, 10 and 11 December 1946.

2

In the description of the independent Anglo-Indian member, Frank Anthony. Constituent Assembly Debates: Official Report (reprint New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1988), hereafter cited as CAD, vol. 8, p. 329.

3

K. Santhanam, quoted in Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation (1966; reprint New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 13. The varied ideologies and political trends represented in the Assembly are discussed in S. K. Chaube,Constituent Assembly of India: Springboard of Revolution, 2nd edn (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000), esp. chapters 8 to 10.

4

Winston Churchill quoted in CAD, vol. 2, pp. 267, 271.

5

See ‘Summary of representations received in office regarding “Rights of Minorities”’, in File 37, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

6

Austin, The Indian Constitution, p. 71.

7

CAD, vol. 1, pp. 59–61. That Nehru would mention the Soviet Revolution alongside the other two may be considered by some characteristic of his broadmindedness, by others as characteristic merely of his lack of discrimination.

8

SeeCAD, vol. 4, pp. 737–62.

9

Cf.Austin, The Indian Constitution, pp. 314–15.

10

The words are those of Ambedkar. See CAD, vol. 9, p. 974. The contributions of Munshi, Aiyar and Rau to the making of the Indian Constitution were immense. They prepared dozens of notes and minutes on specific subjects, the more important of which are reproduced in B. Shiva Rao, ed., The Framing of India’s Constitution: Select Documents, 4 vols (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1968). On K. M. Munshi’s role, see also N. H. Bhagwati, ‘An Architect of the Constitution’, in Munshi at Seventy-Five (Bombay: Dr K. M. Munshi’s 76th Birthday Celebration Committee, 1962).

11

In the preface to the 1999 edition of his book, Austin amends this slightly, speaking of unity, social revolution and democracy as ‘the three strands of a seamless web’. Austin’s work is indispensable, but see also the long critique by Upendra Baxi, ‘“The Little Done, the Vast Undone” – Some Reflections on Reading Granville Austin’s The Indian Constitution’, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, vol. 9, 1967, pp. 323–430.

12

CAD, vol. 7, p. 39.

13

Ibid., vol. 7, pp. 219, 285, 350, 387 etc.

14

Ibid., vol. 7, p. 305.

15

For a good discussion of how this choice was made, see E. Sridharan, ‘The Origins of the Electoral System’, in Zoya Hasan, E. Sridharan and R. Sudarshan, eds, India’s Living Constitution (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2002). See also ‘Report by the Constitutional Adviser on his Visit to U.S.A., Canada, Ireland and England’, in Shiva Rao, Select Documents, vol. 3, pp. 217–26.

16

Nehru, quoted in Austin, The Indian Constitution, p. 121.

17

The phrase is Granville Austin’s. See The Indian Constitution, p. 50.

18

An excellent discussion of the framing of the fundamental rights section is contained in B. Shiva Rao, ed., The Framing of India’s Constitution: A Study (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1968), chapter 7.

19

Austin, The Indian Constitution, p. 56.

20

CAD, vol. 4, p. 769.

21

CAD, vol. 11, pp. 711–13.

22

CAD, vol. 7, p. 360.

23

CAD, vol. 11, p. 616.

24

Intervention by Shibban Lal Saxena, CAD, vol. 11, pp. 705–6.

25

Ibid., p. 212.

26

Interventions by Loknath Misra and K. Hanumanthaiya, CAD, vol. 11, pp. 799, 617.

27

CAD, vol. 5, pp. 54–5.

28

Intervention by Balkrishna Sharma, CAD, vol. 5, pp. 74–6.

29

Speech of 17 December 1946, CAD, vol. 1, p. 102.

30

CAD, vol. 4, p. 546.

31

Ibid., vol. 4, p. 859.

32

CAD, vol. 5, pp. 211–13.

33

Ibid., vol. 5, p. 271.

34

CAD, vol. 7, p. 306; CAD, vol. 8, p. 300.

35

Intervention by Naziruddin Ahmad, CAD, vol. 8, pp. 296–7.

36

CAD, vol. 1, p. 138.

37

CAD, vol. 4, p. 668.

38

CAD, vol. 7, p. 356.

39

CAD, vol. 5, pp. 202–3; vol. 11, pp. 608–9.

40

CAD, vol. 9, p. 667–9.

41

Intervention by Brajeshwar Prasad, CAD, vol. 10, p. 239.

42

CAD, vol. 8, pp. 344–5.

43

CAD, vol. 5, p. 210.

44

Regrettably, there is no biography of Jaipal Singh. See, however, P. G. Ganguly, ‘Separatism in the Indian Polity: A Case Study’, in M. C. Pradhan et al., eds, Anthropology and Archaeology: Essays in Commemoration of Verrier Elwin (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1969).

45

CAD, vol. 1, pp. 143–4.

46

CAD, vol. 7, pp. 559–60.

47

Intervention by Brajeshwar Prasad, CAD, vol. 9, p. 281.

48

CAD, vol. 1, pp. 26–7.

49

Hindustan Times, 11 December 1946.

50

CAD, vol. 8, p. 745.

51

CAD, vol. 7, pp. 20–31.

52

See Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Languages and the Linguistic Problem, Oxford Pamphlet on Indian Affairs, no. 11 (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1943); Alok Rai, Hindi Nationalism (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2000).

53

Nehru, ‘The Question of Language’, in his The Unity of India: Collected Writings, 1937–1940 (London: Lindsay Drummond, 1941), pp. 241–61.

54

Letter to Krishnachandra, 12 May 1945, in CWMG, vol. 80, p. 117.

55

See letters in CWMG, vol. 80, pp. 181, 317–18; vol. 81, pp. 33–4, 332.

56

Austin, The Indian Constitution, p. 267.

57

Cf. interventions by B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur and Jaipal Singh, CAD, vol. 4, pp. 553, 554.

58

CAD, vol. 7, p. 235.

59

Article 343 of the Constitution of India.

60

This section is based on Ambedkar’s last speech to the Constituent Assembly – CAD, vol. 11, pp. 972–81.

61

John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1999), p. 347. The making of the Japanese constitution is discussed in chapters 12 and 13.

62

Courtney Whitney, quote dibid., p. 373.

63

Austin, The Indian Constitution, pp. 308, 309–10, 328.

7. THE BIGGEST GAMBLE IN HISTORY

1

‘Vignhneswara’ (V. Raghunathan), Sotto Voce: A Social and Political Commentary, vol. 1: The Coming of Freedom (Madras: B. G. Paul and Co., 1951), p. 203.

2

Quoted in the Current, 18 July 1951.

3

‘Disintegration of the Congress’, the Current, 9 May 1951.

4

See S. H. Desai, ‘Sardar Patel’, the Current, 14 August 1948; A. S. Iyengar, All Through the Gandhian Era: Reminiscences (Bombay: Hind KitabsLtd, 1950), pp. 289–95 (section titled ‘Nehru and Patel’; V. Shankar, My Reminiscences of Sardar Patel, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 20–3.

5

Prasad had a greater following than Rajaji because he was a Hindi speaker from north India (like the majority of Congress politicians at the time)and because, unlike Rajaji, he had actively participated in the Quit India movement of 1942. See Rajmohan Gandhi, The Rajaji Story, 1937–1972 (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1984), pp. 190–4.

6

The Statesman, 26 January 1950. Left-wing critics complained of the pageantry, saying it was a colonial hangover. They were reminded that ‘pomp and pageantry were Indian before they became British, and the British used them because they understood the Indian mentality’. See ‘Shridharani in Delhi’, Swatantra, 8 January 1950.

7

Theverdicts, respectively, of Michael Brecher, Nehru: A Political Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 43; K. A. Abbas, ‘Rajarshi Tandon – the New President’, Swatantra, 9 September 1950; the Current, 13 September 1950.

8

Nehru to Rajagopalachari, letters of 26 and 27 August 1950, File189, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

9

Nehru, ‘Statement to the Press’, 13 September 1950, copy in File24, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML. I have failed to locate this statement in any volume of Nehru’s selected works.

10

Letter of 28 March 1950, in SPC, vol. 10, p. 19.

11

Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press, 1991), pp. 526–7.

12

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 1947–1956 (London: Cape, 1979), p. 309.

13

Gandhi, Patel, p. 530.

14

‘Vallabhbhai Patel’, in S. Gopal and Uma Iyengar, eds, The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 633.

15

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, p. 155.

16

See K. Mukherjee, ‘The Resurrection of Somnath’, Indian Review, July 1951.

17

Nehru to Rajendra Prasad, 2 March 1951, copy in Subject File 46, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

18

Speech in Hindi at Somnath, 11 May 1951, in Valmiki Choudhary, ed., Dr Rajendra Prasad: Correspondence and Select Documents, vol. 14 (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1991). I am grateful to Professor Bhagwan Josh of Jawaharlal Nehru University for this reference. This and other translations from the Hindi in this book are mine.

19

Editorial in Swatantra, 8 September 1951.

20

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, p. 155.

21

Richard L. Park, ‘India’s General Election’, Far EasternSurvey, 9 January 1952.

22

This description of the mechanics of the election is based on Sukumar Sen, Report on the First General Elections in India, 1951–52 (New Delhi: Election Commission, 1955); supplemented by Park, ‘India’s General Election’; and Irene Tinker and Mil Walker, ‘The First General Elections in India and Indonesia’, Far Eastern Survey, July 1956.

23

The Time sof India (Bombay – hereafter TOI), 5 November 1951.

24

See, for example, Asoka Mehta, The Political Mind of India (Bombay: Socialist Party, 1952).

25

News report in the Searchlight (Patna), 22 November 1951.

26

See Craig Baxter, The Jana Sangh: A Biography of an Indian Political Party (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 87–8 etc.

27

Reports in Hindustan Times (Delhi – hereafter HT); 12 October 1951; TOI, 9November 1951; Mehta, The Political Mind, p. 61.

28

TOI, 9November 1951; Manikuntala Sen, In Search of Freedom: An Unfinished Journey (Calcutta: STREE, 2001), pp. 220–1; Ravi Narayan Reddy, Heroic Telengana: Reminiscences and Experiences (New Delhi: Communist Party of India), pp. 71–2.

29

Lord Birdwood, A Continent Decides (London: Robert Hale, 1953), p. 103; TOI, 22 January 1952 (news report headline ‘Bovine Election Propaganda’).

30

TOI, 1 January 1952.

31

S. Borzenko, ‘Before the Elections in India’, originally published in Pravda, 25 October 1951, translated in Swatantra,1 December 1951.

32

Park, ‘India’s General Election’.

33

Prakash, ‘Lalaji’, Shankar’s Weekly, 6 January 1952.

34

This and the following paragraphs on Nehru’s all-India election tour are based on newspaper reports in TOI and HT, supplemented by Anon., The Pilgrimage and After: The Story of how the Congress Fought and Won the General Elections (New Delhi: All-India Congress Committee, 1952).

35

See Ajit Bhattacharjea, J.P.: His Biography(New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1975), pp. 254, 256. Mrs Gandhi based her allegations on the fact that one socialist leader, Rammanohar Lohia, had recently returned from a speaking tour in the United States, while another, Jayaprakash Narayan, had once studied in that country.

36

Frank Moraes, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography (New York: Macmillan, 1956), p. 413.

37

Anon., The Pilgrimage and After, p. 23.

38

D. F. Karaka, Nehru: The Lotus Eater from Kashmir (London: Derek Verschoyle, 1953), pp. 96–8.

39

Nehru to Lady Mountbatten, 3December 1951, quoted in Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, p. 161.

40

This account of voting and voter behaviour is largely based on contemporary newspaper accounts, especially in TOI and HT.

41

HT,26 October 1951.

42

Irene Tinker Walker, ‘The General Election in Himachal Pradesh, India, 1951’, Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 6, no. 3, summer 1953.

43

‘General Elections’, lead edit, Economic Weekly, 5 January 1952.

44

Jean Lyon, Just Hal fa World Away: My Search for the New India (London: Hutchinson, 1955), pp. 125–30.

45

Sen, Report on the First General Elections, p. 135.

46

Personal communication from Professor Rajen Harshe of Hyderabad University, 21 May 2002.

47

Park, ‘India’s General Election’.

48

C. R. Srinivasan, ‘The Elections Are On’, Indian Review, January 1952, emphasis added.

49

Clare Woodford and Harris Woodford, Jr., India Afire (New York: John Day, 1951), p. 25.

50

Letter in Mss Eur F230/26, OIOC.

51

Organiser, 7 January 1952, quoted in Margaret W. Fisher and Joan V. Bondurant, eds, The Indian Experience with Democratic Elections, Indian Press Digests, University of California, Berkeley, no. 3, December 1956, p. 60.

52

The Tribune (Ambala), 22 December 1951, and the Hitavada, 30 December 1951, both quoted ibid., pp. 56–7, 58.

53

This paragraph is based on press reports quoted ibid., pp. 61f; Nehru’s remarks are quoted in W. H. Morris-Jones, ‘The Indian Elections’, Economic Weekly, 28 June and 5 July 1952.

54

Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), chapter 11.

55

Ahmed Emin Yalman, editor, Daily Vatan (Istanbul), writing in TOI, 21 February 1951.

56

D. P. Mukerji, ‘First Fruitsof General Elections’, Economic Weekly, 26 January 1952.

57

Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography: With Musings on Recent Events in India (1936; reprint London: The Bodley Head, 1949), p. 598 (quote taken from the postscript dated Badenweiler, 25 October 1935).

8. HOME AND THE WORLD

1

Nirad C. Chaudhuri, ‘After Nehru, Who?’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 10 May 1953.

2

Arthur Lall, The Emergence of Modern India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 128. Lall was a high-ranking member of the Indian Foreign Service and had worked closely with Nehru.

3

The autobiography was Nehru’s second book-length work. The first, whose title (Glimpses of World History) is testimony to his global outlook, was written initially as a series of letters to his daughter from jail. His third major book was published in 1946; its title is revealing – it was called The Discovery of India, suggesting that perhaps this man was an internationalist well before he became a patriot, that he had discovered the world before he had discovered India.

4

‘Peace and Empire’, in Jawaharlal Nehru, Peace and India (London: The India League, 1938).

5

See Nehru to S. K. Datta, letters of 20 June 1939 and 24 December 1941, Datta Papers, Mss Eur F178/28, OIOC.

6

See Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s Foreign Policy: Selected Speeches, September 1946–April 1961 (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1961), pp. 3, 24, 28–9, 31–2. It is important to remember here that Nehru wrote his speeches himself.

7

Quoted in K. P. S. Menon, ‘India and the Soviet Union’, in B. R. Nanda, ed., Indian Foreign Policy: The Nehru Years (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976), p. 134.

8

James Cameron, Point of Departure (London: Arthur Barker, 1967), p. 247.

9

Asian Relations: Being a Report of the Proceedings and Documentation of the First Asian Relations Conference, New Delhi, March–April 1947 (New Delhi: Asian Relations Organization, 1948).

10

Quoted in Parsa Venkateshwar Rao, Jr., ‘The Misty Origins of NAM’, New Sunday Indian Express, 26 January 2003.

11

CWMG, vol. 87, pp. 190–3.

12

Quoted in ‘The Asian Conference, 1947’, in Diana Mansergh, ed., Independence Years: The Selected Indian and Commonwealth Papers of Nicholas Mansergh (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 81.

13

Nehru, Glimpses of World History (1934; revised edition London: Lindsay Drummond, 1949), p. 930.

14

Time, 17 October 1949.

15

P. P. Kumaramangalam to C. Rajagopalachari, 22 December 1947, in File 82, Fifth Instalment, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, NMML. Kumaramangalam went on to become chief of army staff, the highest-ranking military officer in India.

16

Harold Isaac, Images ofAsia: American Views of China and India (1958; new edition New York, Harper and Row, 1972), esp. Part III.

17

Quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 1947–1956 (London: Cape, 1979), p. 59.

18

These speeches are reproduced in Jawaharlal Nehru, Visit to America (New York: John Day, 1950).

19

Quoted in J. J. Singh, ‘The Triumph of Nehru’, Indian Review, January 1950.

20

See Gopal, Nehru,vol. 2, p. 61.

21

Time, 14 November 1949.

22

Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (London: Hamish Hamilton,1970), pp. 334–6.

23

Cf. Vijayalakshmi Pandit’s comments on Dean Acheson in her The Scope of Happiness: A Personal Memoir (New Delhi: Orient Paperbacks, 1981), pp. 235–6.

24

Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), chapter 9.

25

Saunders Redding, An American in India: A Personal Report on the Indian Dilemma and the Nature of her Conflicts (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954), p. 47.

26

Quoted in The Hindu,30 October 1953.

27

Walter Crocker, Nehru: A Contemporary’s Estimate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 114.

28

Keith Callard, Pakistan: A Political Study (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1957), p. 321.

29

Untitled note enclosed with letter from Winston Churchill to Lord Mountbatten, 21 November 1947, in Mss Eur F200/39, OIOC; Kissinger, quoted in Aslam Siddiqi, Pakistan Seeks Security (Lahore: Longmans, Green and Co., 1960), p. 109.

30

See Baldev Raj Nayar, Superpower Dominance and Military Aid: A Study of Military Aid to Pakistan (New Delhi: Manohar, 1991); anon., ‘US-Pak[istan] Pact: An American View’, Swatantra, 27 February 1954.

31

E. Stanley Jones, quoted in The Hindu, 25 December 1953. Jones was the author of a number of books on Indian themes, among them a sympathetic study of Mahatma Gandhi.

32

Taya Zinkin,'Indo-American Relations’, Economic Weekly annual, January 1956.

33

Letter of 21 May 1954, Birla Papers, NMML.

34

‘Interview with Hon. John Foster Dulles’, ibid.

35

Letter of 6 February 1956, ibid.

36

Dulles Press Conference in India (New Delhi: United States Information Service, 1956).

37

Cf. Denis Kux, India and the United States, 1941–1991: Estranged Democracies (Washington, DC: National Defence University Press, 1993).

38

Jawaharlal Nehru, Soviet Russia: Some Random Sketches and Impressions (Allahabad: Allahabad Law Journal Press, 1928).

39

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 1: 1889–1947 (London: Cape, 1975), p. 108.

40

Cf. David Caute, The Fellow Travellers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).

41

Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Policy Towards India: Ideology and Strategy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 109–12.

42

Cf. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (London: Doubleday, 1996), pp. 52–3: ‘Obviously, we [students] were still very far from understanding the principles of democracy. Yet, the simplified black-and-white picture of the world as presented by our propaganda was even then considered rather sceptically by the students. Jawaharlal Nehru’s visit to Moscow in June 1955 was an unexpected stimulus for me in this respect . .. This amazing man, his noble bearing, keen eyes and warm and disarming smile, made a deep impression on me.’

43

K. P. Menon, The Flying Troika (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 110–19.

44

Anon., ‘Soviet Leaders’ Visit and After’, Economic Weekly, 24 December 1955.

45

N. A. Bulganin and N. S. Khrushchev, Visit of Friendship to India, Burma and Afghanistan: Speeches and Official Documents, November–December 1955 (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1955).

46

A. D. Gorwala, ‘As Nehru Leaves for Moscow’, the Current, 1 June 1955.

47

As for example, C. Parameswaran, Nehru’s Foreign Policy X-Rayed (New Delhi: privately published, 1954).

48

See, for representative views, L. Natarajan, American Shadow over India (Bombay: People’s Publishing House, 1952); Romesh Thapar, India in Transition (Bombay: Current Book House, 1956). Louis Fischer, travelling through India in 1953–4, commented that the prevailing understanding of non-alignment ‘tended to close minds to criticisms of Russia while stimulating a less-than-friendly attitude towards the Western democracies’. Fischer, This is Our World (London: Cape, 1956), pp. 142–3.

49

‘The Bandung Conference’, in A. Appadurai, Essays in Politics and International Relations (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1969), pp. 79–113.

50

Lok Sabha Debates, vol. 4, 1955, cols 8962–74.

51

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, pp. 277–90.

52

‘Aggression in Egypt and Hungary’ (editorial), Swatantra, 10 November 1956.

53

See Nehru, India’s Foreign Policy, pp. 534f.

54

See Escott Reid, Envoy to Nehru (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1981), chapter 11.

55

‘L. N. S.’ ‘Double-Think’, Swatantra, 17 November 1956.

56

Gopal, Nehru,vol. 2, pp. 291–9.

57

Frank Moraes, India Today (New York: Macmillan, 1960), pp. 198–9.

58

See T. J. S. George, Krishna Menon: A Biography (London: Cape, 1964).

59

Vincent Sheean, Nehru: The Years of Power (London: Victor Gollancz, 1960), pp. 144–5.

60

See news report in the Current, 15 February 1956.

61

United Nations World, quoted in the Current, 21 April 1954.

62

Sisela Bok, Alva Myrdal: A Daughter’s Memoir (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991), p. 252.

63

K. M. Pannikar, In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1955), pp. 80–2.

64

Nehru, India’s Foreign Policy, pp. 302–3.

65

Nehru to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, 1 November 1953, Vijayalakshmi Pandit Papers, NMML.

66

SPC, vol. 10, pp. 335–41. Cf. also Marc C. Feer, ‘Tibet in Sino-Indian Relations’, India Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 4, 1953.

67

D. K. Karaka, ‘Nehru’s Neutralism Brings Mao to our Frontier’, the Current, 29 November 1950.

68

SPC, vol. 10, pp. 342–7.

69

Vijayalakshmi Pandit to Jawaharlal Nehru, 16 May 1952, copy in File123, Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

70

John Rowland, A History of Sino-Indian Relations: Hostile Co-existence (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1967), chapter 7.

71

Bajpai to Subimal Dutt, 18 October 1954, letter in possession of Dr Supriya Guha. It has been claimed that Patel’s famous letter to Nehru on Tibet was actually drafted by Bajpai (personal communication from his son, K. S. Bajpai).

72

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, pp. 227–30; Moraes, India Today, p. 191. Among the topics discussed by Nehru and Mao was the possibility of an atomic war between the superpowers. When the Indian said he dreaded the prospect, the Chinese leader answered that he welcomed it, because while Western imperialism would be destroyed the more populous socialist bloc would still have some men standing; these would then reproduce themselves, and in time ‘the whole world would become socialist’. See Stuart Schram, Mao Tse-tung (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 291 and n.

73

News report in the Times of India, 3 November 1954.

74

Notes in File6, Subimal Dutt Papers, NMML; George N. Patterson, Tragic Destiny (London: Faber and Faber, 1959), pp. 160–3.

75

Letters to ‘R’ dated 8December 1956, in File 46, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

76

Sir Charles Bell, quoted in Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockcliff, 1969) p. 179. Woodman’s book remains the best historical account of the origins of the border dispute between India and China. But see also Hsiao-Ting Lin, ‘Boundary, Sovereignty, and Imagination: Reconsidering the Frontier Disputes between British India and Republican China, 1914–47’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 32, no. 3, 2004.

77

On Elwin, the IFAS and their work in NEFA, see Ramachandra Guha, Savaging the Civilized: Verrier Elwin, His Tribals, and India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), chapter 11.

78

Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers, p. 66.

79

‘Indo-Pakistan Clash of Ideologies’, Times of India, 26 January 1952.

80

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, pp. 82–8; Gargi Chakravartty, Coming out of Partition: Refugee Women of Bengal (New Delhi: Bluejay Books, 2005), pp. 15–25.

81

I have simplified and summarized a complex story told in detail in A. A. Michel, The Indus Rivers: A Study of the Effects of Partition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).

82

See J. B. Das Gupta, Indo-Pakistan Relations, 1947–1955 (Amsterdam: Djambatan, 1958), pp. 51–2.

83

‘Feelings in the Capital about the Trade Pact with Pakistan’, unsigned note dated 28 February 1951, in File 61, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML. A year before this, when Nehru signed his agreement with Liaqat Ali Khan, a critic complained that he ‘represents the beatific school which believes in self-flagellation in reconciliation [with] the enemy’.'Shridharani from New Delhi’, the Current, 12 April 1950.

84

Dawn, 19, 24, 25 and 28 January 1955.

85

N. V. Rajkumar, The Problem of French India (New Delhi: All-India Congress Committee, 1951); Governor of Madras to President of India, 16 April 1954, in File215, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML; Dawn,27 January 1955.

86

Times of India, 2 November 1955.

87

As quoted in Goa and the Indian Union (Lisbon: Secretariado Nacional Da Informacao, 1954).

88

See Portuguese India: A Survey of Conditions After 400 Years of Foreign Colonial Rule (Bombay: Goa Congress Committee, 1939); Julião Menezes, Goa’s Freedom Struggle (Bombay: privately published, 1947).

89

R. M. Lala, ‘Report on Daman’, the Current, 22 November 1950.

90

Aloysius Soares, Down the Corridors of Time: Recollections and Reflexions, vol. 2: 1948–70 (Bombay: privately published, 1973), pp. 45ff.; the Current, 25 August 1954.

91

Homer A. Jack, Inside Goa (New Delhi: Information Service of India, 1955); P. D. Gaitonde, The Liberation of Goa: A Participant’s View of History (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1987).

92

Y. D. Gundevia, Outside the Archives (Hyderabad: Sangam Books, 1984), pp. 18–19.

93

Letter of 22 January 1953, in Nehru correspondence, Y. D. Gundevia Papers, NMML.

94

C. Rajagopalachari to Edwina Mountbatten, 5 September 1950, File 189, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

95

See Carlo Feltrinelli, Secret Service (London: Granta Books, 2002).

96

Bok, Alva Myrdal, p. 243.

9. REDRAWING THE MAP

1

CWMG, vol. 89, pp. 312–13.

2

‘The Question of Language’ (1937), in Nehru, The Unity of India: Collected Writings, 1937–1940 (London: Lindsay Drummond, 1941), pp. 232–3.

3

Quoted in Robert D. King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 102.

4

CWMG, vol. 90, p. 86.

5

Ibid., p. 494.

6

See letter of 8June 1948 to Tushar Kanti Ghosh, in Subject File82, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

7

Report of the Linguistic Provinces Commission (New Delhi: Constituent Assembly of India, 1948), paras 146 and 147.

8

King, Nehru and Language Politics, pp. 107, 108.

9

See Baldev Raj Nayar, Minority Politics in the Punjab (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), chapters 2 and 3.

10

Satindra Singh, ‘Master Tara Singh: A Born Rebel’, Thought, 9 December 1967.

11

Nayar, Minority Politics, p. 143.

12

Quoted ibid., p. 36.

13

The best account of the history of the Andhra movement, on which the preceding paragraphs largely draw, is K. V. Narayana Rao’s The Emergence of Andhra Pradesh (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1973).

14

The Current, 2 January 1952. See also Selig Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), pp. 234–5.

15

Congress Sandesh, quoted in Narayana Rao, Emergence of Andhra Pradesh, p. 241.

16

See Times ofIndia, 24 February 1952.

17

See ‘Kowshika’, The Boundaries of Andhra Province (Pudukottai: Anbu Nilayam, 1947).

18

Narayana Rao, Emergence of Andhra Pradesh, p. 243.

19

History of Andhra Movement, vol. 2 (Hyderabad: Committee for History of Andhra Movement, 1985), p. 496.

20

Gandhi to T. Prakasam, 4 January 1947, in History of Andhra Movement, pp. 496–7; also CWMG, vol. 86, p. 242.

21

Interview with Professor Béteille, New Delhi, December 2001.

22

See Subject File 123, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

23

Cf. P. R. Rao, History of Modern Andhra (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1984), p. 130.

24

Letter of 18 August 1953 to General Sir Roy Bucher, Subject File124, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

25

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 1947–1956 (London: Cape, 1979), p. 259.

26

Memorandum Submitted to the States Reorganization Commission (Bombay: Bombay Citizens Committee, 1954).

27

The activities of the Committee, including its strategies for fund-raising and public relations, can be followed through the massive material contained in File 383, Purushottamdas Thakurdas Papers, NMML.

28

M. S. Golwalkar, quoted in Times of India, 8 November1951.

29

Times of India, 24 May 1954.

30

Gadgil and Deshmukh are both quoted in Robert W. Stein, The Process of Opposition in India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 46.

31

Samyukta Maharashtra Parishad, ‘Memorandum to the States Reorganization Committee’, May 1954, copy in the library of the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Puné. D.R. Gadgil was the chief draughtsman of this memorandum.

32

See report of meeting of 20 June 1954 in File383, Purushottamdas Thakurdas Papers, NMML.

33

This section is based on Report of the States Reorganization Commission (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1955).

34

See Lok Sabha Debates, vol. X, 1955.

35

The Current, 4 January 1956.

36

The change of name was affected towards the end of 1955.

37

Taya Zinkin, Reporting India (London: Chatto and Windus,1962), p. 108.

38

The Current, 25 January 1956. See also V. M. Bhave, ‘Struggle for Maharashtra’, New Age, September 1956.

39

Letter of 23 January 1956, Subject File68, C. D. Deshmukh Papers, NMML.

40

See papers in Subject File 67, C. D. Deshmukh Papers, NMML.

41

See letters and papers in Subject File 4, N. V. Gadgil Papers, NMML.

42

As reported in alarm to the Home Minister, G. B. Pant, by Sir Purushottamdas Thakurdas. See letter of 20 January 1956, in File 383, Purushottamdas Thakurdas Papers, NMML.

43

The Current, 15 and 29 February 1956.

44

Y. D. Phadke, Politics and Language (Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House, 1979), chapter 6.

45

See Baburao Patel, Burning Words: A Critical History of Nine Years of Nehru’s Rule from 1947 to 1956 (Bombay: Sumati Publications, 1956), pp. 106–8.

46

Ravi Kalia, Bhubaneshwar: From a Temple Town to a Capital City (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994).

47

Janaki Nair, ‘"Past Perfect”: Architecture and Public Life in Bangalore’. I am grateful to Dr Nair for showing me a copy of this ms prior to its publication in her history of Bangalore, The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore’s Twentieth Century (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005).

48

Times of India, 26 February 1952.

49

‘Andhra Answers Dulles’, Economic Weekly, 5 March 1955.

10. THE CONQUEST OF NATURE

1

W. Burns, ed., Sons of the Soil: Studies of the Indian Cultivator, 2nd edn (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1944), introduction.

2

Gyanendra Pandey, The Ascendancy of the Congress in Uttar Pradesh, 1926–34: A Study in Imperfect Mobilization (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978); Peter Reeves, Landlords and Governments in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of their Relations until Zamindari Abolition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991).

3

Chitra Bhanu, ‘Food Situation Getting Worse in Malabar’, Swatantra, 29 July 1947.

4

See, for illuminating contemporary analyses, Z. A. Ahmad, The Agrarian Problem in India: A General Survey (Allahabad: All-India Congress Committee, 1936); S. Y. Krishnaswami, Rural Problems in Madras (Madras: Government of Madras, 1947). Valuable surveys of the economic history of colonial India include V. B. Singh, ed., Economic History of India: 1857–1956 (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1965); Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2: c. 1757–c. 1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Tirthankar Ray, The Indian Economy, 1857–1947 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006).

5

See, inter alia, Dwijendra Tripathi, ed., Business and Politics in India: A Historical Perspective (Delhi: Manohar, 1991); Medha M. Kudaisya, The Life and Times of G. D. Birla (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003).

6

J. K. Galbraith, ‘Rival Economic Theories in India’, Foreign Affairs, vol. 36, no. 4, 1958, p. 591.

7

See Meghnad Saha, ‘The Problem of Indian Rivers’ (1938) and ‘Technological Revolution in Industry – How the Russians Did It’ (1943), both in Santimay Chatterjee, ed., Collected Works of Meghnad Saha, vol. 2 (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1986).

8

LajpatRai, The Evolution of Japan and Other Papers (Calcutta: Modern Review, 1922).

9

K. T. Shah, ‘Principles of National Planning’, in Iqbal Singh and Raja Rao, eds, Whither India? (Baroda: Padmaja Publications, 1948). Shah was a Bombay economist who served as Secretary of the NPC. See also R. Chattopadhyay, ‘The Idea of Planning in India, 1930–1951’, unpublished PhD dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra, 1985.

10

See, for example, National Planning Committee: Report oftheSub-Committeeon Power and Fuel (Bombay: Vora and Co., 1949).

11

Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India (Parts One and Two) (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1945), emphases added. The signatories to the Bombay Plan included G. D. Birla, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, Lala Shri Ram, J. R. D. Tata, and Purushottamdas Thakurdas.

12

The intellectual climate of the time, as it pertained to economic policy, is captured in Tirthankar Ray, ‘Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 16, no. 3, 2002; Nariaki Nakatozo, ‘The Transfer of Economic Power in India: Indian Big Business, the British Raj and Development Planning, 1930–1948’, in Mushirul Hasan and Nariaki Nakatozo, eds, The Unfinished Agenda: Nation-Building in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 2001); Pranab Bardhan, ‘A Note on Nehru as Economic Planner’, in Milton Israel, ed., Nehru and the Twentieth Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).

13

Speech in Lok Sabha on 15 December 1952, in Planning and Development: Speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru (1952–56) (New Delhi: Publications Division, n.d.), pp. 7–8. See also R. Ramadas, ‘Report on the Draft Five-Year Plan’, Swatantra, 1 December 1951.

14

See Times of India, 4 November 1954.

15

Cf. A. H. Hanson, The Process of Planning: A Study of India’s Five-Year Plans, 1950–1964 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 111–20.

16

Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), p. 83. Mahalanobis was an intimate of Rabindranath Tagore – it was said that he had a better knowledge of Tagore’s poems and plays than did the poet himself.

17

See, for details, Ashok Rudra, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: A Biography (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996).

18

This and the following two paragraphs draw upon Mahalanobis’s letters to Pitambar Pant, June–July 1954, Pitambar Pant Papers, NMML. See also Khilnani, Idea of India, pp. 83f.

19

Mahalanobis wrote that he was ‘in favour of seeking the help of both USA and USSR (and of the UK and other countries) in developing the industrial production of India’ (letter of 7 July 1954, in Pitambar Pant Papers, NMML). He was in this respect genuinely non-partisan. In the years to come his ISI played host to top economists from both sides of the Iron Curtain – to men such as Simon Kuznets, Oskar Lange, Charles Bettelheim, Jan Tinbergen and many, many others. For details see Rudra, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, chapter 14.

20

‘Recommendations for the Formulation of the Second Five-Year Plan’, and ‘The Approach of Operational Research to Planning in India’, both written in 1955, both reprinted in P. K. Bose and M. Mukherjee, eds, P. C. Mahalanobis: Papers on Planning (Calcutta: Statistical Publishing Society, 1985). Along with these narrative papers, Mahalanobis also framed two mathematical models of economic growth. These are discussed in T. N. Srinivasan, ‘Professor Mahalanobis and Economics’, printed as chapter 11 in Rudra, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.

21

Hanson, Process of Planning, pp. 128–30. See also K. N. Raj, ‘Model-Making and the Second Plan’, Economic Weekly, 26 January 1956.

22

Government of India, The Second Five-Year Plan (New Delhi: Planning Commission, 1956), p. 6.

23

P. C. Mahalanobis, ‘Draft Plan Frame for the Second Five-Year Plan’, Economic Weekly, special issue, 18 June 1955.

24

Hanson, Process of Planning, pp. 459–62.

25

Haldane to Mahalanobis, 16 May 1955, quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 194—1956 (London: Cape), pp. 305–6.

26

Letter of 22 December 1952, in Jawaharlal Nehru, Letters to Chief Ministers, edited by G. Parthasarathi, 5 vols (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985–9) hereafter cited as LCM, vol. 3, pp. 205–7.

27

Letter of 22 December 1952, LCM, vol. 3, p. 205; letter of 14 February 1956, LCM, vol. 4, p. 346.

28

Letter of 13 January 1955, LCM, vol. 4, p. 123.

29

‘Triangular Contest for Steel Plant’, Economic Weekly, 19 December 1953; Taya Zinkin, Challenges in India (New York: Walker and Co., 1966), chapter 7.

30

The friend was Joe Miller, the late and legendary librarian of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.

31

See Subject File 5, K. P. S. Menon Papers, NMML.

32

Ved Mehta, Portrait of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970), pp. 285–97.

33

S. Bhoothalingam, ‘Rourkela Steel Plant’, Indian Review, April 1956.

34

For example Meghnad Saha, My Experiences in Soviet Russia (Calcutta: publisher unknown, 1945); K. L. Rao, Cusecs and Candidates: Memoirs of an Engineer (New Delhi: Metropolitan, 1978).

35

Daniel Klingensmith, ‘One Valley and a Thousand: America, India and the World in the Image of the Tennessee Valley Authority,1945–1970’, unpublished PhD thesis, Department of History, University of Chicago, 1999, p. 228.

36

A. N. Khosla to C. Rajagopalachari, 30 August 1953, in Subject File124, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

37

Henry C. Hart, New India’s Rivers (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1956), pp. 97–100.

38

‘India Marches on: Bhakra-Nangal Project’, MysIndia, 28 November 1954. Much smaller was the complementary Nangal project, a low concrete dam located eight miles downstream of the Bhakra.

39

Indian Journal of Power and RiverValley Development, Bhakra–Nangal special issue, 1956.

40

This portrait of Slocum is based on J. D. Sahi, Odd Man Out: Exploits of a Crazy Idealist (New Delhi: Gitanjai Publishing House, 1991), pp. 55–69,133; M. S. Randhawa, A History of Agriculture in India, vol. 4: 1947–1981 (New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1986), pp. 92–3.

41

Hart, New India’s Rivers, p. 225; report in the Current, 14 July 1954.

42

Obaid Siddiqi, Science, Society, Government and Politics: Some Remarks on the Ideas of Jawaharlal Nehru, Zaheer Memorial Lecture, Indian Science Congress, Cochin, February 1990.

43

See Shiv Visvanathan, Organizing for Science: The Making of an Industrial Research Laboratory (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985).

44

On Bhabha see Robert S. Anderson, ‘Building Scientific Institutions in India: Saha and Bhabha’, Occasional Paper, Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, 1975.

45

George Greenstein, ‘A Gentleman of the Old School: Homi Bhabha and the Development of Science in India’, American Scholar, vol. 61, no. 3, 1992, p. 417.

46

Hindustan Times, 3 October 1952. TheCommunity Development programmes were inspired by, and to a great extent modelled upon, the work of Albert Mayer in eastern Uttar Pradesh in the late 1940s. See Alice Thorner, ‘Nehru, Albert Mayer, and Origins of Community Projects’, Economic and Political Weekly, 24 January 1981.

47

S. C. Dube, India’s Changing Villages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958), pp. 157–63, 192–216 etc.

48

T. S. Epstein, Economic Development and Social Change in South India (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1962), esp. pp. 27–47.

49

For details see B. H. Farmer, Agricultural Colonization in India Since Independence (London: Oxford University Press, 1974).

50

See, inter alia, R.P.Masani, The Five Gifts (London: Collins, 1957); Hallam Tennyson, Saint on the March: The Story of Vinoba (London: Victor Gollancz, 1961); Geoffrey Ostergaard and Melville Currell, The Gentle Anarchists: AStudy of the Leaders of the Sarvodaya Movement for Non-violent Revolution in India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971). There is a characteristically acid portrait of Bhave in V. S. Naipaul’s A Wounded Civilization (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977).

51

See Ronald J. Herring, Land to the Tiller: the Political Economy of Agrarian Reform in South Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983); ‘Slow Pace of Land Reforms’, Economic Weekly, 30 May 1953; S. K. Dey, Power to the People? A Chronicle of India 1947–67 (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1969), pp. 232f.

52

The climate of economic policy in the postwar world is usefully sketched in Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), chapters2 and 3.

53

Hanson, Process of Planning, p. 128.

54

See ‘A Note on Dissenton the Memorandum of the Panel of Economists’ (1955), reprinted in Mahesh P. Bhatt and S. B. Mehta, Planned Progress or Planned Chaos? Selected Prophetic Writings of Prof. B. R. Shenoy (Madras: EastWest Books, 1996), pp. 3–24.

55

‘A Memorandum to the Government of India, 1955’, in Friedman on India (New Delhi: Centre for Civil Society, 2000), pp. 27–43.

56

Note of 10 October 1955, reprinted in V. N. Balasubramanyam, Conversations with Indian Economists (London: Macmillan, 2001), pp. 198–201.

57

It is noteworthy that the essays of Shenoy, Krishnamurti and Friedman were printed for public distribution only in the 1990s by which time, of course, the political and intellectual climate was far more congenial to their views.

58

‘Not a People’sPlan’, Economic Weekly, 18 June 1955.

59

I have written elsewhere, and at greater length, about these ‘Green Gandhians’; as in Ramachandra Guha, Environmentalism: A Global History (New York: Addison-Wesley-Longman, 2000), pp. 23–4, 67–8, and ‘Mahatma Gandhi and the Environmental Movement’, Parisar Annual Lecture, Puné, 1992.

60

Reports in the Current, 11 June 1952 and 8 June 1955.

61

For the consensus among economists see I. G. Patel, Glimpses of Indian Economic Policy: An Insider’s View (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), esp. chapter 2.

62

Memorandum, p. 92.

63

‘A Correspondent’, ‘On Revisiting the Damodar Valley’, Economic Weekly, 28 February 1953.

64

Letter of 2 October 1952, LCM, vol. 3, pp. 114–15. Nehru was speaking here of the Tungabhadra dam, which he visited barely a month before coming to Bokaro.

11. THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS

1

André Malraux, Antimemoirs, trans. Terence Kilmartin (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1968), p. 145. The conversation took place sometime in 1958.

2

CAD, vol. 8, pp. 543–6, 722–3 (emphasis added).

3

Ibid., pp. 551, 781.

4

Foran analysis of the Rau Committee see Chitra Sinha, ‘Hindu Code Bill (1942–1956) and Feminist Consciousness in Bombay’, unpublished PhD thesis, Department of History, Mumbai University, 2003.

5

See for example, Bina Agarwal, ‘A Bill of Her Own?’, New Indian Express, 23 December 2004.

6

Ambedkar’s speeches on the bill are reproduced in Valerian Rodrigues, ed., The Essential Writings of B. R. Ambedkar (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 495–516.

7

Dhananjay Keer, Dr.Ambedkar: Life and Mission, 3rd edn (1971; reprint, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1995), p. 417.

8

The correspondence between Prasad and Nehru has been reproduced in SPC, vol. 6, pp. 399–404.

9

SPC, vol. 9, pp. 109–11.

10

This account of the doings of the All-India Anti-Hindu-Code Bill Committee is based on the reports and documents in Subject File 106, D. P. Mishra Papers, Third and Fourth Instalments, NMML.

11

J. D. M. Derrett, Hindu Law Past and Present (Calcutta: A. Mukerjee and Co., 1957), pp. 69–70. For a sampling of the conservative legal opposition to the code, see K. S. Hajela, ‘The Draft Hindu Code, its Exposition, Comment and Criticism’, All-India Reporter (Journal), 1949, pp. 64–7. For a modernist view, see Lahar Singh Mehta, ‘Some Implications of the Hindu Code Bill, 1948’, All India Reporter Journal), 1950, pp. 26–9.

12

The debates on the Hindu code in the provisional Parliament are reproduced in Vasant Moon, ed., Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol. 14 (Bombay: Government of Maharashtra, 1995).

13

See Files 422, 423, 424 and 430, Delhi Police Records, Ninth Instalment, NMML.

14

Rajendra Prasad to Nehru, 15 September 1951, copy in Subject File 189, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

15

Nehru to Rajendra Prasad, 15 September 1951; secret note to Cabinet by Nehru, dated 25 September 1951, both in Subject File46, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

16

Derrett, Hindu Law, p. 71.

17

The text of Ambedkar’s resignation speech was reproduced in the Hindustan Times, 12 October 1951. Cf. also Vasant Moon, ed., Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol. 15 (Mumbai: Government of Maharashtra, 1997), pp. 825–8.

18

See File 127, Delhi Police Records, Sixth Instalment, NMML.

19

See Lok Sabha Debates, 26 April 1955.

20

The most significant of Nehru’s parliamentary interventions on the subject are collected in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, vol. 3: March 1953–August 1957 (New Delhi: Publications Division, n.d.), pp. 438–54 (section entitled ‘Changing Hindu Society’).

21

Nehru to K. N. Katju, 13 June 1954; to R. Venkataraman, 30 September 1954; SWJN2, vol. 26, pp. 173, 180.

22

See, for example, the speeches of K. C. Sharma, B. D. Shastri and Nand Lal Sharma, Lok Sabha Debates, 29 April, 2 May and 13 December 1955, respectively; speech of H. C. Mathur, Rajya Sabha Debates, 11 December 1954.

23

Rajya Sabha Debates,9 December 1954.

24

Interventions of Seeta Parmanand and M. P. N. Sinha, Rajya Sabha Debates,8 and 6December 1954. To placate the orthodox, the law minister changed the title of the bill from the ‘Hindu Marriage and Divorce Bill’ to the ‘Hindu Marriage Bill’ – this to put the accent ‘not on the dissolution of marriage’ but on the ‘maintenance of marriage [which] is more important’ (Lok Sabha Debates, 26 April 1955). The change, needless to say, was purely cosmetic.

25

Lok Sabha Debates, 29 April 1955. Others opposed the clause out of not logic, but envy. As S. Mahanty sourly noted, ‘it makes a discrimination in favour of the Muslims who may marry four wives under the Shariat law and not incur any of the offences under this Act’ (Rajya Sabha Debates,6 December 1954).

26

Lok Sabha Debates, 2 May 1955.

27

Lok Sabha Debates, 26 and 29 April 1955.

28

Intervention by Shri Khandekar, Lok Sabha Debates, 29 April 1955.

29

Ibid., Rajya Sabha Debates, 8 December 1954.

30

Intervention by M. Muhammad Ismail, Rajya Sabha Debates, 11 December 1954.

31

Lok Sabha Debates, 29 April 1955.

32

Intervention by Nand Lal Sharma, Lok Sabha Debates, 13 December 1955.

33

Lok Sabha Debates, 13 December 1955.

34

Intervention by S. S. More, Lok Sabha Debates, 2 May 1955.

35

Marc Galanter, Law and Society in Modern India, ed. by Rajeev Dhavan (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 29; J. D. M. Derrett, Religion, Law and the State in India (London: Faber and Faber, 1968), p. 326.

36

Cf. Rajya Sabha Debates, 11 December 1954, where Dr P. Subbarayan gave his ‘special meed of tribute to Dr. Ambedkar who is not here but who laboured hard to push through the Hindu Code before the last Parliament but circumstances did not permit of this measure going through’.

37

Lok Sabha Debates, 6 December 1956.

38

For a fine discussion of these questions see Lotika Sarkar, ‘Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code Bill’, in B. R. Nanda, ed., Indian Women: From Purdah to Modernity (New Delhi: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, 1976).

39

Quoted in D. E. Smith, India as a Secular State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 290.

40

See Parliamentary Debates, 17 September 1951, excerpted in Eminent Parliamentarians Series, Monograph Series, Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee (New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1990), pp. 82f.

41

On the workings of the new laws in the several decades they have been in operation, see J. D. M. Derrett, A Critique of Modern Hindu Law (Bombay: N. M. Tripathi,1970); Satyajeet A. Desai, Mulla’s Principles of Hindu Law,18th edn (New Delhi: Butterworths India, 2001). The caveat ‘somewhat’ is in deference to feminist arguments that while the new bills removed many of the disadvantages suffered by Hindu women, they did not bestow ‘radical equality’ on them. See Archana Parashar, Women and Family Law Reform in India (New Delhi: Sage, 1992), pp. 79–134.

12. SECURING KASHMIR

1

Sisir Kumar Gupta, Kashmir: A Study in India-Pakistan Relations (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1966), p. 365.

2

SeeMichael Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 111.

3

Lionel Fielden, ‘India Revisited: Indo-Pak Problems’, Indian Review, May 1950.

4

Note by Nehru on Kashmir, dated 9 January 1951, in Subject File 62, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

5

See Jawaharlal Nehru Correspondence, Vijayalakshmi Pandit Papers, NMML.

6

Cable to State Department by Henderson, quoted in Ajit Bhattacharjea, Kashmir: The Wounded Valley (New Delhi: UBS, 1994), pp. 196–7.

7

See Abdullah to Gopalaswami Ayyangar, 16 January 1951, and note on file by latter, both in Subject File 62, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

8

See ‘Leaderlessness of Jammu’, article of March 1950, reprinted in Balraj Puri, Jammu A Clue to the Kashmir Tangle (Delhi: privately published, 1966), pp. 20–3.

9

Baburao Patel, Burning Words: A Critical History of Nine Years of Nehru’s Rule from 1947 to 1956 (Bombay: Sumati Publications, 1956), pp. 147–8.

10

The Sheikh’s speech is printed in extenso in Gupta, Kashmir, pp. 367–70.

11

Prem Nath Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir, Cultural and Political: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New Delhi: Kashmir Publishing Co., 1954), pp. 569–71.

12

Ian Stephens, Horned Moon: An Account of a Journey through Pakistan, Kashmir, and Afghanistan (London: Chatto and Windus,1953), pp. 212–13. From Stephens’ book we learn that he was in the Valley in April 1952 – exact dates are not given, so we cannot say whether he talked to the Sheikh before or after his notorious Ranbirsingpura speech. That speech had also hinted that perhaps Kashmir’s place in India was ‘unnatural’. This might have been a mere coincidence in thinking. On the other hand, if Abdullah met Stephens before Ranbirsingpura, his speech might very well have been influenced by one who cynically saw ‘an anti-Muslim substructure’ in ‘Pandit Nehru’s new secular Republic’ (Horned Moon, p. 267).

13

Gupta, Kashmir, pp. 371–2.

14

Speeches of 11 and 19 August 1952, copies in Subject File 4, Y. D. Gundevia Papers, NMML.

15

See Daniel Thorner, ‘The Kashmir Land Reforms: Some Personal Impressions’, Economic Weekly, 12 September 1953.

16

Cf. Richard L. Park, ‘India Argues with Kashmir’, Far Eastern Survey, 2 July 1952.

17

Eminent Parliamentarians Series, Monograph Series, Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee (New Delhi: Lok Sabah Secretariat, 1990), pp. 18–19, 109–23.

18

Balraj Madhok, Portrait of a Martyr: Biography of Dr Shyama Prasad Mookerjee (Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1969), pp. 159–61.

19

Karan Singh, Autobiography (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 149–50.

20

The Current, 10 and 24 December 1952.

21

The letters exchanged between Mookerjee on the one side and Nehru and Abdullah on the other were later published by the Jana Sangh in Integrate Kashmir: Mookerjee–Nehru and Abdullah Correspondence (Lucknow: Bharat Press, 1953).

22

See Files 12, 127 and 164, Delhi Police Records, Eighth Instalment, NMML.

23

The Current (Bombay), 26 August 1953.

24

Quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 2: 1947–1956 (London: Cape, 1979), p. 131, n. 65.

25

For a contemporary interpretation along these lines, see Sadiq Ali and Madhu Limaye, Report on Kashmir (New Delhi: Praja Socialist Party, 1953). This reports that the Sheikh ‘was often heard to remark in his private talks that if Jammu wanted to go out of Kashmir it was welcome to do so; in fact it would be good riddance. Its merger in India would serve just the purpose he had in view, namely an Independent Kashmir’ (p. 5).

26

Madhok, Portrait of a Martyr, pp. 147–65.

27

See correspondence between Mookerjee and Rajagopalachari in Subject File124, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

28

Madhok, Portrait of a Martyr, pp. 240–2.

29

Letter of 2 July to Rajagopalachari, Subject File 123, Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

30

The Current, 1 July 1953.

31

See File164, Delhi Police Records, Eighth Instalment, NMML.

32

See reports and correspondence, File 166, Delhi Police Records, Ninth Instalment, NMML.

33

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, pp. 130–1, which also excerpts Nehru’s letters to Abdullah.

34

Nehru to Rajagopalachari, 31 July 1953, Subject File 123, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

35

See B. N. Mullik, My Years with Nehru: Kashmir (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1971), chapter 3.

36

The Current, 26 August 1953. Three years later a copy of the Id speech that Abdullah was to have made surfaced. This did not call directly for independence, but reopened the question of accession to India and also, for the first time, asked that Pakistan be made a party to the dispute. See Mridula Sarabhai, ed., Sheikh-Sadiq Correspondence (August to October 1956) (New Delhi: privately published, 1956), appendix I: ‘Id Speech’.

37

Karan Singh, Autobiography, pp. 156–64.

38

See reports in File73, Delhi Police Records, Sixth Instalment, NMML.

39

Gopal, Nehru, vol. 2, pp. 132–3; Mullik, My Years with Nehru: Kashmir, pp. 42–7.

40

P. N. Kaula and K. L. Dhar, Kashmir Speaks (Delhi: S. Chand and Co., 1950), pp. 189–90. An American journalist wrote of the Bakshi that he was a ‘realist [who] can run a party machine and keep its joints oiled’, adding that he seemed to be ‘constituted chiefly of iron or steel’ (Vincent Sheean, Nehru: The Years of Power (London: Victor Gollancz, 1960), pp. 109–10). This likewise brings Patel to mind; not least because he was known as the ‘Iron Man of India’.

41

The Hindu, 25 August and 14 and 29 September 1953.

42

The Current, 31 March, 25 August and 6 October 1954 and 12 October 1955.

43

The Current, 14 November 1955. Cf. also Sheikh Abdullah, Flames of the Chinar: An Autobiography, a bridged and trans. Khushwant Singh (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1993), chapter 18.

44

See File73, Delhi Police Records, Sixth Instalment, NMML.

45

General Roy Bucher to Rajagopalachari, 14 August 1953, in Subject File124, Fifth Instalment, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, NMML.

46

Bhattacharjea, Kashmir, p. 205.

47

See Spratt’s unsigned column ‘The World This Week’, MysIndia, 13 July, 3 and 17 August, and 9 November 1952 respectively.

13. TRIBAL TROUBLE

1

This account of the early years of the Naga National Council is based on Mildred Archer, ‘Journal of a Stay in the Naga Hills, 9 July to 4 December 1947’, Mss Eur F236/362, OIOC. Archer, the wife of the last deputy commissioner in the Naga Hills, W. G. Archer, had interviewed a wide cross-section of the NNC membership and subscribed to the NNC journal. In later years she became an authority on British art in India.

2

Charles Chasie, The Naga Imbroglio (Kohima: Standard Printers and Publishers, 1999), pp. 33–6.

3

The Crown colony scheme is discussed in a forthcoming book by Professor David Syiemlieh of the North-eastern Hill University, Shillong.

4

A. R. H. Macdonald to P. F. Adams (secretary to the governor of Assam), 23 March 1947, copy in Mss Eur F236/76, OIOC. The ‘Lushai hills’ are now more familiarly known as the Mizo hills.

5

See A. Z. Phizo, The Fate of the Naga People: An Appeal to the World (London: privately published, July 1960).

6

CWMG, vol. 88, pp. 373–4. The context makes it clear that Gandhi was against the Nagas using guns and tanks though, of course, he would have opposed the Indian army’s use of them too.

7

Cf. J. H. Hutton, The Angami Nagas (London: Macmillan, 1921), p. 11 and passim.

8

See entry for 30 August 1947 in Archer, ‘Journal’. The invocation of God, and the recourse to American heroes, were a consequence of the deep influence on the Nagas of the Baptist missionaries who had converted them.

9

Entries for 27 September and 23 August 1947, in Archer, ‘Journal’.

10

CAD, vol. 4, pp. 947–8.

11

Useful studies of the tribal predicament include G. S. Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1959; first published under a different title in 1943); C. von Fürer Haimendorf, Tribes of India: The Struggle for Survival (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Verrier Elwin, The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin: An Autobiography (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1964); and K. S. Singh, Tribal Society in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1985). See also André Béteille, ‘The Concept of Tribe with Special Reference to India’, in his Society and Politics in India: Essays in a Comparative Perspective (London: Athlone Press, 1991).

12

See Agapit Tirkey, Jharkhand Movement: A Study of its Dynamics (New Delhi: Other Media Communications, 2002), chapter 2.

13

Memorandum dated 1May 1947, in Subject File 37, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

14

Jaipal’s speech is reproduced on pp. 2–14of Ram Dayal Munda and S. Bosu Mullick, eds, The Jharkhand Movement: Indigenous Peoples’ Struggle for Autonomy in India (Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2003).

15

This paragraph is based on an anonymous three-part report on the Naga situation in the Current, 4, 11 and 18 July 1956, and on Nirmal Nibedon, Nagaland: The Night of the Guerillas (New Delhi: Lancer, 1983), pp. 24–5.

16

Letter to Jairamdas Daulatram, governor of Assam, 11 December 1950, in Subject File188, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

17

A. Lanunungsang Ao, From Phizo to Muivah: The Naga NationalQuestion in Northeast India (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2002), pp. 48–9.

18

‘No Independence for Nagas: Plain Speakingby Mr Nehru’, Times of India, 1 January 1952.

19

‘Demand for Naga State: Delegation Meets Nehru’, Times of India,12 February 1952.

20

Report by Krishnalal Shridharani in the Current, 19 March 1952.

21

‘The Tribal Folk’, in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1954), pp. 576f.

22

Nehru to Rajagopalachari, 26 October 1952, in Subject File107, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

23

The report on the NEFA tour is reprinted in LCM, vol. 4, pp. 147–65.

24

NNC letter of 24 October 1952, quoted in the Current, 15 April 1953.

25

Ramachandra Guha, Savaging the Civilized: Verrier Elwin, His Tribals, and India (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), p. 285.

26

Entry for 10 July 1947 in Archer, ‘Journal’.

27

Arthur Swinson, quoted in Nibedon, Nagaland, p. 26.

28

Asoso Yonuo, The Rising Nagas: A Historical and Political Study (Delhi: Vivek Publishing House, 1974), pp. 210–13.

29

This account of the Phizo-Sakhrie rift is based on Nibedon, Nagaland, pp. 57–68.

30

Ibid., pp. 80–2.

31

Lt. Gen. S. P. P. Thorat, From Reveille to Retreat (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1986), chapter 15, ‘The Nagas’. As the commanding officer of the Eastern Command, General Thorat was in charge of operations against the rebels.

32

See clippings in Mss Eur F158/239, OIOC.

33

Dr S. R. S. Laing to Charles Pawsey, letters of ? June 1956 and 13 August 1956, in Boxl, Pawsey Papers, CSAS.

34

Lok Sabha Debates, 23 August 1956.

35

India News, 8 December 1956; Manchester Guardian, 18 December 1956; both in Mss Eur F158/239, OIOC.

36

Ignes Kujur, ‘Jharkhand Betrayed’, in Munda and Bosu Mullick, The Jharkhand Movement, pp. 16ff.

37

Lok Sabha Debates, 22 November 1954; the Current, 16 February 1955.

38

Letter of 9 March 1955, in T. T. Krishnamachari Papers, NMML.

39

Nehru to Bishnuram Medhi, 13 May 1956, reproduced as appendix VII in Udayon Misra, The Periphery Strikes Back: Challenges to the Nation-State in Assam and Nagaland (Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 200), pp. 203–4.

14. THE SOUTHERN CHALLENGE

1

Report on the Second General Elections in India, 1957 (New Delhi: Election Commission, 1958).

2

Feroze Gandhi was also from the Nehrus’ home town, Allahabad. A Parsi by faith, he at first spelt his surname ‘Ghandy’. However, after he joined the national movement as a young man, he changed the spelling to bring it in line with that of Mahatma Gandhi. That amended surname proved to be of incalculable significance to his wife; for most foreigners, and not a few Indians, assumed that she was in some way related to the Mahatma.

3

Cf.Katherine Frank, Indira: A Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (London: HarperCollins, 2001), pp. 240–1.

4

Indira Gandhi to Brijkrishna Chandiwala, 11 November 1957, Chandiwala Papers, NMML.

5

Nehru to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, 12 March 1957, quoted in Nayantara Sahgal, Indira Gandhi: Her Road to Power (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1982), pp. 1–2.

6

The data in this and the subsequent paragraphs are chiefly derived from the excellent statistical supplement on Indian elections printed as an appendix to the Journal of the Indian School of Political Economy, vol. 15, nos 1 and 2, 2003.

7

For the rise of the DMK in the 1950s, see Marguerite Ross Barnett, The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976).

8

The social history of modern Kerala has been treated with authority and insight in several books by Robin Jeffrey. See specially his The Decline of Nair Dominance (1975; 2nd ednNew Delhi: Manohar, 2003) and Politics, Women and Wellbeing: How Kerala Became a ’Model’ (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992).

9

See Dilip M. Menon, Caste, Nationalism and Communism in South India: Malabar, 1900–1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

10

Nikita Khrushchev, quoted in Communist Double Talk at Palghat (Bombay: Democratic Research Service, 1956), p. 112.

11

‘Communist Manifesto for Stable Government, Prosperous Kerala’, quoted in Victor M. Fic, Kerala: Yenan of India (Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1970), pp. 68–9.

12

Sadly, like Abdullah, Phizo et al. EMS has yet to find a serious biographer.

13

E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Twenty-Eight Months in Kerala (New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1959), esp. pp. 5–6, 22–3.

14

P. N. Sampath, ‘Red Government in Kerala’, Indian Review, July 1957.

15

The Current, 8 May 1957. Krishna Iyer was actually an independent member of the Kerala legislature, a fellow-traveller rather than a card-holding communist. He was later a judge of the Supreme Court.

16

Ronald J. Herring, Land to the Tiller: The Political Economy of Agrarian Reform in South Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), p. 163.

17

This paragraph draws upon material in ibid., chapter 6, and T. J. Nossiter, Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 149–57.

18

The Current, 24 April 1957.

19

‘Letter from Kerala: Bloodsuckers still Thrive’, Economic Weekly, 19 April 1958.

20

Ibid.

21

Kerala Mail, quoted in the Current, 28 August 1957.

22

George Mikes, East is East (London: André Deutsch, 1958), p. 153.

23

For a useful summary see S. C. Joseph, Kerala: The ‘Communist’ State (Madras: The Madras Premier Company, 1959), chapter 8.

24

See ‘Who Supported the Communists in Kerala? An Analysis of the 1957 Election Results’, Economic Weekly, 1 August 1959.

25

See ‘Kerala Letter: Co-existence in Peril’, Economic Weekly, special issue, July 1959. It is not clear whether these excerpts were originally in English or are translated here from the Malayalam.

26

Rajni Kothari, ‘Kerala: APost-mortem’, Economic Weekly, 28 November 1959.

27

‘Kerala Letter: Congress Misalliance with the Congress Church’, Economic Weekly, annual issue, January 1958.

28

Nossiter, Communism in Kerala, p. 145.

29

‘Red Rule in Kerala’, statements by E. M. S. Namboodiripad and Panampilli Govinda Menon, Illustrated Weekly of India, 25 January 1959.

30

Kamla Chopra, ‘Indira Gandhi: A Profile’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 22 February 1959.

31

S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, vol. 3: 1956–1964 (London: Cape, 1984), p. 66.

32

Profiles of Mannath in the Illustrated Weekly of India, 28 June 1959 and in the Current, 16 September 1959; Anon., The Agitation in Kerala (Trivandrum: Department of Public Relations, 1959), pp. 9–12.

33

W. H. Morris-Jones, ‘India’s Political Idioms’, in C. H. Philips, ed., Politics and Society in India (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1963).

34

A good description of the protests is contained in George Woodcock’s Kerala: A Portrait of the Malabar Coast (London: Faber and Faber, 1967), pp. 270ff.

35

See the letters from Nehru to the prominent Kerala Congress politician R. Sankar, quoted in Robin Jeffrey, ‘Jawaharlal Nehru and the Smoking Gun: Who Pulled the Trigger on Kerala’s Communist Government in 1959?’, Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics,vol. 29, no. 1, 1991.

36

See Gopal, Nehru,vol. 3, p. 68.

37

Quoted in ‘Mrs Indira Gandhi’s Election’, undated, unsigned typescript in Pupul Jayakar Papers, held by Mrs Radhika Herzberger (emphasis added.) Cf. also The Statesman, 27 July 1959.

38

Kannikara Padmanabha Pillai, The Red Interlude in Kerala (Trivandrum: Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee, 1959), pp. 183ff.

39

Woodcock, Kerala, p. 272.

40

Nehru to Namboodiripad, 30 July 1959, quoted in Gopal, Nehru,vol. 3, pp. 71–2.

41

See K. P. Bhagat, The Kerala Mid-Term Election of 1960 (Bombay: Popular Book Depot, 1962).

42

Gopal, Nehru,vol. 3, p. 73.

43

See correspondence and papers in Subject File34, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

44

The article is reproduced in C. Rajagopalachari, Satyam Eva Jayate (The Truth Alone Shall Triumph) (Madras: Bharathan Publications, 1961), vol. 1, pp. 149–53.Cf.also ‘Rajaji on Need for Strong Opposition’, Swarajya,9 March 1957.

45

C. Rajagopalachari, ‘Some Thoughts on the Budget’, the Current, 17 August 1957.

46

See ‘Statement of Principles of the Swatantra Party’, reproduced in Economic Weekly, special issue, July 1959, p. 894.

47

C. Rajagopalachari, ‘The Case for the Swatantra Party’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 16 August 1959.

48

See H. L. Erdman, The Swatantra Party and Indian Conservatism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967).

49

Gopal, Nehru,vol. 3, p. 120.

50

See TarunKumar Mukhopadhyaya, Feroze Gandhi: A Crusader in Parliament (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1992), pp. 109–23.

51

A useful summary of the main aspects of the controversy is contained in M. C. Chagla, Roses in December: An Autobiography (1973; revised edn Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1994), pp. 203–11. Justice Chagla headed one of the commissions; Justice Vivian Bose the other. But cf. also A. D. Gorwala, The Lies of T. T. K. (Bombay: R. V. Pandit, 1959). Feroze Gandhi died in 1960, not long after his speeches about the Mundhra scandal in Parliament.

52

Quoted in Motilal C. Setalvad, My Life: Law and other Things (Bombay: N. M. Tripathi,1970), p. 282.

15. THE EXPERIENCE OF DEFEAT

1

George N. Patterson, Tragic Destiny (London: Faber and Faber, 1959), p. 187.

2

‘Record of Prime Minister’s Talk with Dalai Lama’ (24 April 1959), in File 9, Subimal Dutt Papers, NMML.

3

See Ramesh Sanghvi, India’s Northern Frontier and China (Bombay: Contemporary Publishers, 1962), pp. 1–2.

4

Notes, Memoranda and Letters Exchanged and Signed between the Governments of India and China, 1954–1959 (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, 1959), pp. 46, 26–7. This was the first of nine similarly titled White Papers issued by the government of India between 1959 and 1962, subsequently referred to here as WP I, WP II etc. Unless otherwise stated, the rest of this section is based on the notes and correspondence in this first White Paper.

5

Stuart Schram, Mao Tse-tung (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 282.

6

George N. Patterson, Peking versus Delhi (London: Faber and Faber, 1963), pp. 162–3.

7

For JP’s views see The Tragedy o fTibet: Speeches and Statements of Jayaprakash Narayan (New Delhi: Afro-Asian Committee on Tibet, 1959); for the Jana Sangh position, see ‘India’s Stake in Tibet’s Freedom’, Organiser, 27 April 1959, reprinted in Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, Political Diary (Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1968), pp. 97–101.

8

See Subject File 16, Thimayya Papers, NMML.

9

He was the first, and remains the last, Indian military man to be the subject of a biography by a Western author: Humphrey Evans, Thimayya of India (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1960).

10

Arthur Lall, The Emergence of Modern India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 119.

11

Wells Hangen, After Nehru, Who? (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1963), chapter 9. Kaul’s alleged closeness to Nehru is also extensively advertised in his memoirs, where he claims that he was a sort of confidant and sounding-board for the prime minister. See Lt. Gen. B. M. Kaul, The Untold Story (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1967), pp. ix–x, 81–2, 86fn, 87, 97, 114, 118 etc.

12

Maj. Gen. D. K. Palit, War in High Himalaya (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1991), p. 76.

13

See Thimayya to Nehru, letters of 31 August and 3 September 1959, Thimayya Papers, NMML.

14

Press Clippings File 16, Thimayya Papers, NMML. This file has a cover note, almost certainly in the general’s own hand, summarizing its contents thus: ‘If a poll was to be taken outside Parliament, opinion both inside and outside would have found favour with Thimayya’.

15

Letters of Ashutosh Lahiri and Sheodatt, Subject File15, Thimayya Papers, NMML.

16

H. V. Kamath, ‘The Sino-Indian Border Dispute’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 18 October 1959.

17

The Current, 14 and 28 October 1959.

18

Shiva Raoto Nehru, 3 December 1959, B. Shiva Rao Papers, NMML.

19

Chou to Nehru, 8 September 1959, and Nehru to Chou, 26 September 1959, in WP II, pp. 27–46.

20

The ‘forward policy’ is described in the memoirs of one of its chief architects, B. N. Mullik. See his My Years with Nehru: The Chinese Betrayal (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1971), esp. chapters 14 and 19. Mullick was the chief of the Intelligence Bureau, and privy to most crucial decisions taken with regard to the border dispute.

21

Latifi to Nehru, 27 November 1959, copy in Subject File 423, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML (emphasis in original).

22

Quoted in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) p. 152.

23

The Hindu, quoted in Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian and Russian Rivalries (London: Barrie and Rockcliff, 1969), p. 245.

24

Steven A. Hoffman, India and the China Crisis (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 67, 73, 82–3 etc. The origins and trajectory of the India-China dispute are, as one can imagine, the subject of a huge and very motivated literature. On the one side are the various self-serving memoirs by Indian generals and officials, which seek to blame China for ‘betraying’ India’s trust. These are collectively answered by Neville Maxwell’s India’s China War, a well-documented book but one that sees everything, big and small, from the Chinese point of view. Hoffman’s is an admirably detached and comprehensive account of the dispute, perhaps the best there is.

25

Chou to Nehru, letters of 7 November and 17 December 1959; Nehru to Chou, letters of 16 November and 21 December 1959, in WP III, pp. 45–59.

26

Owen Lattimore, ‘India–Tibet–China: Starting Principle for Frontier Demarcation’, Economic Weekly, annual issue, January 1960. Steven Hoffman explains that Chou’s ‘barter’ offer could not be acceptable to India because’it was being asked to accept the clandestine and forceful seizure of parts of its territory [in the west], in return for a worthless assurance that another part of the frontier [in the east] would not be menaced’ (India and the China Crisis,pp. 86–7).

27

‘Pragmatist’, ‘The Political Economy of Defence’, Economic Weekly, annual issue, January 1960.

28

Presidential address of Pitambar Das, reproduced in Girja Kumar and V. K. Arora, eds, Documents on Indian Affairs, 1960 (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1965), pp. 22f.

29

See Gyanvati Darbar, Portrait of a President: Letters of Dr Rajendra Prasad, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976), pp. 85–6.

30

Unless otherwise stated, this and the following paragraphs are based on reports and comments in the Indian Express, various issues of 10 March to 27 April 1960.

31

Kumar and Arora, Documents, pp. 493–4. The signatories to this letter included J. Kripalani, M. R. Masani, A. B. Vajpayee, and N. G. Goray.

32

The Current, 27 April 1960.

33

‘Record of Talks between Prime Minister of India and Prime Minister of China, 20th to 25th April 1960’, in Subject File 24, P. N. Haksar Papers, First and Second Instalments, NMML. The transcripts of the talks run to over a hundred foolscap pages.

34

Copies of the transcripts of Chou En-lai’s talks with Desai, Pant, Radhakrishnan and other leaders are in Subject File26, P. N. Haksar Papers, First and Second Instalments, NMML. Desai was right in spirit if not in substance, for it was Karl Marx who sought asylum in the UK, whereas Lenin lived in exile in that other bourgeois nation, Switzerland.

35

This paragraph is based on Margaret W. Fisher, Leo E. Rose and Robert A. Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh (London: Pall Mall Press, 1963), esp. chapter 11.

36

The transcripts of the talks are reproduced in Appendix XI of Parshotam Mehra, Negotiating with the Chinese, 1846–1987 (New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1989).

37

Interview in Look magazine, 18 October 1960, reproduced in Edgar Snow, The Other Side of the River: Red China Today (New York: Random House, 1963), pp. 762–3.

38

Baldev Raj Nayar, Minority Politics in the Punjab (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), esp. pp. 248–60;the Current, 16 August and 23 August 1961; correspondence between Nehru, Rajaji and Tara Singh in Subject File 82, C Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

39

Nehru to Jayaprakash Narayan, 10 October 1961, Brahmanand Papers, NMML.

40

See E. N. Mangat Rai, Commitment My Style (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1973), chapter 10. Mangat Rai was Kairon’s chief secretary for five of his eight years in power.

41

The Current, 9 December 1959, 6 January 1960 and 14 September 1963.

42

A. G. Noorani, Ministers’ Misconduct (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1973), p. 42.

43

Nirmal Nibedon, Nagaland: The Night of the Guerillas (New Delhi: Lancer, 1983), pp. 88–90.

44

A. Z. Phizo, The Fate of the Naga People: An Appeal to the World (London: privately published, July 1960).

45

See, for example, the clippings in the W. G. Archer Papers, Mss Eur F236, OIOC.

46

Anon., The Naga Problem (New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs, 1960). As many as 2,000 copies of this pamphlet were printed.

47

This memorandum is reproduced in Kumar and Arora, Documents, pp. 91–5.

48

Ibid., pp. 101–5.

49

Clipping from The Times, 21 September 1962, in Mss Eur F158/239, OIOC.

50

Daniel Thorner, ‘Ploughing the Plan Under: Ford Team Report on Food “Crisis”’, Economic Weekly, special issue, July 1959.

51

See Report of Non-Official Enquiry Commission on Cachar (Calcutta: N. Chatterjee, 1961); L. P. Singh, Portrait of Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Quintessential Gandhian (New Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1996), chapter 3.

52

The Current, 8 March 1961.

53

Selig S. Harrison, India: The Most Dangerous Decades (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960).

54

See Grover Smith, ed., Letters of Aldous Huxley (London: Chatto and Windus, 1969), pp. 926–7.

55

Arthur Cook, ‘Nehru’, Daily Mail, 20 February 1962.

56

For details, see WPs IV, V and VI, passim.

57

Lok Sabha Debates, 11 April 1961.

58

Ibid., 17 August and 28 November 1961, 14 August 1962.

59

Ibid., 5 December 1961.

60

P. D. Gaitonde, The Liberation of Goa: A Participant’s View of History (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1987), chapter 18; Illustrated Weekly of India, special issue, 18 February 1962; D. R. Mankekar, The Goa Action (Bombay: The Popular Book Depot, 1962).

61

See clippings and papers in File8, Box XVI.18, Richard B. Russell Papers, University of Georgia, Athens; File29, Penderel Moon Papers, OIOC (Mss Eur F230/29).

62

New York Times, 18 and 19 December 1961. There is also a suggestion that sections within the Indian army welcomed the Goan adventure as a victory easily won. It was, recalled one officer, ‘light relief from the gloom and foreboding of the general strategic scene’ along the borders with China. See Maj. Gen. D. K. Palit, Musings and Memories, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Lancer, 2004), pp. 411–12.

63

My account of the election is based on Aloo J. Dastur, Menon versus Kripalani: North Bombay Election, 1962 (Bombay: University of Bombay, 1967), supplemented by Norman D. Palmer, ‘The 1962 Election in North Bombay’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 30, no. 1, spring 1963. Cf. also A. D. Gorwala, Krishna Menon: Danger to India (Bombay: privately published, January 1962). The Hindi ditty was supplied by Nitya Ramakrishnan.

64

‘Seminarist’, ‘Issues in the Election’, Seminar, July 1962.

65

K. P. Subramania Menon, ‘The Ramifications’, and General K. S. Thimayya, ‘Adequate “Insurance”’, both in Seminar, July 1962. That, even in retirement, Thimayya was seriously worried about the Chinese threat is also indicated by a book that he once owned and which is now in my possession; written by a retired major, it provides a historical conspectus of the NEFA region that had become so central to the border conflict. My copy of the book – Major Sitaram Johri, Where India, China and Burma Meet (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1962) has ‘K.S. Thimayya, 9 Feb. 62’ written on its flyleaf; I found it in a second-hand store in Bangalore, once the general’s home town, and now mine.

66

As the spark that fuelled the Chinese invasion, the Thag La conflict has been widely written about. My account is based on, among other sources, Brigadier J. P. Dalvi, Himalayan Blunder (Delhi: Hind Pocket Books, 1970), chapters 7, 9–12; Maxwell, India’s China War, pp. 357 ff.; Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, pp. 130ff.

67

Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, p. 149.

68

Dalvi, Himalayan Blunder, pp. 262–3.

69

New York Times, 21 October 1962.

70

New York Times, 24 October 1962.

71

Dalvi, Himalayan Blunder, pp. 80–1.

72

Chou to Nehru, 24 October and 4 November 1962, Nehru to Chou, 27 October and 14 November 1962, printed with enclosures in WP VIII, pp. 1–17.

73

John Kenneth Galbraith, Ambassador’s Journal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), p. 385.

74

New York Times, 28 and 30 October 1962.

75

Lok Sabha Debates, 8–14 November 1962. In his closing speech Nehru deplored the series of attacks on Chinese shopkeepers in New Delhi, which ‘brutalizes us and gives us a bad name’. Like his mentor, Gandhi, he knew how easily nationalism could shade into jingoism. To take revenge on innocent shopkeepers was deeply wrong-headed, for ‘we should always distinguish between governmental action and the people as a whole’.

76

The Walong battle is vividly described in G. S. Bhargava, The Battle for NEFA (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1964), chapter 5.

77

Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, pp. 180–1.

78

Maxwell, India’s China War, pp. 398ff. In his memoirs, Kaul argues that Se La was a well-positioned and well-fortified garrison that could have held out for a week or more; he blames its fall and the flight of the troops on the failure of nerve of the man in charge, Major General A. S. Pathania. See Kaul, The Untold Story, pp. 413ff.

79

As recalled in B. G. Verghese, ‘Unfinished Business in the North-East’, Mainstream, 15 June 2002.

80

A. M. Rosenthal, ‘War Fever in India’, New York Times, 3 November 1962.

81

D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962 (Bombay: Tulsi Shah Enterprises, 1968), pp. 88–90.

82

Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers, p. 293.

83

Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 465.

84

Palit, War in High Himalaya, pp. 225, 231.

85

As quoted in Snow, Other Side of the River, pp. 761–2 (emphases added).

86

Allen Ginsberg, Indian Journals: March 1962–May 1963 (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1970), p. 50.

16. PPEACE IN OUR TIME

1

John Kenneth Galbraith, Ambassador’s Journal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), pp. 405–12.

2

Robert Sherrod, ‘Nehru: The Great Awakening’, Saturday Evening Post,19 January 1963.

3

Galbraith to Kennedy, 29 January 1963, copy in Dean Rusk Papers, University of Georgia, Athens. Perhaps it was the economist in Galbraith that provoked him to identify China rather than Russia as the greater long-term threat to American interests.

4

Cf.Richard Parker, John Kenneth Galbraith: HisLife, His Politics, His Economics (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), p. 400.

5

See clippings in Files 9 and 10, Box XVI.18, Richard B. Russell Papers, University of Georgia, Athens. The rest of this section is likewise based on material containec in these files.

6

There was also a letter, too crazy to quote in the text perhaps, which urged a cheaper method of disposing of the Chinese threat than arming the Indians. S. B. Crowe of Sanford, Florida, recommended that the Americans drop boxes of atomic waste, each with an explosive charge, on the Chinese side of the Himalaya The Reds would be told of this, so that they would ‘stay out of Tibet and India’. However, ‘if Mao wishes to conduct an experiment in genetics and send 150 million through this radiation hazard, it would be an interesting experiment’. Estimating that this would save the American taxpayer ‘about a billion dollars’, M: Crowe signed off as follows: ‘Yours for more economy in Government. The barre isn’t bottomless, in spite of Mr Keynes and his theories.’

7

‘Transcript of Prime Minister’s Press Conference held on June 15, 1963, in New Delhi’, issued by Press Information Bureau, Government of India, copy in Subject File189, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML. Cf. also The Statesman, une 1963.

8

See Stanley Kochanek, The Congress Party of India: The Dynamics of One-Party Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 79ff.

9

Ibid., pp. 78–80.

10

H. V. Kamath, Last Days of Jawaharlal Nehru (Calcutta: Jayashree Prakashan, 1977), pp. 1–2.

11

Wells Hangen, After Nehru, Who? (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1963).

12

These quotes are from an article by Tom Stacey, originally published in the Sunday Times of London and reprinted under a different title in the Current, 1 January 1964.

13

Indira Gandhi to Mridula Sarabhai, 4 September 1963, Reel 57, Mridula Sarabhai Papers, on microfilm, NMML.

14

Cf. Kanji Dwarkadas to Lord Scarborough, 16 January 1964, Mss Eur F253/53 (Lord Lumley Papers), OIOC.

15

For the different ways in which the creation of the state was received, see P. N. Luthra, Nagaland: From a District to a State (Shillong: Directorate of Information and Public Relations, 1974), pp. 1–16; A. Lanunungsang Ao, From Phizo to Muivah: The Naga NationalQuestion in North-east India (New Delhi: Mittal Publications), pp. 81–2.

16

The Current, 4 January 1964.

17

Cf. report in the Current, 20 April 1963.

18

C. P. Srivastava, Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Lifeof Truth in Politics (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 71–4; Rajeshwar Prasad, Days with Lal Bahadur Shastri: Glimpses from the Last Seven Years (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1991), pp. 27–9.

19

Mountbatten’s conversations with Nehru are reported in the correspondence contained in Subject File 52, T. T. Krishnamachari Papers, NMML.

20

Aparna Basu, Mridula Sarabhai:Rebel with a Cause (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), chapter 9, ‘Kashmir’; Hindustan Times (hereafter HT), 9 April 1964.

21

Dawn, 18 November 1960.

22

Nehru to Vijayalakshmi Pandit, 3 October 1953, Vijayalakshmi Pandit Papers, NMML.

23

Nehru to Tikaram Paliwal, 17 July 1955, in SWJN2, vol. 29, pp. 452–3.

24

These paragraphs on Abdullah’s release and his triumphant return to the Valley are based principally on the HT, issues of 6–24 April 1964.

25

See letters and papers in Subject File 28 ‘Indo-Pakistan Conciliation Group’, Brahmanand Papers, NMML.

26

Jayaprakash Narayan, ‘Our Great Opportunity in Kashmir’, HT, 20 April 1964.

27

C. Rajagopalachari, ‘Am I Wrong?’, Swarajya, 25 April 1964.

28

See report in HT, 23 April 1964. In the rest of this section, quotes not given specific attributions come from this newspaper.

29

Telegram dated 29 April 1964, in Subject File 92, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

30

Letter of 29 April 1964, ibid. As some other letters in this file show, most Swatantra Party members opposed Masani and Rajaji in their support of the Nehru-Abdullah talks. K. M. Munshi said that the Sheikh should be put back in jail. Dahyabhai Patel (son of Vallabhbhai Patel) said that the only solution to the Kashmir problem was to settle the Valley with Hindu refugees from East Pakistan.

31

Abdullah to Minoo Masani, 16 April 1964, ibid.

32

Shastri to Rajaji, 4 May 1964, ibid.

33

‘Kashmir – Talk with Sheikh Abdullah on 8th May, 1964 at PM’s House’, Subject File 4, Y. D. Gundevia Papers, NMML.

34

Shiva Raoto Rajaji, 10 May 1964; Rajajito Shiva Rao, 12 May 1964; both in Subject File 92, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

35

HT, 23 May 1964.

36

Y. D. Gundevia to V. K. T. Chari (Attorney-General, Madras), 13 May 1964, Subject File 4, Y. D. Gundevia Papers, NMML.

The confederal solution to the Kashmir problem was apparently first proposed by the journalist Arthur Moore as early as January 1948. Moore believed that ‘India, Pakistan and Kashmir should become a federated commonwealth state, with common foreign affairs, common defence, and such finance as concerned these subjects, but otherwise all three to be self-governing States’. He spoke about it to Mahatma Gandhi before he died, and later also appears to have broached the topic with the prime minister. Moore also wrote about the idea in a volume of tributes to Nehru on his 70th birthday, where he called this the ‘greatest test for Nehru’s statesmanship’ . . . [for] there will never be satisfactory relations between India and Pakistan till the Kashmir issue is settled’. See Arthur Moore, ‘My Friend’s Son’, in Rafiq Zakaria, ed., A Study of Nehru (1959; 2nd edn Bombay: The Times of India Press, 1960), esp. pp. 175–6. It seems very likely, considering where it appeared, that Nehru had read Moore’s article.

37

Letter of 20 May 1964, in Subject File 92, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML. With in Parliament, Masani was one of the fiercest critics of the prime minister. But, like his mentor Rajaji, he saw that in progress on Kashmir lay the future of the subcontinent. On this subject at least he was willing to bat for Nehru.

38

HT, 25 May 1964. Unless otherwise indicated, the rest of this section is based on HT, 25–30 May 1964.

39

Dawn, quoted in HT, 27 May 1964 (emphasis added).

40

Walter Crocker, Nehru: A Contemporary’s Estimate (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 178.

41

In his magisterial three-volume biography of Nehru S. Gopal gives the matter three paragraphs; Nehru’s most recent biographer, Judith Brown, allows it one. Recent works on the Kashmir dispute, as for instance by Schonfield, Bose and Ganguly, do not mention these events at all.

42

Romesh Thapar, ‘Behind the Abdullah Headlines’, Economic Weekly, 30 May 1964.

43

V. K. T. Chari to Y. D. Gundevia, 16 May 1964, in Subject File 4, Y. D. Gundevia Papers, NMML.

44

HT, 26 May 1964.

45

Quoted in HT, 29 May 1964.

17. MINDING THE MINORITIES

1

Austin’s diary entry of 28 May 1968 was published thirty years later in The Hindu, 29 May 1994.

2

See correspondence between H. S. Suhrawardy, Chaudhary Khaliquzzaman, Jawaharlal Nehru, M. A. Jinnah and M. K. Gandhi, reproduced in A. G. Noorani, ed., The Muslims of India: A Documentary Record (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 40–52. See also Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, Pathway to Pakistan (Lahore: Longmans, Green and Co., 1961).

3

Jawaharlal Nehru to J. R. D. Tata, 23 October 1947; Tata to Nehru, 4 November 1947, letters in Tata Steel archives, Jamshedpur.

4

Gardner Murphy, In the Minds of Men: The Study of Human Behavior and Social Tensions in India (New York: Basic Books, 1953), pp. 144–7.

5

See ‘You Cannot Ride Two Horses’, in For a United India: Speeches of Sardar Patel (1949; reprint New Delhi, Publications Division, 1982), pp. 49–52 (emphasis added).

6

‘Top Secret’ letter dated 17 July 1948 from HVR Iengar, Home Secretary, to Dr Tara Chand, Education Secretary, in File 6/228/48 ‘Information regarding government servants whose family is still staying in Pakistan’, records of the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. The rest of this section is based on this file, a copy of which was kindly passed on to me by Professor Nayanjyot Lahiri of the University of Delhi.

7

The superintendent was called Pandit Madho Sarup Vats. While we know no more of his biography, ‘Vats’ is a Punjabi Hindu surname, and it is possible that his vendetta was influenced by direct or indirect knowledge of the massacres in the Punjab.

8

Quoted in Farhana Ibrahim, ‘Defining a Border: Harijan Migrants and the State in Kachchh’, Economic and Political Weekly, 16 April 2005.

9

Nehru to Patel, 20 February 1950, SPC, vol. 10, p. 5.

10

E.g. Nehru’s letters to Patel of 6 October and 21 November 1947, SPC, vol. 4, pp. 399–401, 362–4.

11

Letter of 15 October 1947, LCM, vol. 1, pp. 32–3.

12

Letter of 2 October 1949, ibid., pp. 478–9.

13

Letters of 29 September 1953 and 15 June 1954, LCM, vol. 3, pp. 375–6, 570 (emphases added).

14

Speech in Lok Sabha on Azad’s death, reproduced in Maulana Azad: A Homage (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1958), pp. 30–1.

15

On Muslim support to the Congress in national and state elections through the 1950s, see Sisir K. Gupta, ‘Moslems in Indian Politics, 1947–1960’, India Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 4, 1962.

16

Saif Faiz Badruddin Tyabji, The Future of Muslims in India (Bombay: Writers’ Emporium, 1956). Tyabji’s forward-looking agenda makes an interesting contrast with the nostalgia-laden lament of the great Lucknow divine S. Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi. See his Muslims in India, trans. Mohammad Asif Kidwai (Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, 1961). Tyabji himself died shortly after making a speech in the Lok Sabha in 1958; his death, when only just forty, described to me (by the distinguished conservationist Zafar Futehally) as ‘a great tragedy for the Muslims of India’.

17

See reports in Files 78 and 79, Delhi Police Records, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

18

Quoted in W. H. Morris-Jones, Parliament in India (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1957), p. 27, fn.

19

‘Daily Diary’, 19 February 1954, in File 138, Delhi Police Records, Sixth Instalment, NMML.

20

See Noorani, The Muslims of India, pp. 99–100.

21

See, for details, Theodore P. Wright, Jr., ‘The Effectiveness of Muslim Representation in India’, in D. E. Smith, ed., South Asian Politics and Religion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).

22

W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History (1957; reprint New York: Mentor Books, 1959), pp. 263–4.

23

Ibid., pp. 268–74.

24

J. D. Tyson to his family, 9August 1947, in Mss Eur D341/40, OIOC.

25

See Farida Abdulla Khan, ‘Other Communities, Other Histories: A Study of Muslim Women and Education in Kashmir’, in Zoya Hasan andRitu Menon, eds, In a Minority: Essays on Muslim Women in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005).

26

See the essays and evidence in M. K. A. Siddiqui, Muslims in Free India: Their Social Profile and Problems (New Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies, 1998).b

27

The Current, 5 September 1956.

28

D. E. Smith, India as a Secular State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), esp. pp. 412–13.

29

Smith, Islam in Modern History, p. 267.

30

Mushirul Hasan, Legacy of a Divided Nation: India’s Muslims Since Independence (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 161.

31

Taya Zinkin, Challenges in India (New York: Walker and Co., 1966), pp. 147ff.

32

Mohamed Raza Khan, “What Price Freedom? A Historical Survey of the Political Trends and Conditions Leading to Independence and the Birth of Pakistan and After (Madras: privately published, 1969), pp. 503f.

33

See the studies collected in M. N. Srinivas, ed., India’s Villages (1955; reprint Bombay: Media Promoters and Publishers, 1985), pp. 28–9, 94, 100 etc.; and in McKim Marriot, ed., Village India: Studies in the Little Community (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1955), pp. 45, 47, 51, 68, 70–2 etc.

34

Vijay Prashad, Untouchable Freedom: A Social History of a Dalit Community (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 156–63.

35

Among the autobiographies and memoirs available in English, see especially OmprakashValmiki, Joothan: A Dalit’s Life, trans. Arun Prabha Mukherjee (Kolkata: Samya, 2003); Narendra Jadhav, Outcaste: A Memoir (New Delhi: Viking, 2003); Vasant Moon, Growing up Untouchable in India, trans. Gail Omvedt (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001); Siddharth Dube, Words Like Freedom: The Memoirs of an Impoverished Indian Family, 1947–1997 (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1998); and the pioneering anthology edited by Arjun Dangle, Poisoned Bread:Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit Literature (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1992).

36

Harold R. Isaacs, India’s Ex-Untouchables (New York: John Day, 1965), pp. 80–1.

37

This paragraph is based on three essays by Lelah Dushkin: ‘The Backward Classes. I: Special Treatment Policy’ and ‘The Backward Classes. II: Removal of Disabilities’, Economic Weekly, 28 October and 4 November 1961; and ‘Backward Caste Benefits and Social Class in India, 1920–1970’, Economic and Political Weekly, 7 April 1979. Cf. Marc Galanter, Competing Equalities: Law and the Backward Classes in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984).

38

Quoted in Owen M. Lynch, The Politics of Untouchability: Social Mobility and Social Change in a City of India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 89.

39

See Bernard S. Cohn, ‘The Changing Status of a Depressed Caste’, in Marriot, Village India, esp. pp. 70–2.

40

J. Michael Mahar, ‘Agents of Dharma in a North Indian Village’, in J. M. Mahar, The Untouchables in Contemporary India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972), p. 29.

41

Isaacs, India’s Ex-Untouchables, p. 126.

42

Dube, Words Like Freedom, p. 53.

43

Lynch, The Politics of Untouchability, chapter 3 and passim.

44

Nehru to Rajagopalachari, letters of 5 May and 25 June 1952, in Subject File 123, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fifth Instalment, NMML.

45

Oliver Mendelsohn and Marika Vicziany, The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 207–8, 252; Devendra Prasad Sharma, Jagjivan Ram: The Man and His Times (New Delhi: Indian Book Co., 1974).

46

This account of Ambedkar’s last days is based on Vasant Moon, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, trans. Asha Damle (NewDelhi: National Book Trust, 2002), pp. 203–19. The best treatments of Ambedkar’s thought (including his conversion to Buddhism) are Eleanor Zelliot, Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on Ambedkar Movement (Delhi: Manohar, 1992), and Jayashree Gokhale, From Concessions to Confrontation: The Politics of an Indian Untouchable Community (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1993). See also Valerian Rodrigues, ed., B. R. Ambedkar: Essential Writings (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004).

47

Moon, Growing up Untouchable, pp. 52, 107–11, 127, 160–1 etc.

48

Cf. Valmiki, Joothan, p. 71f.

49

Jadhav, Outcaste, p. 231.

50

Rameshwari Nehru, Gandhi Is My Star (Patna: Pustak Bhandar, 1950), pp. 110ff.

51

The Current, 8 February 1956.

52

N. D. Kamble, Atrocities on Scheduled Castes in Post-Independent India (New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1981), pp. 8–46. Kamble’s sources were newspaper accounts in English, Hindi and Marathi. I have simplified and summarized his renditions.

53

Aldous Huxley, Jesting Pilate: The Diary of a Journey (London: Chatto and Windus, 1927), pp. 116–17.

54

Speech by H. J. Khandekar, 21 November 1949, in CAD, vol. 11, pp. 736–7.

55

Aga Khanto Jawaharlal Nehru, 25 January 1951, copy in Subject File 61, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

56

D. F. Karaka, writing in the Current, 11 November 1959. Karaka then went on to list Nehru’s failures, among them the inability to root out corruption and nepotism, and the foolishness of trusting communist China.

18. WAR AND SUCCESSION

1

V. K. Narasimhan, Kamaraj: A Study (Bangalore: Myers Indmark, 1967); Duncan B. Forrester, ‘Kamaraj: A Study in Percolation of Style’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970; J. Anthony Lukacs, ‘Meet Kumaraswamy Kamaraj’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 22 May 1966.

2

This account is based on Michael Brecher, Succession in India: A Study in Decision Making (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), chapters 2 and 3. But see also Stanley Kochanek, The Congress Party of India: The Dynamics of One-Party Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968) pp. 88f

3

Cf. Brecher, Succession, pp. 115–17.

4

The Guardian, 3 June 1964 (editorial), clipping in Mss Eur F158/1045, OIOC.

5

Patrick Keatley, ‘A Sparrow’s Strength’, reprinted in The Bedside Guardian 13: A Selection from ‘The Guardian’ 1963–1964 (London: Collins, 1964), pp. 200–3.

6

J. H. Hutton to Charles Pawsey, 29 May 1964, in Box II, Pawsey Papers, CSAS.

7

M. Aram, Peace in Nagaland: Eight Year Story, 1964–72 (New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann (India), 1974), pp. 20–38:A.Paul Hare and Herbert H. Blumberg, eds, A Search for Peace and Justice: Reflections of Michael Scott (London: Rex Collings, 1980), chapter 11 ‘Nagaland Peace Mission’.

8

Narayan to J. J. Singh, dated Kohima, 11 September 1964, J. J. Singh Papers, NMML.

9

See V. K. Nuh, comp., The Naga Chronicle (New Delhi: Regency Publications, 2002), pp. 274ff.

10

Dr Bhabha’s speech was quoted in extenso in the Lok Sabha Debates, 27 November 1964.

11

Lok Sabha Debates, 27 November and 11 December 1964. Both Kachwai and Shastri spoke in Hindi.

12

See K. S. Ramanathan, The Big Change (Madras: Higginbothams, 1967), chapter 6.

13

A. S. Raman, ‘A Meeting with C. N. Annadurai’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 26 September 1965.

14

See Robert D. King, Nehru and the Language Politics of India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997); Mohan Ram, Hindi Against India: The Meaning of DMK (New Delhi: Rachna Prakashan, 1968).

15

This account is principally based on news reports in The Hindu, 27 January–15 February 1965. But see also the four-page photo spread on ‘Language Riots in Madras’, in the Illustrated Weekly of India, 28 February 1965.

16

Eric Stracey, Odd Man in: My Years in the Indian Police (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1981), pp. 209–27.

17

Cf. Morarji Desai, ‘National Unity through Hindi’, the Current, 30 January 1965.

18

See Selected Speeches of Lal Bahadur Shastri (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1974), pp. 119–22.

19

Lok Sabha Debates, 18 February 1965.

20

Ghosh to Alexander, 3 March 1965, File 60, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

21

Sir Morrice James, Pakistan Chronicle (London: Hurst and Co., 1993), pp. 123–6; G. S. Bhargava, After Nehru: India’s New Image (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1966), pp. 260–3, 276, 439–41. The Kutch ceasefire agreement was signed by officials representing the respective foreign ministries – both Muslims, they were, coincidentally, first cousins, one of whom had chosen to be a citizen of India.

22

Letter of 24 May 1965, in File 60, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

23

James, Pakistan Chronicle, pp. 128–31.

24

See the then Jammu and Kashmir chief secretary’s letters of August 1965 in Nayantara Sahgal and E. N. Mangat Rai, Relationship: Extracts from a Correspondence (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1994), pp. 134–9.

25

This account of the hostilities is principally based on Brian Cloughley, A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 68–72, 84–5, 102–6; Air Chief Marshal P. C. Lal, My Years with the IAF (New Delhi: Lancer, 1987), pp. 126–34; Lt. Gen. Harbaksh Singh, In the Line of Duty: A Soldier Remembers (New Delhi: Lancer, 2000), pp. 334–53.

26

Singh, In the Line of Duty, p. 353.

27

Lal, My Years, p. 134.

28

See C. P. Srivastava, Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Life of Truth in Politics (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 273–5.

29

Cf. Bhargava, After Nehru, pp. 300–3.

30

Herbert Feldman, From Crisis to Crisis: Pakistan, 1962–1969 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 146.

31

John Frazer, ‘Who Can Win Kashmir?’, Reader’s Digest, January 1966.

32

As told to me by K. S. Bajpai, who was Indian consul general in Karachi at the time.

33

Lt. Gen. Jahan Dad Khan, Pakistan Leadership Challenges (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 51.

34

Quoted in Feldman, From Crisis to Crisis, pp. 139–40.

35

Quoted in Cloughley, A History, p. 71.

36

For a detailed analysis, see the untitled note on Kashmir by Prem Nath Bazaz dated 24 October 1965, in Subject File 46, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

37

Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 263.

38

Nayantara Sahgal, ‘What India Fights For’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 3 October 1965; Anon., The Fight for Peace (New Delhi: Hardy and Ally(India), 1966), esp. pp. 260ff.

39

T. V. Kunhi Krishnan, Chavan and theTroubled Decade (Bombay: Somaiya Publications, 1971), pp. 99–115; R. D. Pradhan, Debacle to Revival: Y. B. Chavan as Defence Minister (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1999), pp. 182–7, 207–12, 238–42.

40

Shastri to Jayaprakash Narayan, 21 July 1965 (in Hindi), in Subject File 28, Brahmanand Papers, NMML.

41

The speech is reproduced in D. R. Mankekar, Lal Bahadur: APolitical Biography (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1965), appendix 3. Unlike Nehru, Shastri was a practising Hindu. But when asked by an interviewer to speak about his faith, he answered that ‘one should not discuss one’s religion in public’. Interview in the Illustrated Weekly of India, 18 October 1964.

42

Singh, Portrait of Lal Bahadur Shastri, pp. 87–8.

43

A valuable discussion of the making of the new strategy is contained in the memoirs of B. Sivaraman – Bitter Sweet: Governance of India in Transition (New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1987). See especially chapter 11, ‘Green Revolution’.

44

John P. Lewis, India’s Political Economy: Governance and Reform (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), chapter 4; Gilles Boquérat, No Strings Attached? India’s Policies and Foreign Aid, 1947–1966 (Delhi: Manohar, 2003), chapter 15.

45

Srivastava, Lal Bahadur Shastri, chapter 31.

46

‘Shastri’s Last Journey’, Life, 21 January 1966.

47

Letter to Dorothy Norman, 13 March 1965, in D. Norman, ed., Indira Gandhi: Letters to an American Friend, 1950–1984 (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), p. 111.

48

Vijayalakshmi Pandit toA. C. Nambiar, letters of 31 July 1964 and 26 January 1966, copies in Pupul Jayakar Papers, in the possession of Radhika Herzberger, Mumbai.

49

Anand Mohan, Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography (New York: Meredith Press, 1967), pp. 20–37.

50

Nehru to C. D. Deshmukh, 16 April 1956, in Subject File 67, C. D. Deshmukh Papers, NMML.

51

‘A Fitful Improvisation’, Thought, 22 January 1966.

52

Nirmal Nibedon, Mizoram: The Dagger Brigade (New Delhi: Lancer, 1980), esp. pp. 30–51.

53

Sajal Nag, Contesting Marginality: Ethnicity, Insurgency and Subnationalism in North-East India (New Delhi: Manohar, 2002), pp. 217–24, and ‘Tribes, Rats, Famine, State and the Nation’, Economic and Political Weekly, 24 March 2001; see also reports in Thought (New Delhi), 2April 1966 and 7 and 14 October 1967.

54

Unsigned, undated letter to I. A. Bowman, postmarked 13 March 1966, in Mss Eur F229/62, OIOC.

55

Jayaprakash Narayan to Marjorie Sykes, 24 February 1966, copy in J. J. Singh Papers, NMML. Narayan, Nagaland Mein Shanti Ka Prayas (The Quest for Peace in Nagaland) (Varanasi: Sarva Seva Sangh, 1966).

56

See clippings in Mss Eur F158/239, OIOC.

57

Guy Wint to I. A. Bowman, 16 September 1966, in Mss Eur F229/24, OIOC.

58

Nirmal Nibedon, Nagaland: The Night of the Guerillas (New Delhi: Lancer, 1983), pp. 137–45.

59

Subject File136, D. P. Mishra Papers, Third and Fourth Instalments, NMML; Nandini Sundar, Subalterns and Sovereigns: An Anthropological History of Bastar, 1854–1996 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), chapter 7.

60

Singh, In the Line of Duty, p. 357.

61

See clippings in Mss Eur F158/295. The creation of the new Punja band Haryana States was approved in March 1966, but the decision finally came into effect only in November, after the borders were delimited. Cf. Hindustan Times, 2 November 1966.

62

Cf. C. Subramaniam, Hand of Destiny: Memoirs, vol. 2: The Green Revolution (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1995), chapter 11 and passim.

63

Mrs Gandhi’s US trip is described in K. A. Abbas, Indira Gandhi: Return of the Red Rose (Delhi: Hind Pocket Books, 1966), pp. 147–57.

64

Chester Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life, 1941–1969 (New Delhi: B. I. Publications, 1972), pp. 525–35. Cf. also Howard B. Schaffer, Chester Bowles: New Dealer in the Cold War (New Delhi: Prentice-Hall India, 1994), pp. 280ff.

65

Anon., ‘India’s Food Crisis, 1965–67’, in File 7, Box 32, Thomas J. Schonberg Files, Dean Rusk Papers, University of Georgia, Athens.

66

Memorandum to President Johnson from Orville Freeman, 19 July 1966, in File 6, Box 32, Thomas J. S chonberg Files, Dean Rusk Papers, University of Georgia, Athens.

67

This account of the 1966 devaluation is based on Rahul Mukherji, ‘India’s Aborted Liberalization – 1966’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 73, no. 3, 2000, supplemented by Kuldeep Nayar, Between the Lines (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1969), chapter 3.

68

Indira Gandhi to Jayaprakash Narayan, 7 June 1966, copy in J. J. Singh Papers, NMML.

69

Thought, 11 June 1966.

70

Jayaprakash Narayan to Indira Gandhi, 23 June 1966, Sarvodaya Ashram, Sokhodeora (Gaya), copy in J. J. Singh Papers, NMML.

71

Indira Gandhi to Jayaprakash Narayan, 6 July 1966, copy in J. J. Singh Papers, NMML.

72

Thought, 15 October 1966.

73

Hindustan Times, 31 October–5 November 1966.

74

Reports in Hindustan Times, 5 and 6 November 1966.

75

Hindustan Times, 7 November 1966; Thought, 12 November 1966.

76

‘Indians Becoming Increasingly Hostile to West’, Sydney Morning Herald, 13 December 1965.

77

Ronald Segal, The Crisis of India (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), pp. 171, 227, 255–7, 272, 309–10.

78

Ursula Betts to Ian Bowman, 25 May 1966, Mss Eur F229/24, OIOC.

79

Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968), Preface.

80

William and Paul Paddock, Famine – 1975! America’s Decision: Who Will Survive? (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1968), pp. 60–1, 217–18.

81

S. Mulgaokar, ‘The Grimmest Situation in 19 Years’, Hindustan Times, 3 November 1966.

19. LEFTWARD TURNS

1

Sol W. Sanders, ‘India: A Huge Country on the Verge of Collapse’, U.S. News and World Report, 28 November 1966.

2

Neville Maxwell, ‘India’s Disintegrating Democracy’, in three parts, The Times, 26 and 27 January and 10 February 1967 (emphases added).

3

Cf.Yogesh Atal, Local Communities and National Politics (Delhi: National, 1971); A. M. Shah, ed., The Grassroots of Democracy (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2007).

4

E. P. W. da Costa, The Indian General Elections 1967: The Structure of Indian Voting Intentions: January 1967. A Gallup Poll with Analysis (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Opinion).

5

Thought, 4 March 1967.

6

These paragraphs on MGR and the DMK are based on Robert L. Hardgrave and Anthony C. Neidhart, ‘Films and Political Consciousness in Tamil Nadu’, Economic and Political Weekly, 11 January 1975; N. Balakrishnan, ‘The History of the Dravidian Munnetra Kazhagam, 1949–1977’, unpublished PhD dissertation, School of Historical Studies, Madurai KamarajUniversity, 1985, esp. pp. 278–86.

7

Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 204–10; Sagar Ahluwalia, Anna the Tempest and the Sea (New Delhi: Young Asia Publications, 1969), pp. 51–7, 82–4.

8

Jyoti Basu, Memoirs: A Political Autobiography (Calcutta: National Book Agency, 1999), pp. 195–209.

9

Bhabani Sengupta, Communism in Indian Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972).

10

Marcus F. Franda, Radical Politics in West Bengal (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971), chapter 6.

11

Cf. Rabindra Ray, The Naxalites and their Ideology (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992).

12

Mainstream, 8 July 1967, quoted in Franda, Radical Politics, p. 171.

13

Shanta Sinha, Maoists in Andhra Pradesh (New Delhi: Gyan PublishingHouse, 1989), chapters 4—7; Sumanta Banerjee, In the Wake of Naxalbari: A History of the Naxalite Movement in India (Calcutta: Subarnarekha, 1980), chapter 5.

14

See clippings and papers in Subject File 3, Dharma Vira Papers, NMML.

15

Sankar Ghosh, The Disinherited State: A Study of West Bengal, 1967–70 (Calcutta: Orient Longman, 1971), chapter 3.

16

Cf. clippings in Mss Eur F158/456, OIOC.

17

Ghosh, The Disinherited State, pp. 248ff.

18

See Subject File 99, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

19

See IB report in Subject File 212, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

20

See Ranjit Gupta, The Crimson Agenda: Maoist Protest and Terror (Delhi: Wordsmiths, 2004), pp. 105, 110–11, 157–9 etc.

21

Inder Malhotra, ‘Naxalites Put City in Fear of Bombs’, Guardian, 19 August 1970.

22

For the (very long) list of charges, see S. N. Dwivedy, The Orissa Affair and the CBI Inquiry (New Delhi: privately published, 1965).

23

Sunit Ghosh, Orissa in Turmoil (Bhubaneshwar: Bookland International, 1991), pp. 149–57; Sukadev Nanda, Coalition Politics in Orissa (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1979), pp. 70–7.

24

Special Branch report marked ‘Top Secret’, 26 February 1967, Subject File 25, D. P. Mishra Papers, Second Instalment, NMML.

25

Mishra to Kamaraj, 21 June 1967, ibid.

26

See R. C. V. P. Noronha, A Tale Told by an Idiot (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976), chapter 8.

27

Prem Shankar Jha, ‘Telengana: Language is not Enough’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 3 August 1969.

28

S. K. Chaube, Hill Politics in North-East India (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1973), chapters7 and 8.

29

See letters and notes in Subject File 142, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

30

Dipankar Gupta, Nativism in a Metropolis: The Shiv Sena in Bombay (Delhi: Manohar, 1982), pp. 39–40,82–3 etc.; Vaibhav Purandare, The Sena Story (Mumbai: Business Publications, 1999), pp. 22–4, 42–4 etc.

31

Thought, 11 February 1967.

32

See notes in Subject File 128, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

33

Thought, 16 March, 6 July and 19 October 1968; Daily Telegraph, 27 June 1968.

34

See news clippings in Mss Eur F158/239, OIOC.

35

See letters and papers in File 61, Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

36

Thought, 7 June 1968.

37

A. G. Noorani, ‘How Does a Riot Begin and Spread?’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 9 November 1969; N. C. Saxena, ‘The Nature and Origins of Communal Riots in India’, in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., Communal Riots in Post-Independence India, 2nd edn(Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1991); K. D. Malaviya to Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad, 30 March 1967, in Subject File 128, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

38

Ghanshyam Shah, ‘The 1969 Communal Riots in Ahmedabad: A Case Study’, in Engineer, Communal Riots; untitled report on the Ahmedabad riots by a group of Congress MPs, 7 October 1969, in Subject File 142, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

39

Khushwant Singh, ‘Learning Geography through Murder’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 31 May 1970.

40

Editorial in Thought, 2 March 1968; cf. also S. E. Hassnain, Indian Muslims: Challenge and Opportunity (Bombay: Lalwani Publishing House, 1968).

41

This sketch is based on Bidyut Sarkar, ed., P.N. Haksar: Our Times and the Man (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1989), a conversation with Professor André Béteille, Delhi, February 2005 and the material in the P. N. Haksar Papers, NMML.

42

Katherine Frank, Indira: A Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (London: HarperCollins, 2001), p. 314.

43

Note dated 21 January 1968, in Subject File 198, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

44

Speech by S. S. Dhawan, London, March 1969, copy in Subject File 197, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

45

Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1989), pp. 108f.

46

The Years of Challenge: Selected Speeches of Indira Gandhi, January 1966–August 1969, 2nd edn(New Delhi: Publications Division, 1985), pp. 25–8, 34–9, 172–4, 268–9.

47

Thought, 8 and 29 March 1969.

48

Uma Vasudev, Indira Gandhi: Revolution in Restraint (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1974), p. 502.

49

Malhotra, Indira Gandhi, p. 116.

50

Thought, 23 December 1967; Morarji Desai, The Story of My Life, vol. 2 (Delhi: Macmillan India, 1974), pp. 243f.

51

The speech is reproduced in A. Moin Zaidi, The Great Upheaval, 1969–1972 (New Delhi: Orientalia India, 1972), pp. 103–6.

52

Thought, 19 July and 16 August 1969.

53

For details see Subject File 153, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

54

Trevor Drieberg, Indira Gandhi: Profile in Courage (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1972), chapter 7.

55

S. Nijalingappa to Indira Gandhi, 11 November 1969, in Zaidi, The Great Upheaval, p. 231.

56

Sukumar Muralidharan andRavi Sharma, ‘A Congressman from Another Age: S. Nijalingappa, 1902–2000’, Frontline, 1 September 2000.

57

Cf. drafts of speeches in Subject File143, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

58

N(ikhil) C(hakravartty), ‘Syndicate at Waterloo’, Mainstream, 16 August 1969.

59

Nayantara Sahgal, Indira Gandhi: Her Road to Power (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1982), p. 53.

60

Note by P. N. Haksar dated 16 September 1967, Subject File 118, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

61

Subject File 121, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML; Rajinder Puri, India 1969: A Crisis of Conscience (Delhi: privately published, 1971), pp. 67–73.

62

See letters in Subject File 145, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

63

This account of the Parliamentary and judicial interventions in the privy purse controversy is based on D. R. Mankekar, Accession to Extinction: The Story of Indian Princes (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1974), chapters 18 to 20.

64

For details see M. S. Randhawa, A History of Agriculture in India, vol. 4: 1947–1981 (New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1986), chapters 30 to 32.

65

Don Taylor, ‘This New, Surprising Strength of Mrs Gandhi’, Evening Standard, 21 August 1969.

66

New York Times, 26 January 1970.

67

‘Is India Cracking up?’, editorial in Thought, 4 January 1967.

68

‘The Meaning of Naxalbari’, Thought, 17 June 1967.

69

Kathleen Gough, ‘The Indian Revolutionary Potential’, Monthly Review, February 1969 (based on an essay originally published in Pacific Afairs, winter issue, 1968–9).

70

Lasse and Lisa Berg, Face to Face: Fascism and Revolution in India, trans. Norman Kurtin (Berkeley: Ramparts Press, 1971), pp. 23–4, 28, 31, 56, 125, 162, 209–10.

20. THE ELIXIR OF VICTORY

1

Thought, 22 November 1969.

2

See Election Manifestos 1971 (Bombay: Awake India Publications, 1971).

3

Rajaji to Minoo Masani, 2 January 1971, in Subject File 142, C. Rajagopalachari Papers, Fourth Instalment, NMML.

4

Indira Gandhi to Dorothy Norman, 23 April 1971, in D. Norman, ed., Indira Gandhi: Letters to an American Friend, 1950–1984 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), p. 132.

5

Thought, 20 May 1972.

6

‘A Special Correspondent’, ‘The Making of Fifth Lok Sabha’, Thought, 20 March 1971.

7

Khushwant Singh, ‘Indira Gandhi’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 14 March 1971.

8

See D. R. Mankekar, Accession to Extinction: The Story of Indian Princes (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1974), chapter 21.

9

D. N. Dhanagare, ‘Urban-Rural Differences in Election Violence’, in S. P. Varma and Iqbal Narain, eds, Fourth General Elections in India, vol. 2 (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1970).

10

This section is based on Election Commission of India, Report on the Fifth General Elections in India, 1971–72 (New Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1973), passim. The CEC was named S. P. Sen Varma; his report the mystical preface apart – was clearly modelled on the first such, written by his great predecessor Sukumar Sen.

11

This and the following paragraphs are principally based on Herbert Feldman, The End and the Beginning: Pakistan 1969–1971 (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), chapters7 to 9. Cf. also D. R. Mankekar, Pak Colonialism in East Bengal (Bombay: Somaiyya Publications, 1971).

12

Lt. Gen. A. A. K. Niazi, quoted in Muntassir Mamoon, The Vanquished Generals and the Liberation War of Bangladesh (Dhaka: Somoy Prakashan, 2000), p. 159.

13

R. K. Dasgupta, Revolt in East Bengal (Calcutta: G. C. Ray, 1971), pp. 4, 7, 9, 21, 24–5, 29, 39, 52, 61 etc. For the colonial treatment of East Pakistan by the West Punjabi elite, see also Anthony Mascarenhas, The Rape of Bangla Desh (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1971).

14

Cf. reports by eyewitnesses collected in Anon., Bangla Desh Documents (Madras: The BNK Press, 1972), chapter 6.

15

Jyoti Sen Gupta, History of Freedom Movement in Bangladesh, 1943–1973 (Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 1974), pp. 314–16, 325–6. The major who made the announcement was Zia-ur-Rahman, later president of Bangladesh.

16

State Department telegram dated 2 July 1971, reproduced in Roedad Khan, comp., The American Papers: Secret and Confidential India-Pakistan-Bangladesh Documents, 1965–1973 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 613–15.

17

Maj. Gen. Hakeem Arshad Qureshi, The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier’s Narrative (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 60, 71. The sentences quoted could as easily have been penned by an Indian army commander writing about Nagaland in 1957.

18

Werner Adam, ‘Pakistan’s Open Wounds’, Washington Post, 6 June 1971; report in the New York Times, 25 June 1971; World Bank team report in Subject File171, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

19

Anon., Bangla Desh Documents, chapter 7.

20

K. C. Saha, ‘The Genocide of 1971 and the Refugee Influx in the East’, in Ranabir Samaddar, ed., Refugees and the State: Practices of Asylum and Care in India, 1947–2000 (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2003).

21

Iqbal Akhund, Memoirs of a Bystander: A Life in Diplomacy (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 201.

22

25-page secret report entitled ‘Threat of a Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan’, RAW, January 1971, copy in Subject File 220, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

23

Dhar to Haksar, 18 April 1971, ibid.

24

Cf. reports in Subject File 169, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

25

The letter is reprinted in F. S. Aijazuddin, ed., The White House and Pakistan: Secret Declassified Documents, 1969–1974 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 129–30.

26

‘Record of PM’s Conversation with Dr Kissinger’, 7 July 1971, in Subject File 225, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

27

Indira Gandhi to Richard Nixon, 7 August 1971, copy in Subject File 220, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

28

See the documents in Louis Smith, ed., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, vol. 11: South Asia Crisis, 1971 (Washington, DC: Department of State, 2005), pp. 28, 35, 164, 167, 288–9, 303, 316, 324, 557 etc.; and the documents in Aijazuddin, The White House, pp. 242–6, 258–62.

29

For the broader context of India’s changing relations with the superpowers in the early seventies, see T. V. Kunhi Krishnan, The Unfriendly Friends: India and America (New Delhi: Indian Book Co., 1974); Shashi Tharoor, Reasons of State: Political Development and India’s Foreign Policy under Indira Gandhi, 1966–1977 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1982); and Linda Racioppi, Soviet Policy towards South Asia since 1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

30

This paragraph is based on letters and papers in Subject Files 163, 225 and 229, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

31

Top Secret Note of 5 June 1971 in Subject File 89, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

32

‘Record of conversations between Foreign Minister and Mr A. A. Gromyko, Minister of Foreign Affairs, USSR, on 7th June 1971’, in Subject File 203, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

33

The text of the treaty is reproduced in A. Appadorai, ed., Select Documents on India’s Foreign Policy and Relations, 1947–1972, vol. 2 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 136–40.

34

Indira Gandhi, India: The Speeches and Reminiscences of Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1975), pp. 162–4.

35

See Aijazuddin, The White House, pp. 313, 336–9.

36

Robert Jackson, South Asian Crisis: India-Pakistan-Bangla Desh (London: Chatto and Windus,1975), p. 102.

37

Letter of 23 November, in Aijazuddin, The White House, pp. 364–5.

38

Jackson, South Asian Crisis, pp. 106–7; Brian Cloughley, A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (Karachi: Oxford University Press), pp. 148–9.

39

B. G. Verghese, An End to Confrontation: Restructuring the Sub-Continent (New Delhi: 1972), pp. 35–50.

40

Cloughley, A History of the Pakistan Army, p. 222.

41

Lt. Gen. A. A. K. Niazi, The Betrayal of East Pakistan (Delhi: Manohar, 1998), p. 132.

42

Ibid., p. 114.

43

D. R. Mankekar, Pakistan Cut to Size (New Delhi: Indian Book Co., 1972), pp. 54–63.

44

Jackson, South Asian Crisis, pp. 137–8.

45

Telegram quoted in Niazi, Betrayal, p. 180.

46

See Aijazuddin, The White House, pp. 447, 449–50.

47

Niazi, Betrayal, pp. 187ff.

48

Lok Sabha Debates, 16 December 1971.

49

Living not far from the border then, I heard Yahya’s speech as it was delivered – he had (as Pakistani accounts also suggest) consumed a goodly amount of whisky before taking up the microphone.

50

Air Chief Marshal P. C. Lal, My Years with the IAF (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1986), p. 321.

51

Smith, Foreign Relations, pp. 439, 499, 594, 612, 674 etc. Cf. also the letters exchanged between Mrs Gandhi and Nixon after the end of the war, reproduced in Aijazuddin, The White House, pp. 476–80.

52

Time, 3 January 1972; James Reston, ‘India’s Victory a Triumph for Moscow’, New York Times, undated (?20 December 1971) clipping in Subject File 217, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

53

Thought, 29 January 1972.

54

Quoted in C. M. Naim, Ambiguities of Heritage: Fictions and Polemics (Karachi: City Press, 1999), p. 139.

55

See ‘India After Bangla Desh: A Symposium’, Gandhi Marg, vol. 16, no. 2, 1972.

56

Letter of 8 December 1971, in Carol Brightman, ed., Between Friends: The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Mary McCarthy,1949–1975 (New York: Harcourt Brace and Co., 1995), p. 303.

57

A. B. Vajpayee quoted in Thought, 20 May 1972.

58

Ranajit Roy, The Agony of West Bengal: A Study in Union-State Relations, 3rd edn (Calcutta: New Age Publishers, 1973), pp. 3–4; Sajal Basu, West Bengal the Violent Years (Calcutta: Prachi Publications, 1974), p. 78.

59

‘Message to Mrs Gandhi from Sir Alec Douglas-Home’, 20 March 1972, in Subject File179, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

60

As quoted in S. R. Sen to I. G. Patel, letter dated 2March 1972, in Subject File 225, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

61

Untitled note in Subject File 236, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

62

Sajjad Zaheer to P. N. Haksar, 23 March 1972, in Subject File 243, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML (emphasis in original). Mazhar Ali Khan was the father of the student radical, and later prolific author, Tariq Ali.

63

A. Raghavan, ‘Five Days that Changed History’, Blitz, 8 July 1972.

64

Note by Dhar dated 12 March 1972, in Subject File 235, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

65

The text of the Simla Agreement is reproduced in Appadorai, Select Documents, pp. 443–5.

66

The text of the speech is to be found in Subject File 93, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

67

Notes in ibid.

21. THE RIVALS

1

See Indira Gandhi, India: The Speeches and Reminiscences of Indira Gandhi Prime Minister of India (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1975), pp. 215–16.

2

As reported in The Hindu, 16 August 1972.

3

A. Vaidyanathan, ‘The Indian Economy since Independence (1947–70), in Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).

4

This paragraph summarizes several longitudinal studies of rural India, as in G. Parthasarathy, ‘A South Indian Village after Two Decades’, Economic Weekly, 12 January 1963; Kumudini Dandekar and Vaijayanti Bhate, ‘Socio-Economic Change During Three Five-Year Plans’, ArthaVijnana, vol. 17, no. 4, 1975; Robert W. Bradnock, ‘Agricultural Development in Tamil Nadu: Two Decades of Land Use Changes at Village Level’, in TimP. Bayliss-Smith and Sudhir Wanmali, eds, Understanding Green Revolutions: Agrarian Change and Development Planning in South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

5

These studies are usefully summarized in M. L. Dantwala, Poverty in India: Then and Now (Madras: Macmillan India, 1971); and M. Mukherjee, N. Bhattacharya and G. S. Chatterjee, ‘Poverty in India: Measurement and Amelioration’, in Vadilal Dagli, ed., Twenty-Five Years of Independence – A Survey of Indian Economy (Bombay: Vora and Co., 1973). The Dandekar–Rath study was first published in the Economic and Political Weekly in January 1971.

6

J. P. Naik, ‘Education’, in S. C. Dube, ed., India since Independence: Social Report on India, 1947–1972 (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977); Amrik Singh, ‘Twenty-five Years of Indian Education; An Assessment’, in Jag Mohan, ed., Twenty-five Years of Indian Independence (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1973).

7

‘Indian Economic Policy and Performance: A Framework for a Progressive Society’ (1973), reprinted in Jagdish N. Bhagwati, Essays in Development Economics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985).

8

Anon., ‘Mummy Knows Best’, Thought, 2 October 1971.

9

Thought, 5 May 1971; D. R. Rajagopal, ‘Sanjay Gandhi’, Illustrated Weekly of India, July 1971.

10

Letter of 2 February 1971, Indira Gandhi Correspondence, P. N. Haksar Papers, NMML.

11

The Current, 28 July 1973.

12

The Star, 12 August 1973, clipping in Subject File 93, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

13

Note of29 June 1971, ibid.

14

See notes and correspondence in Subject Files 242 and 243, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

15

Unless otherwise stated, this section is based on the synthesis report of those studies: Status of Women in India (New Delhi: Indian Council of Social Science Research, 1974). Much of the data quoted there, and here, are taken from the 1971 Census of India.

16

D. R. Gadgil, Women in the Working Force in India (London: Asia Publishing House, 1965); Bina Agarwal, ‘Women, Poverty and Agricultural Growth in India’, Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. 13, no. 2, 1985–6.

17

Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India, 1860–1990 (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993), chapter 6.

18

See, for more details, P. G. K. Pannikar and C. R. Soman, Health Status of Kerala (Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies, 1984).

19

Ronald J. Herring, ‘Abolition of Landlordism in Kerala: A Redistribution of Privilege’, Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Agriculture, June 1980; P. Radhakrishnan, ‘Land Reforms and Changes in Land System: Study of a Kerala Village’, Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Agriculture, September 1982.

20

See Lok Sabha Debates, 30 November 1971.

21

Justice K. S. Hegde, ‘Perspectives of the Indian Constitution’, Rajendra Prasad Memorial Lecture, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Bombay, March 1972, copy in Subject File 220, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

22

See the letter from Indira Gandhi to Jayaprakash Narayan of 9 June 1973 and his reply of 27 June 1973, both in Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, NMML.

23

A. G. Noorani, ‘Crisis in India’s Judiciary’, Imprint, January 1974.

24

Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1989), pp. 152–3etc.

25

Thought, 1 January 1972.

26

Thought, 8 July 1972.

27

The Current, 8 July 1972; Thought, 23 September 1972.

28

The minutes of these talks are unavailable, but for some clues of what might have been discussed see the material in Subject Files 183 and 235, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

29

These paragraphs on Nagaland in the early 1970s are based on reports in the Kohima weekly Citizens Voice, issues of which are in Box VIII, Pawsey Papers, CSAS.

30

Thought, 2 March 1974.

31

See Ajit Bhattacharjea, Unfinished Revolution: A Political Biography of Jayaprakash Narayan (New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2004), pp. 193ff.

32

The previous three paragraphs draw upon Ghanshyam Shah, ‘Revolution, Reform, or Protest? A Study of the Bihar Movement’, in three parts, Economic and Political Weekly, 9, 16 and 23 April 1977.

33

The correspondence between Narayan and Mrs Gandhi, very rich and largely unexplored by biographers of either party, is in the JayaprakashNarayan Papers, NMML. The correspondence between JP and Nehru – also less intensely mined than it mighthave been – is scattered between this collection and the Brahmanand Papers, also at the NMML.

34

Quoted in Bhattacharjea, Unfinished Revolution, pp. 205–6.

35

See reports in Subject File 272, Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

36

English translation of speech in Everyman’s Weekly, 22 June 1974.

37

See Robert Jay Lifton, Revolutionary Immortality: Mao Tse Tung and the Cultural Revolution (Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1967). I offer this comparison knowing that it will be dismissed both by Marxists, who will see JP as a lily-livered reformist in comparison with the builder of the Chinese revolution, and by the Gandhians, who will profess shock at the lumping together of a man of non-violence with one known to have been responsible for so many deaths.

38

Anon., ‘Railway Strike in Retrospect’, Economic and Political Weekly, 18 January 1975.

39

S. Nihal Singh, Indira’s India: A Political Notebook (Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1978), pp. 215–16.

40

George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 170–80; Thought, 25 May 1974; Aziz Ahmad (Foreign Minister of Pakistan) to Horace Alexander, 15 June 1974, in Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

41

These paragraphs are based on the letters between Mrs Gandhi and JP in the Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, NMML.

42

Bhattacharjea, Unfinished Revolution, pp. 211f.; Everyman’sWeekly, 21 September 1974.

43

See correspondence between Acharya Ramamurti and JP in Subject File 273, Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

44

Letter of 14 October 1974, in Subject File 277, Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, NMML. Patil’s letter – to which JP’s reply, if there was one, is untraceable – is reminiscent of the warnings uttered along these lines in the Constituent Assembly by his great fellow Maharashtrian, B. R. Ambedkar.

45

Bhattacharjea, Unfinished Revolution, pp. 216–17.

46

Everyman’sWeekly, 16 and 23 November 1974.

47

See B. S. Das, The Sikkim Saga (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983).

48

Letter to JP dated 18 July 1974 from M. Shah, Adoni, Kurnool Dist., A. P., in Subject File 273, Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

49

See statements in Subject File 272, Jayaprakash Narayan Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

50

For a sampling of the former view, see the pages of the Everyman’s Weekly for 1974–5; for the latter, see the Illustrated Weekly of India for the same period.

51

Katherine Frank, Indira: A Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (London: HarperCollins, 2001), p. 368; Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The World was Going our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the World (New York: Basic Books, 2005), pp. 322–3.

52

Unless otherwise indicated, the rest of this section is based on reports and comments in the Indian Express, 1 February to 21 March 1975.

53

Anon., ‘The South Poses a Problem for JP’, Everyman’s Weekly, 4 May 1975.

54

Granville Austin, Working the Democratic Constitution: The Indian Experience (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 314–16.

55

Indian Express, 20 March 1975.

56

Unless otherwise stated, the rest of this section is based on reports in the Indian Express, 10 to 28 June 1975.

57

Prashant Bhushan, The Case that Shook India (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978), pp. 98ff.

58

Ibid., p. 94.

59

Quoted in Dom Moraes, Indira Gandhi (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1980), p. 220.

60

Danial Latin, ‘Indira Gandhi Case Revisited’, undated typescript in Subject File 225, P. N. Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

22. AUTUMN OF THE MATRIARCH

1

Indira Gandhi, Democracy and Discipline: Speeches of Shrimati Indira Gandhi (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1975), pp. 1–2.

2

The note is reproduced in Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), pp. 202–3.

3

K. R. Malkani, The Midnight Knock (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978), p. 37.

4

Gandhi, Democracy and Discipline, pp. 18–19, 61 etc. This volume prints eleven interviews given in the first three months of the emergency – almost one a week by a prime minister never known to be over-fond of the press.

5

See D. V. Gandhi, comp., Era of Discipline: Documents on Contemporary Reality (New Delhi: Samachar Bharati, 1976), p. 254.

6

Indira Gandhi, Consolidating National Gains: Speeches of Shrimati Indira Gandhi (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1976), p. 29. The speech was originally delivered in Hindi; I have used the official translation.

7

JoeElder, ‘Report on Visit to India, August 11–22, 1975’, in File 78, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

8

Sharada Prasad to S. K. De, 16 September 1975, ibid.

9

P. N. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the ‘Emergency’, and Indian Democracy (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 307–11.

10

Narayan to Sheikh Abdullah, 23 September 1975, reprinted in M. G. Devasahayam, India’s Second Freedom – An Untold Saga (New Delhi: Siddharth Publications, 2004), pp. 351–4.

11

For the circumstances of JP’s release, see ibid., chapters 29 and 30.

12

See table reproduced in K. Gangadharan, P. J. Koshy, and C. N. Radhakrishnan, The Inquisition: Revelations before the Shah Commission (New Delhi: Path Publishers, 1978), p. 260.

13

Note of 14 January 1976, in ‘Emergency File’, Hari Dev Sharma Papers, NMML.

14

Indira Gandhi to Verrier Elwin, 14 January 1963, letter in the possession of the Elwin family, Shillong.

15

See Ved Mehta, Portrait of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970), pp. 545–6.

16

Granville Austin, Working a Democratic Constitution: The Indian Experience (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 319–24.

17

Ibid., pp. 334–41.

18

New York Times, 30 April 1976.

19

Austin, Working a Democratic Constitution, pp. 373–4. Cf. also Nani Palkhivala, ‘Reshaping the Constitution’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 4 July 1976.

20

‘Notes on a Meeting with Indira Gandhi, 1, Safdarjung Road, 14th March 1976’, in Mss Eur F236/269, OIOC.

21

See the detailed list of forbidden subjects printed in Sajal Basu, ed., Underground Literature During Indian Emergency (Calcutta: Minerva Associates, 1978), pp. 102–14.

22

Prakash Ananda, A History of the Tribune (New Delhi: TheTribune Trust, 1986), pp. 165–6.

23

Ram Krishan Sharma to Penderel Moon, 25 November 1975, in Mss Eur F230/36, OIOC.

24

Report in the Guardian, 2 August 1976.

25

John Dayal and Ajay Bose, The Shah Commission Begins (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978), p. 208; Michael Henderson, Experiment with Untruth: India under Emergency (Delhi: Macmillan India, 1977), p. 89.

26

G. S. Bhargava, The Press in India: An Overview (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2005), p. 53 etc.

27

Dayal and Bose, Shah Commission, pp. 280–93; Henderson, Experiment with Untruth, p. 89.

28

See K. K. Birla, Indira Gandhi: Reminiscences (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1987), pp. 50–1.

29

Bhargava, The Press in India, pp. 65–6.

30

Quoted in Ved Mehta, The New India (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1978), pp. 63–4.

31

Report by Jonathan Dimbleby in the Sunday Times, reproduced in Amiya Rao and B. G. Rao, eds, The Press She Could not Whip: Emergency in India as reported by the Foreign Press (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1977), pp. 20–1.

32

Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1989), p. 182.

33

Report by J. Anthony Lukacs in the New York Times, reproduced in Rao and Rao, eds., The Press She Could not Whip, pp. 186–98.

34

See Basu, Underground Literature, pp. 7–11.

35

P. G. Mavalankar, ‘No, Sir’: An Independent MP Speaks During the Emergency (Ahmedabad: Sannistha Prakashan, 1979), pp. 20–5, 29–30 etc.

36

The Economist, 24 January 1976. This is almost certainly an over-estimate, and based on the figures supplied by the underground newspaper Satya Samachar.

37

Satya Samachar, 20 September 1976, in ‘Emergency File’, Hari Dev Sharma Papers, NMML.

38

Translated by Sugata Srinivasaraju and reproduced as an epigraph to his translation of Chi Srinivasaraju’s Phoenix and Four other Mime Plays (Bangalore: Navakarnataka Publications, 2005).

39

Basu, Underground Literature, pp. 27, 29, 65; Henderson, Experiment with Untruth, p. 21.

40

These paragraphs on George Fernandes’s activities during the emergency are principally based on C. G. K. Reddy, Baroda Dynamite Conspiracy: The Right to Rebel (New Delhi: Vision Books, 1977); supplemented by material in ‘Emergency File’, Hari Dev Sharma Papers, NMML, and in Snehalata Reddy, APrison Diary (Mysore: Karnataka State Human Rights Committee, 1977).

41

Henderson, Experiment with Untruth, p. 27.

42

I regret I cannot provide a precise reference for this story. I cannot remember where I first heard or read it; whether from a friend who knew Kripalani, or in an obituary printed in the papers when he died. Sadly, as with so many remarkable characters who figure in these pages, Kripalani is yet to find a biographer.

43

‘The Emergency: A Needed Shock’, Time, 27 October 1975.

44

Sydney Morning Herald, 1 September 1976.

45

Letters in The Times, 3 and 14 July 1976.

46

‘Indira Gandhi’s Year of Failure’, editorial in the Observer, 27 June 1975.

47

The only serviceable biography of Sanjay Gandhi at the time of writing remains Vinod Mehta’s The Sanjay Story: From Anand Bhavan to Amethi (Bombay: Jaico, 1978).

48

The interview is reproduced in full in Uma Vasudev, Two Faces of Indira Gandhi (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977), pp. 193–208. Vasudev, who conducted the interview, was editor of Surge.

49

Ibid., pp. 108–10; Dhar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 325–9.

50

Illustrated Weekly of India, 25 January 1976.

51

Illustrated Weekly of India, 15 August, 14 October and 7and 14 November 1976.

52

Dayal and Bose, Shah Commission, pp. 189, 229; Mehta, The Sanjay Story, p. 139.

53

Janardhan Thakur, All the Prime Minister’s Men (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977), p. 57; Satyindra Singh, ‘Pleasing the Crown Prince’, Sunday Pioneer, 25 June 2000; Mehta, The Sanjay Story,pp. 87, 97, 165.

54

Mehta, The Sanjay Story, p. 81.

55

Cf. Emma Tarlo, Unsettling Memories: Narratives of India’s ‘Emergency’ (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2003), pp. 80–2, 98, and map after p. 148.

56

Jagmohan, Island of Truth (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978), pp. 9–10, 182—3 etc.

57

Mehta, The Sanjay Story; Thakur, All the Prime Minister’s Men; and Vasudev, Two Faces, all deal at some length with this coterie and its doings.

58

Tarlo, Unsettling Memories, p. 140.

59

This account of the Turkman Gate incident is principally based on John Dayal and AjoyBose, For Reasons of State: Delhi under Emergency (Delhi: Ess Ess Publications, 1977), chapter 2. But cf. also Mehta, The Sanjay Story, pp. 90–5; and Inder Mohan, ‘Turkman Gate, Sanjay Gandhi and Tihar Jail’, PUCL Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 8, August 1985. Dayal and Bose, as well as Mehta, write that Jagmohan’s determination to clear Turkman Gate was in part motivated by the fact of the residents being Muslim – he saw them, apparently, as Pakistani fifth columnists. Jagmohan’s own account of the incident is in Island ofTruth, pp. 144–9.

60

Mohammad Yunus, Persons, Passions and Politics (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980), pp. 251–2.

61

Satya Samachar, 12 June 1976, in ‘Emergency File’, Haridev Sharma Papers, NMML.

62

There is a very extensive literature on this subject, which this bare summary by no means does justice to. For an introduction to the complexity of issues involved, see Pravin Visaria, ‘Population Policy’, Seminar, March 2002.

63

Illustrated Weekly of India, 15 August 1976.

64

Mehta, The Sanjay Story, p. 112.

65

Ibid., pp. 117–29; Tarlo, Unsettling Memories, pp. 80–2, 98, 140, 150–1.

66

Lee I. Schlesinger, ‘The Emergency in an Indian Village’, Asian Survey, vol. 17, no. 7, July 1977.

67

Satya Samachar, 26 September 1976; news bulletin of Lok Sangharsh Samiti dated 23 November 1976, both in ‘Emergency File’, Hari Dev Sharma Papers, NMML.

68

Basu, Underground Literature, p. 36; Gangadharan et al., Inquisition, pp. 130–3.

69

The locus classicus of this view is the book written by her former Secretary P. N. Dhar on the Emergency. But shades of the argument haunt virtually all the biographies of Mrs Gandhi. See Dhar, Indira Gandhi, as well as the biographies by Jayakar, Malhotra, Moraes, and Vasudev cited above.

70

The Times, 26 August 1976.

71

John Grigg, ‘Tryst withDespotism’, Spectator, 21 August 1976.

72

See the correspondence between Alexander and Mrs Gandhi in File 78, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

73

Levin’s articles are reproduced in full in Rao and Rao, eds., The Press She Could not Whip, pp. 124–31, 268–76.

74

Dhar, Indira Gandhi, p. 344.

75

Henderson, Experiment with Untruth, p. 153; Kuldip Nayar, The Judgement: Inside Story of the Emergency in India (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977), p. 55.

76

A. M. Rosenthal, ‘Father and Daughter: A Remembrance’, New York Times, 1 November 1984.

77

See Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World History (1934; 4th edn London: Lindsay Drummond, 1949).

23. LIFE WITHOUT THE CONGRESS

1

S. Devadas Pillai, ed., The Incredible Elections; 1977: A Blow-by-Blow Document as Reported in the Indian Express (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1977), pp. 19–22, 37–8, 43.

2

Ibid., pp. 74–6, 107–11.

3

Illustrated Weekly of India, 6 March 1977.

4

Ajit Bhattacharjea, Unfinished Revolution: A Political Biography of Jayaprakash Narayan (New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2004), pp. 282–3.

5

Pillai, The Incredible Elections, pp. 196, 198, 237, 244–5, 247.

6

Inder Malhotra, ‘The Campaign that Was’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 20 March 1977; Javed Alam, Domination and Dissent: Peasants and Politics (Calcutta: Mandira, 1985), pp. 63, 65, 98, 168–9.

7

Reports in Pillai, The Incredible Elections, pp. 419–22.

8

S. L. M. Prachand, The Popular Upsurge and the Fall of Congress (Chandigarh: Abhishek Publications, 1977).

9

Cf. Theodore P. Wright, Jr., ‘Muslims and the 1977 Indian Election: A Watershed?’, Asian Survey, vol. 17, no. 12, December 1977.

10

Indira Gandhi to Fory Nehru, 17 April 1977, copy in Pupul Jayakar Papers, Mumbai.

11

Khushwant Singh, writing in his ‘Editor’s Page’, Illustrated Weekly of India,27 March 1977.

12

Janardhan Thakur, All the Janata Men (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1979), p. 148.

13

See Himmat, 30 June 1978.

14

New York Times, 22 March 1977, and Washington Post, 19 April 1977, both quoted in Baldev Raj Nayar, ‘India and the Super Powers: Deviation or Continuity in Foreign Policy?’, Economic and Political Weekly, 23 July 1977.

15

Ajit Bhattacharjea, ‘Janata’s Foreign Policy’, Himmat, 30 December 1977.

16

Cf. press clippings on Carter’s visit in File 77, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

17

Report in The Times, 7 November 1977.

18

As recalled in ‘When Zia Complimented Vajpayee’, New Indian Express, 21 February 1999.

19

Cf. report in Himmat, 4 November 1977.

20

Himmat, 20 January 1978.

21

K. A. Abbas, Janata in a Jam? (Bombay: Jaico Publishing House, 1978), p. 84.

22

Ajit Roy, ‘West Bengal: Not a Negative Vote’, Economic and Political Weekly, 2 July 1977.

23

Sunil Sengupta, ‘West Bengal Land Reforms and the Agrarian Scene’, Economic and Political Weekly, Review of Agriculture, June 1981; Atul Kohli, The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), chapter 3; Prabir Kumar De, The Politics of Land Reform: The Changing Scene in Rural Bengal (Calcutta: Minerva Associates, 1994).

24

Narendra Subramanian, Ethnicity and Populist Mobilization: Political Parties, Citizens and Democracy in South India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 283–6; K. Mohandas, MGR: The Man and the Myth (Bangalore: Panther Publishers, 1992), pp. 11–12, 33–4.

25

The Guardian, 12 November 1977.

26

D. D. Thakur, My Life and Years in Kashmiri Politics (Delhi: Konark Publishers, 2005), p. 277.

27

Shamim AhmedShamim, ‘Kashmir’, Seminar, April 1978. Cf. also Mir Qasim, My Life and Times (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1992), pp. 154–5.

28

Gilbert Etienne, India’s Changing Rural Scene, 1963–1979 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982).

29

Useful overviews of Operation Flood are contained in Martin Doornbos and K. N. Nair, eds, Resources, Institutions and Strategies: Operation Flood and Indian Dairying (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1990); Shanti George, Operation Flood: An Appraisal of Current Indian Dairy Policy (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985).

30

Ashutosh Varshney, Democracy, Development, and the Countryside: Urban-Rural Struggles in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), chapter 4.

31

Cf. ibid. and Ashok Mitra, Terms of Trade and Class Relations (London: Frank Cass, 1977).

32

Neerja Chowdhury, ‘Sharpening the Battle Lines’, Himmat, 23 March 1979; Harry W. Blair, ‘Rising Kulaks and Backward Classes in Bihar: Social Change in the Late 1970s’, Economic and Political Weekly,12 January 1980.

33

Kalpana Sharma, ‘Bihar the Ungovernable State?’, and Rajiv Shankar, ‘Why Bihar Remains Poor’, both in Himmat, 6 October 1978.

34

Sachidananda, ‘Bihar’s Experience’, Seminar, November 1979.

35

Arun Sinha, ‘Class War, Not “Atrocities” against Harijans’, Economic and Political Weekly, 10 December 1977; Pravin Sheth, ‘In the Countryside’, Seminar, November 1979.

36

Atyachar VirodhSamiti, ‘The Marathwada Riots: A Report’, Economic and Political Weekly, 12 May 1979.

37

Owen M. Lynch, ‘Rioting as Rational Action: An Interpretation of the April 1978 Riots in Agra’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 November 1981.

38

Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), pp. 253–4, 263–4.

39

Madhu Limaye, Janata Party Experiment: An Insider’s Account of Opposition Politics, vol. 1 (Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation, 1994), p. 451.

40

New York Times, 30 October 1977.

41

Cf. Himmat, 10 March 1978.

42

Cf. James Manor, ‘Pragmatic Progressives in Regional Politics: The Case of Devaraj Urs’, Economic and Political Weekly, annual issue, February 1980.

43

Ramesh Chandran, ‘The Battle for Chikmaglur’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 5 November 1978.

44

Granville Austin, Working a Democratic Constitution: The Indian Experience (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 463–4.

45

This account of the conflicts within Janata and the party’s split is based on Arun Gandhi, The Morarji Papers: Fall of the Janata Government (New Delhi: Vision Books, 1983); Limaye, Janata Party Experiment, vol. 2; Terence J. Byres, ‘Charan Singh, 1902–87: An Assessment’, Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, 1987–8; and issues of the Himmat weekly throughout 1978 and 1979.

46

Editorial in Opinion, 16 October 1979.

47

Indira Gandhi to Fory Nehru, 17 April 1977, in Jayakar Papers, Mumbai. In her own biography (Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, p. 303), she quotes this letter but leaves out the crucial last sentence.

48

Himmat, 20 July 1979.

49

Jag Parvesh Chandra, Verdict on Janata (New Delhi: Metropolitan Book Co., 1979), pp. 26, 96; Thakur, All the Janata Men, pp. 148–50.

50

Himmat, issues of 6 January and 10 February 1978.

51

Sharad Karkhanis, quoted in Gandhi, The Morarji Papers, pp. 97–8.

52

Austin, Working the Democratic Constitution, pp. 403–4.

53

Illustrated Weekly of India, 6 March 1977.

54

This account is based on Austin, Working a Democratic Constitution, pp. 409–30. But cf. also Soli Sorabjee, ‘Repairing the Constitution: The Job Remains’, Himmat, 23 March 1979.

55

Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India, 1860–1990 (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993), esp. chapters 6 to 8; Chhaya Datar, Waging Change: Women Tobacco Workers in Nipani Organise (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1989).

56

For details see Ramachandra Guha, How Much Should a Person Consume? Environmentalism in India and the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), chapter 2, ‘The Indian Road to Sustainability’.

57

This account is based on my own interactions with these groups over the past three decades. Unfortunately, there is no history of the civil liberties movement in modern India, or studies of its most important groups: such as the People’s Union for Civil Liberties and the People’s Union for Democratic Rights, both based in Delhi; the pioneering Association for the Protection of Democratic Rights, based in Calcutta; the Committee for the Protection of Democratic Rights, based in Bombay; and the Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee, based in Hyderabad. Dr Sitarama Kakarala of the National Law School in Bangalore is currently completing a book on the last-named group.

58

Anil Sadgopal and Shyam Bahadur ‘Namra’, eds, Sangharh aur Nirman: Shankar Guha Niyogi aur Unka Naye Bharat ka Sapna (Struggle and Construction: Shankar Guha Niyogi and his Dreams for a New India) (Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan, 1993). Niyogi was murdered by an assassin – hired, most likely, by local industrialists – in 1992.

59

Robin Jeffrey, India’s Newspaper Revolution: Capitalism, Politics and the Indian-Language Press, 1977–99 (London: C. Hurst and Co., 2000).

24. DEMOCRACY IN DISARRAY

1

Walter Schwarz, ‘Two-Party Democracy Faces a Test Run’, Guardian, 14 May 1977.

2

Clippingfrom the New York Times, 4April 1977; letter to S. K. De, dated 17 June 1977, both in Temp Mss 577/81, Horace Alexander Papers, Friends House, Euston.

3

Horace Alexander to Indira Gandhi, 8 April 1977, ibid.

4

These figures on seats and vote shares come from the statistical supplement to the Journal of Indian School of Political Economy, vol. 15, nos 1 and 2, 2003, this part of a special issue on ‘Political Parties and Elections in Indian States: 1990–2003’, edited by Suhas Palshikar and Yogendra Yadav.

5

Prabhas Joshi, ‘And Not Even a Dog Barked’, Tehelka, 2 July 2005; India Today, 1–15 January 1980.

6

SeeMervyn Jones, Chances: An Autobiography (London: Verso, 1987), p. 271.

7

Moin Shakir, ‘Election Participation of Minorities and Indian Political System’, Economic and Political Weekly, annual issue, February 1980.

8

Nalini Singh, ‘Elections as They Really Are’, Economic and Political Weekly, 24 May 1980.

9

Bashiruddin Ahmad, ‘Trends and Options’, Seminar, April 1980.

10

Typescript of interview with Bobby Harrypersadh, dated 31 May 1980, in Jayakar Papers, Mumbai.

11

India Today, 16–31 May 1980.

12

The Hindu, 24 June 1980.

13

The Tribune, 27 October 1980, copy in Pupul Jayakar Papers, Mumbai.

14

India Today, 16–31 August, 1980.

15

M. V. Kamath, ‘Why Rajiv Gandhi?’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 31 May 1981.

16

India Today, 1–15 December 1981.

17

These paragraphs on the Festival of India are based on the clippings and correspondence in Mss Eur F215/232, OIOC.

18

Rajni Bakshi, The Long Haul: The Bombay Teytile Workers Strike (Bombay: BUILD Documentation Centre, 1986); Meena Menon and Neera Adarkar, One Hundred Years, One Hundred Voices: The Millworkers of Girangaon: An Oral History (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2004). The strike, in effect, killed the city’s textile industry, with most units being declared ‘sick’ by the owners or the state. These mill lands are now the subject of much controversy in Bombay, with citizens asking that they be used for working-class housing or for parks, and property speculators hoping to turn them into luxury apartments and shopping malls.

19

Jan Myrdal, India Waits (Hyderabad: Sangam Books, 1984).

20

Mahasveta Devi, ‘Contract Labour or Bonded Labour?’, Economic and Political Weekly 6 June 1981.

21

Darryl D’Monte, ‘In Santhal Parganas with Sibu Soren’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 8 April 1979, and ‘The Jharkhand Movement’ (in two parts), Times of India, 13 and 14 March 1979. For wider historical overviews of the Jharkhand question, see Sajal Basu, Jharkhand Movement: Ethnicity and Culture of Silence (Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1984); Susan B. C. Devalle, Discourses ofEthnicity: Culture and Protest in Jharkhand (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1992); Nirmal Sengupta, ed., Jharkhand: Fourth World Dynamics (Delhi: Authors Guild, 1982).

22

See Shankar Guha Niyogi, ‘Chattisgarh and the National Question’, in Nationality Question in India: Seminar Papers (Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Radical Students Union, 1982).

23

Bertil Lintner, Land of Jade: A Journey through Insurgent Burma (Bangkok: White Lotus, 1990), pp. 83–4 and passim.

24

‘Report of a Fact-Finding Team’, chapter 21 in Luingam Luithui and Nandita Haksar, eds, Nagaland File: A Question of Human Rights (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1984).

25

Personal communication from P. Sainath, who was covering Andhra Pradesh politics at the time.

26

Times of India, 30 March 1982; Sunday, 16 January 1983.

27

See interview with NTR in Sunday, 12 December 1982.

28

Times of India, 10 January 1983.

29

M. Ramchandra Rao, ‘NTR – Victim of His Own Charisma?’, Janata, 24 April 1983.

30

Indian Express, 15 September 1983.

31

Myron Weiner, Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflictin India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), chapter 3; Alaka Sarmah, Immigration and Assam Politics (Delhi: Ajanta Books, 1999); Anindita Dasgupta, ‘Denial and Resistance: Sylhet Partition Refugees in Assam’, Contemporary South Asia, vol. 10, no. 3, 2001.

32

Amalendu Guha, ‘Little Nationalism Turned Chauvinist: Assam’s Anti-Foreigner Upsurge 1979–80’, Economic and Political Weekly, annual issue, October 1980.

33

Sanjib Baruah, India against Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), esp. chapter 5; Tilotomma Misra, ‘Assam and the National Question’, in Nationality Question in India; Udayon Misra, The Periphery Strikes Back: Challenges to the Nation-State in Assam and Nagaland (Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 2000), chapters 4 and 5.

34

Chaitanya Kalbagh, ‘The North-East: India’s Bangladesh?’, India Today, 1–15 May 1980.

35

Economic Times, 3 November 1980.

36

Quoted in the Times of India, 30 July 1980.

37

See T. S. Murty, Assam, the Difficult Years: A Study of Political Developments in 1979–83 (New Delhi: Himalayan Books, 1983).

38

Devdutt, ‘Assam Agitation: It Is not the End of the Tunnel’, The Financial Express, 8 October 1980.

39

A wide-ranging and still valuable collection of essays on Sikh political history is Paul Wallace and Surendra Chopra, eds, Political Dynamics of Punjab (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1981).

40

There are various versions of the Anandpur Sahib Resolution. I have here used the text as authenticated by Sant Harcharan Singh Longowal and printed in White Paper on the Punjab Agitation (New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1984), pp. 67–90.

41

This account of the Punjab dispute draws upon the following books and articles: Robin Jeffrey, What’s Happening to India: Punjab, Ethnic Conflict and the Test for Federalism, 2nd edn(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994); ChandJoshi, Bhindranwale: Myth and Reality (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1984); Anup Chand Kapur, The Punjab Crisis (Delhi: S. Chand and Co, 1985); Ram Narayan Kumar, The Sikh Unrest and the Indian State (Delhi: Ajanta Publishers, 1997); Mark Tully and Satish Jacob, Amritsar: Mrs Gandhi’s Last Battle (London: Pan Books, 1985); Satinder Singh, Khalistan: An Academic Analysis (New Delhi: Amar Prakashan, 1982); Harjot Oberoi, ‘Sikh Fundamentalism: Translating History into Theory’, in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds, Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Hamish Telford, ‘The Political Economyof Punjab: Creating Space for Sikh Militancy’, Asian Survey, vol. 32, no. 11, November 1992.

42

Cf. the suggestive analysis of Bhindranwale’s sermons in Mark Juergensmeyer, ‘The Logic of Religious Violence: The Case of the Punjab’, Contributions to Indian Sociology, new series, vol. 22, no. 1, 1988.

43

Ayesha Kagal, quoted in Paul Wallace, ‘Religious and Ethnic Politics: Political Mobilization in Punjab’, in Francine R. Frankeland M. S. A. Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in India: Decline of a Social Order, vol. 2 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 451.

44

See profile of Bhindranwale in India Today, 1–15 October 1981; Murray J. Leaf, Song of Hope: The Green Revolution in a Panjab Village (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984), chapter 7, ‘Religion’.

45

Clipping in Mss Eur F230/36, OIOC.

46

Indian Express, 21 September 1981.

47

The verdicts, respectively, of Tully and Jacob, Amritsar, p. 71, and Joshi, Bhindranwale, p. 90.

48

For an insightful contemporary account of the pressures on the Akalis to become more extreme, see Gopal Singh, ‘Socio-economic Bases of the Punjab Crisis’, Economic and Political Weekly, 7 January 1984.

49

Interview with MadhuJain in Sunday, 4 September 1983; Rajinder Puri, ‘Remembering 1984’, National Review, November 2003.

50

Anne Vaugier-Chatterjee, Histoire Politique du Pendjab de 1947 á nos Jours (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), pp. 158f.

51

On the significance of the Akal Takht, see Madanjit Kaur, The GoldenTemple: Past and Present (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1983), pp. 268–70.

52

Paul Wallace, ‘Religious and Secular Politics in Punjab: The Sikh Dilemma in Competing Political Systems,’ in Wallace and Chopra, Political Dynamics of Punjab, pp. 1–2.

53

M. J. Akbar, Riot after Riot: Reports on Caste and Communal Violence in India (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1988).

54

Achyut Yagnik, ‘Spectre of Caste War’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 March 1981; Pradip Kumar Bose, ‘Social Mobility and Caste Violence: A Study of the Gujarat Riots’, Economic and Political Weekly, 18 April 1981.

55

Quoted in Moin Shakir, ‘An Analytical View of Communal Violence’, in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., Communal Riots in Post-Independence India,2ndedn(Hyderabad: Sangam Books, 1991), p. 95.

56

Individual studies of these riots are contained in Akbar, Riot after Riot; Engineer, Communal Riots; in the reports of civil liberties groups and in articles published in the Economic and Political Weekly during these years.

57

The following paragraphs, identifying and enumerating these themes, are based on my own reading of the literature; but see also Asghar Ali Engineer, ‘An Analytical Study of the Meerut Riots’, PUCL Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 1, January 1983.

58

George Mathew, ‘Politicisation of Religion: Conversions to Islam in Tamil Nadu’, Economic and Political Weekly, 19 June 1982.

59

See M. J. Akbar, India: The Siege Within (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985), pp. 197ff.

60

Cf. Balraj Puri, ‘Who is Playing with National Interest?’, Economic and Political Weekly, 11 February 1984.

61

Lt. Gen. K. S. Brar, Operation Blue Star: The True Story (New Delhi: UBS Publishers, 1987), pp. 35–7. Since he led the operation, and since all journalists had been evacuated beforehand, Brar’s book is essential in any reconstruction of Operation Bluestar. However, it should be read alongside Tully and Jacob, Amritsar, this based on interviews with eyewitnesses and survivors.

62

Brar, Operation Bluestar, p. 91.

63

Ibid., pp. 126–7.

64

Lt. Gen. J. S. Aurora, ‘If Khalistan Comes, the Sikhs will be the Losers’, in Patwant Singh and Harji Malik, eds, Punjab: The Fatal Miscalculation (New Delhi: Patwant Singh, 1985), p. 133.

65

J. S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 227.

66

Shahnaz Anklesaria, ‘Fall-out of Army Action: A Field Report’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 July 1984.

67

Sten Widmalm, ‘The Rise and Fall of Democracy in Jammu and Kashmir, 1975–1989’, in Amrita Basu and Atul Kohli, eds, Community Conflicts and the State in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988); B. K. Nehru, Nice Guys Finish Second (New Delhi: Viking, 1997), pp. 627–41.

68

The Week, 26 August 1984.

69

Indira Gandhi to Erna Sailer, 20 October 1984, copy in Jayakar Papers, Mumbai.

70

Pupul Jayakar, ‘31 October’, typescript in ibid.

71

This account of the anti-Sikh riots in Delhi is based on two works deservedly regarded as classics: Anon., Who are the Guilty? Report of a Joint Inquiry into the Cause and Impact of the Riots in Delhi from 31 October to 10 November (Delhi: PUDR and PUCL, 1984); Uma Chakravarti and Nandita Haksar, The Delhi Riots: Three Days in the Life of a Nation (New Delhi: Lancer International, 1987). I have also drawn upon conversations with friends and colleagues who were active in providing relief after the riots.

72

‘The Violent Aftermath’, India Today, 30 November 1984.

73

‘Indira Gandhi’s Bequest’, Economic and Political Weekly, 3 November 1984.

74

Daniel Sutherland, ‘India Seen Facing Era of Uncertainty’, New York Times, 1 November 1984; Henry Trewhitt, ‘U.S. Fears Assassination may bring Chaos in India, Rivalry in South Asia’, The Sun, 1 November 1984.

25. THIS SON ALSO RISES

1

Times of India, 4 December 1984.

2

Times of India, 14 December 1984.

3

Praful Bidwai, ‘What Caused the Pressure Build-Up’, Times of India, 26 December 1984.

4

Radhika Ramaseshan, ‘Profit against Safety’, Economic and Political Weekly, 22–29 December 1984; Indian Express, 5 December 1984. The Bhopal tragedy has had a tortured and still continuing afterlife, with the survivors and their families ranged against the government (accused of providing insufficient medical relief) and Union Carbide (accused of paying paltry amounts of compensation).

5

Hari Jaisingh, India after Indira: The Turbulent Years (1984–1989) (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1989), pp. 19–20; Business India, 17–30 December 1984.

6

Harish Khare, ‘The State Goes Macho’, Seminar, January 1985.

7

Mani Shankar Aiyar, Remembering Rajiv (Calcutta: Rupa and Co., 1992), p. 53.

8

Harish Puri, ‘Punjab: Elections and After’, Economic and Political Weekly, 5 October 1985; India Today, 15 September and 15 October 1985.

9

India Today,15 September 1985 and 15 January 1986; Sunday, 29 December–4 January 1986.

10

See Lalchungnunga, Mizoram: Politics of Regionalism and National Integration (New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 2002), Appendix D; report in Sunday, 20–26 July 1986.

11

‘Mizoram: Quest for Peace’, India Today, 31 July 1986.

12

S. S. Gill, The Dynasty: A Political Biography of the Premier Ruling Family of Modern India (New Delhi: Harper Collins India, 1996), pp. 394–5.

13

Business India, December 31 1984–January 13 1985.

14

Shubhabrata Bhattacharya, ‘Rajiv Gandhi’s Discovery of India’, Sunday, 22–28 September 1985.

15

See judgment in Criminal Appeal No. 103 of 1981, decided on 23 April 1985 (Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano and Others), Supreme Court Cases (1985), 2 SCC, pp. 556–74.

16

Hutokshi Doctor, ‘Shah Bano: Brief Glory’, Imprint, May 1986.

17

See Danial Latifi, ‘Muslim Law’, in Alice Jacob, ed., Annual Survey of Indian Law, vol. 21 (New Delhi: The lndian Law Institute, 1985).

18

Lok Sabha Debates, 23 August 1985.

19

Ritu Sarin, ‘Shah Bano: The Struggle and the Surrender’, Sunday, 1–7December 1985.

20

E.g. editorial in The Statesman, 19 December 1985.

21

Indian Express, 21 December 1985.

22

Vasudha Dhagamwar, ‘After the Shah Bano Judgement – II’, Times of India, 11 February 1986.

23

See Eve’s Weekly, issue of 29 March–4April 1986.

24

R. D. Pradhan, Working with Rajiv Gandhi (New Delhi: Harper Collins India, 1995), pp. 130–1.

25

Peter Van der Veer, Gods on Earth: The Management of Religious Experience and Identity in a North Indian Pilgrimage Centre (London: The Athlone Press, 1988), especially chapter 1, and ‘"God Must Be Liberated”: A Hindu Liberation Movement in Ayodhya’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 21, no. 2, 1987. Ayodhya’s sister town, Faizabad, gives its name to the district. The official who passed the verdict was technically the district judge of Faizabad.

26

Saifuddin Chowdhury, quoted in Sunday, 9–15 March 1986.

27

See articles by Neerja Chowdhury in The Statesman, 20 April and 1May1986, reproduced in A. G. Noorani, ed., The Babri Masjid Question, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2003), pp. 260–6.

28

Inderjit Badhwar, ‘Hindus: Militant Revivalism’, India Today, 31 May 1986.

29

Sant Ramsharaan Das of Banaras, writing in May 1989, quoted in Manjari Katju, Vishwa Hindu Parishad and Indian Politics (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003), p. 73.

30

India Today, 15 March 1986; Sunday, 25–31 January 1987.

31

Cf. Rajni Bakshi, ‘The Rajput Revival’, Illustrated Weekly of India, 1 November 1987.

32

This figure comes from David Page and William Crawley, Satellites over South Asia: Broadcasting, Culture and the Public Interest (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001), p. 56.

33

Arvind Rajagopal, Politics after Television: Religious Nationalism and the Reshapingof the Indian Public (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 84.

34

Sevanti Ninan, Through the Magic Window: Television and Change in India (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1995), pp. 6–8.

35

Philip Lutgendorf, ‘Ramayan: TheVideo’, Drama Review, vol. 34, no. 2, 1990, p. 128.

36

Robin Jeffrey, ‘Media Revolution and “Hindu Politics” in North India, 1982–99’, Himal, July 2001, emphasis added.

37

Interview in Financial Express, quotedin Supriya Roychowdhury, ‘State and Business in India: The Political Economy of Liberalization, 1984–89’, unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Politics, Princeton University, pp. 100–1. Cf. also Stanley A. Kochanek, ‘Regulation and Liberalization in India’, Asian Survey, vol. 26, no. 12, 1986.

38

H. K. Paranjape, ‘New Lamps for Old! A Critique of the “NewEconomicPolicy"’, Economic and Political Weekly, 7 September 1985.

39

Cf. reports in India Today, 15 March and 15 April 1985.

40

T. N. Ninan, ‘Rise of the Middle Class’, India Today, 31 December 1985. See also ‘The Rising Affluence of the Middle Class’, Sunday, 29 October–1 November 1986.

41

Roychowdhury, ‘State and Business in India’, pp. 73, 122.

42

T. N. Ninan and Jagannath Dubashi, ‘Dhirubhai Ambani: The Super Tycoon’, India Today, 30 June 1985; T. N. Ninan, ‘Reliance: Under Pressure’, India Today, 15 August 1986; Perez Chandra, ‘Reliance: The Man Behind the Legend’, Business India, 17–30 June 1985; Paranjoy Guha Thakurta, ‘The Two Faces of Dhirubhai Ambani’, Seminar, January 2003.

43

‘Crony Capitalism’, Sunday, 2–8October 1988; Teesta Setalvad, ‘Pawar, Politics and Money’, Business India, 10 – 23 July 1989; Sankarshan Thakur, ‘How Corrupt Is Bhajan Lal?’, Sunday, 21–27 July 1985.

44

Indranil Banerjie, ‘The NewMaharajahs’, Sunday, 17–23 April 1988.

45

Niraja Gopal Jayal, Democracy and the State: Welfare, Secularism and Development in Contemporary India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 46ff.; ‘The Wretched of Kalahandi’, Sunday, 19–25 January 1986.

46

R. Jagannathan, ‘Welcome to Hard Times’, Sunday, 6–12 September 1987.

47

M. V. Nadkarni, Farmers’ Movements in India (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1987); special issue on ‘New Farmers’ Movements in India’, Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. 21, no. 2, 1993–4.

48

Vijay Naik and Shailaja Prasad, ‘On Levels of Living of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 July 1984.

49

Tanka B. Subba, Ethnicity, State and Development: A Case Study of the Gorkhaland Movement in Darjeeling (New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 1992); ‘Peace in the Angry Hills?’, Sunday, 24–30 July 1988.

50

Sunday, 27 August–2 September 1989; India Today, 15 September 1989; Business India, 26 June–9 July 1989.

51

Sunday, 25–31 January 1987 and 28 August–3 September 1988.

52

Shekhar Gupta, ’Punjab Extremists: Calling the Shots’, India Today, 28 February 1986.

53

See India Today, issues of 30 April 1986 and 15 September 1988; Sunday, 3–9 January 1986. The violation of human rights by the police in Punjab throughout the 1980s and 1990s is extensively documented in Ram Narayan Kumar et al., Reduced to Ashes: The Insurgency and Human Rights in Punjab (Kathmandu: South Asia Forum for Human Rights, 2003).

54

Reports in Sunday,19–25 May 1985, 19–25 July 1987 and 20–26 March and 1–7 June 1988 and in India Today, 15 June and 31 December 1986.

55

Shekhar Gupta and Vipin Mudgal, ‘Operation Black Thunder: A Dramatic Success’, India Today, 15 June 1988.

56

Interview in India Today, 30 November 1986.

57

Sten Widmalm, ‘The Rise and Fall of Democracy in Jammu and Kashmir, 1975–1989’, in Amrita Basu and Atul Kohli, eds, Community Conflicts and the State in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 167ff.

58

Sunday, 9–15 July 1989.

59

For which see, among other works, A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the19th and 20th Centuries (London: C. Hurst and Co., 2000); Sankaran Krishna, Postcolonial Insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the Question of Nationhood (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000).

60

Shekhar Gupta, ‘Operation Pawan: In a Rush to Vanquish’, India Today, 31 January 1988.

61

Lt. Gen. S. C. Sardeshpande, Assignment Jaffna (New Delhi: Lancer, 1992), preface.

62

Krishna, Postcolonial Insecurities, p. 154 and passim.

63

See Gill, Dynasty, pp. 474–7.

64

See report in India Today, 15 June 1989.

65

Cover storyon ‘TheUgly Indian’, Sunday, 12–18 July 1987.

66

See report in Sunday, 28 September–4 October 1988.

67

Nilanjan Mukhopadhyay, The Demolition: India at the Crossroads (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1994), pp. 260–2; Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics, 1925 to the 1990s (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1999), pp. 383ff.

68

See People’s Union for Democratic Rights, Bhagalpur Riots (New Delhi: PUDR, 1990).

69

Chitra Subramaniam, Bofors: The Story Behind the News (New Delhi: Viking, 1993).

70

India Today,31March and 15 October 1988; Sunday, 30 October–5 November 1988.

71

This ‘Defamation Bill’ is discussed in M. V. Desai, ‘The Indian Media’, in Marshall M. Bouton and Philip Oldenburg, eds, India Briefing, 1989 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989).

72

India Today, 15 January 1989.

73

Sunday, 12–18 March 1989.

74

Indranil Banerjie, ‘Mera Dynasty Mahan’, Sunday,1–7October 1989.

75

See India Today, 31 October 1989; Sunday, 12–18 November 1989.

76

Vir Sanghvi, ‘A Vote for Change’, Sunday, 3—9 December 1989.

77

Sunday, 16—22 June 1985.

78

Kewal Varma, ‘The Politics of V. P. Singh’, Sunday, 19–25 April 1987.

79

T. S. Murty, Assam, The Difficult Years: A Study of Political Developments in 1979–83 (New Delhi: Himalayan Books, 1983), p. vi.

80

Lt. Gen. K. S. Brar, Operation Blue Star: The True Story (New Delhi: UBS Publishers, 1987), p. 4.

26. RIGHTS

1

M. N. Srinivas, ‘Caste in Modern India’, Presidential Address to the Section of Anthropology and Archaeology, in Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress, Calcutta, 1957, part II, pp. 123–42.

2

The press reactions to his talk are discussed in M. N. Srinivas, Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962), Introduction.

3

Cf. André Béteille, Society and Politics in Modern India (London: The Athlone Press, 1991), and ‘Caste and Colonial Rule’, The Hindu, 4 March 2002.

4

The political assertion of the backward castes during the 1960s and 70s is usefully described in Christophe Jaffrelot, India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Low Castes in North Indian Politics (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2003). See also D. L. Sheth, ‘Secularisation of Caste and Making of New Middle Class’, Economic and Political Weekly, 21–28 August 1999.

5

Report of the Backward Classes Commission (Delhi: Controller of Publications, 1980), vol. 1, p. 57.

6

Andreé Béteille, ‘Distributive Justice and Institutional Wellbeing’, Economic and Political Weekly, special issue, March 1991; Dharma Kumar, ‘The Affirmative Action Debate in India’, Asian Survey, vol. 32, no. 3, March 1992; Norio Kondo, ‘The Backward Classes Movement and Reservation in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh: A Comparative Perspective’, in Mushirul Hasan and Nariaki Nakazato, eds, The Unfinished Agenda: Nation-Building in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 2001).

7

Jaffrelot, India’s Silent Revolution, pp. 345–7.

8

See Paranjoy Guha Thakurta and Shankar Raghuraman, A Time of Coalitions: Divided We Stand (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004).

9

Surendra Malik, comp., Supreme Court Mandal Commission Case, 1992 (Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 1992), pp. 180, 196, 379, 387, 412, 424 etc.

10

‘In Search of the Messiah’, Sunday, 31 August–6 September 1988.

11

Jaffrelot, India’s Silent Revolution, chapter 11.

12

Ghanshyam Shah, ed., Dalits and the State (New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co., 2002).

13

This account of Kanshi Ram and the rise of the BSP draws upon Sudha Pai, Dalit Assertion and the Unfinished Democratic Revolution: The Bahujan Samaj Party in Uttar Pradesh (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2002); Kanchan Chandra, Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), chapter 8.

14

Badri Narayan, ‘Heroes, Histories and Booklets’, Economic and Political Weekly, 13 October 2001.

15

Pai, Dalit Assertion, pp. 95–7; Shikha Trivedy, ‘Mayawati’, essay to be published in a forthcoming volume on Indian women politicians edited by Malavika Singh.

16

James Cameron, An Indian Summer (London: Macmillan, 1974), p. 122.

17

Andreé Béeteille, ‘The Scheduled Castes: An Inter-Regional Perspective’, Journal of Indian School of Political Economy, vol. 12, nos 3 and 4, 2000.

18

Hugo Gorringe, Untouchable Citizens: Dalit Movements and Democratisation in Tamil Nadu (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2005), p. 112.

19

The posthumous political importance of Ambedkar awaits a serious scholarly analysis. For clues to how important he is to the Dalit consciousness today see, among other works: Chandra Bhan Prasad, Dalit Diary: 1999–2003 (Chennai: Navayana Publishing, 2004); Fernando Franco, Jyotsna Macwan and Suguna Ramanathan, Journeys to Freedom: Dalit Narratives (Kolkata: Samya, 2004).

20

See the reports authored by and collected in S. Viswanathan, Dalits in Dravidian Land (Chennai: Navayana Publishing, 2005). Cf. also Haruka Yanagisawa, A Century of Change: Caste and Irrigated Lands in Tamilnadu, 1860s–1970s (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996), chapter 7.

21

People’s Union for Democratic Rights, Jhajhar Dalit Lynching: The Politics of Cow Protection in Haryana (New Delhi: PUDR, 2003).

22

Cf. Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as Social Vision: The Movement against Untouchability in 20th-Century Punjab (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Harish K. Puri, ‘Scheduled Castes in Sikh Community: A Historical Perspective’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 June 2003.

23

Ronki Ram, ‘Limits of Untouchability, Dalit Assertion and Caste Violence in Punjab’, in Harish K. Puri, ed., Dalits in Regional Context (Jaipur: Raw at Publications, 2004); Surinder S. Jodhka and Prakash Louis, ‘Caste Tensions in Punjab: Talhan and Beyond’, Economic and Political Weekly, 12 July 2003.

24

Shashi Bhushan Singh, ‘Limits to Power: Naxalism and Caste Relations in a South Bihar Village’, Economic and Political Weekly, 16 July 2005.

25

Mukul, ‘The Untouchable Present: Everyday Life of Musahars in North Bihar’, Economic and Political Weekly, 4 December 1999.

26

Bela Bhatia, ‘The Naxalite Movement in Central Bihar’, unpublished PhD thesis, Faculty of Social and Political Studies, Cambridge University, 2000. Also Bhatia, ‘The Naxalite Movement in Central Bihar’, Economic and Political Weekly, 9 April 2005.

27

See Labour File, vol. 4, nos 5 and 6, 1998, p. 39.

28

Bhatia, ‘The Naxalite Movement’ (thesis), pp. 134, 87 (my translation).

29

C. P. Surendran, ‘On the Run with the Ranvir Sena’, Sunday Times of India, 26 February 1999.

30

See The Hindu, 14 November 2005.

31

People’s Union for Democratic Rights, Satpura ki Ghati: People’s Struggle in Hoshangabad (New Delhi: PUDR, 1992).

32

See Rahul, ‘The Bhils: A People Under Threat’, Humanscape, vol. 8, no. 8, September 2001; various issues of Budhan: The Denotified and Nomadic Tribes Rights Action Group Newsletter.

33

See Amita Baviskar, In the Belly of the River: Adivasi Battles over ‘Development’ in the Narmada Valley (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995); Jean Drèze, Meera Samson and Satyajit Singh, eds, The Dam and the Nation (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998).

34

India Today, 31 December 1999.

35

Manoj Joshi, The Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1999), chapters 1 and 2. See also Tavleen Singh, Kashmir: A Tragedy of Errors (New Delhi: Viking, 1995).

36

Smita Gupta, ‘The Rise and Rise of Terrorism in Kashmir’, The Telegraph (Kolkata), 21 April 1990.

37

Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict (London: I. B. Tauris, 1999), p. 147.

38

These headlines are taken from various news reports filed in the Centre for Education and Documentation, Bangalore.

39

The Telegraph (Kolkata), 27 May 1990; Joshi, The Lost Rebellion, pp. 72–3.

40

See ‘Urgent Action’ reports of Amnesty International, nos UA 102 and 108 of 1991, copies in the files of the Centre for Education and Documentation, Bangalore.

41

V. M. Tarkunde et al., ‘Report on Kashmir Situation’, in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., Secular Crown on Fire: The Kashmir Problem (Delhi: Ajanta Publications), pp. 210–23.

42

For which see Chandana Bhattacharjee, Ethnicity and Autonomy Movement: Case of Bodo-Kacharis of Assam (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1996); Sudhir Jacob George, ‘The Bodo Movement in Assam: Unrest to Accord’, Asian Survey, vol. 34, no. 10, October 1994.

43

Sanjoy Hazarika, Strangers of theNight: Tales of War and Peace from India’s Northeast (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1995), pp. 167–226. Cf. also Sanjib Baruah, ‘The State and Separatist Militancy in Assam: Winning a Battle and Losing the War?’, Asian Survey, vol. 34, no. 10, October 1994.

44

Anindita Dasgupta, ‘Tripura’s Brutal Cul de Sac’, Himal, December 2001.

45

Bhagat Oinam, ‘Patterns of Ethnic Conflictin the North-East: A Study on Manipur’, Economic and Political Weekly, 24 May 2003; U. A. Shimray, ‘Sociopolitical Unrest in the Region Called North-East India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 16 October 2004.

46

These quotes are from interviews with Muivah in the Times of India, 2 March 2005; and in The Hindu, 29 April 2005.

47

See J. B. Lama, ‘Naga Peace: Will the Factions Fall in?’, The Statesman, 18 May 1999.

48

Seema Hussain, ‘Manipur: Burning Anger’, The Week, 1 July 2001.

49

R. K. Ranjan Singh, ‘Refugee Problem in Manipur: A Smouldering Volcano’, Grassroots Options, November–December 1996; Deepak K. Singh, ‘Stateless Chakmas in Arunachal Pradesh: From “Rejected People” to “Unwanted Migrants"’, Social Sciences Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, 2001; Walter Fernandes, ‘IMDT Act and Immigration in North-Eastern India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 23 July 2005.

50

Rishang Keishing, quoted in Ved Marwah, Uncivil Wars: Pathology of Terrorism in India (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1995), p. 295.

51

N. Lokendra ingh, ‘Women, Family, Society and Politics in Manipur (1970–2000)’, Contemporary India, vol. 1, no. 4, 2002.

52

People’s Union for Democratic Rights, Why the AFSPA Must Go (New Delhi: PUDR, 2005); front-page photographs in The Telegraph (Kolkata), 16 July 2004; Sushanta Talukdar, ‘Manipur on Fire’, Frontline, 10 September 2004.

53

Nirmala Ganapathy, ‘Billionth baby put through hell’, New Indian Express, 12 May 2000.

54

Mahendra K. Premi, ‘The Missing Girl Child’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26 May 2001; P. N. Mari Bhatt, ‘On the Trail of “Missing” Indian Females’ (in two parts), Economic and Political Weekly, 21 and 28 December 2002.

55

Ravinder Kaur, ‘Across-Region Marriages: Poverty, Female Migration and the Sex Ratio’, Economic and Political Weekly, 19 June 2004; Prem Chowdhry, ‘Crisis of Masculinity in Haryana: The Unmarried, the Unemployed, and the Aged’, Economic and Political Weekly, 3 December 2005.

56

See the data collated and analysed in Preet Rustogi, ‘Significance of Gender-Related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States’, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 11, no. 3, 2004.

57

Although it was published more than a decade ago, Radha Kumar’s A History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India, 1860–1990 (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993) remains the best single guide to the history of the Indian women’s movement. But one must also mention the work of the magazine Manushi, now thirty years old, and of the publishing house Kali for Women, which has produced more than a hundred books on themes as varied as the law, the environment, social protest, and the economy.

58

Quoted in the New Indian Express, 30 August 2005. See also Bina Agarwal, A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Asha Nayar-Basu, ‘Of Fathers and Sons’, The Telegraph (Kolkata), 11 October 2005.

59

Anon., ‘A Blueprint for Mizoram’, Grassroots Options, monsoon 1999; Sudipta Bhattacharjee, ‘How to be Thirteenth Time Lucky’, The Telegraph (Kolkata), 30 June 1999; Nitin Gokhale, ‘Meghna Naidu in Aizawl’, Tehelka, 9 October 2004.

60

Sarabjit Singh, Operation Black Thunder: An Eyewitness Account of Terrorism in Punjab (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2002), esp. chapters 22–30.

61

See Anne Vaugier-Chatterjee, ‘Strains on Punjab Governance: An Assessment of the Badal Government (1997–1999)’, International Journal of Punjab Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 2000.

62

See ‘The Dynamic Sikhs’, cover story in Outlook, 29 March 1999.

63

Singh, Operation Black Thunder, p. 338.

27. RIOTS

1

Guru Golwalkar, ‘Total Prohibition of Cow-Slaughter’, Hitavada, 26 October 1952, emphasis in original.

2

Richard H. Davis, ‘The Iconography of Rama’s Chariot’, in David Ludden, ed., Making India Hindu: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India, 2nd edn (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996).

3

Ibid., p. 46.

4

Christophe Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics, 1925 to the 1990s (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1999), pp. 420–2.

5

See Paul Brass, The Production of Hindu–Muslim Violence in Contemporary India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 110-23.

6

See Manjari Katju, Vishva Hindu Parishad and Indian Politics (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003), p. 65.

7

Madhav Godbole, Unfinished Innings: Recollections and Reflections of a Civil Servant (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1996), pp. 344–53.

8

See P. V. Narasimha Rao, Ayodhya: 6 December 1992 (New Delhi: Viking, 2006), pp. 99–100.

9

Godbole, Unfinished Innings, p. 363.

10

Quoted in Sunday, 6–12 December 1992.

11

This account of the demolition of the Babri Masjid is based, in the main, on Dilip Awasthi, ‘A Nation’s Shame’, India Today, 31 December 1992. But see also Harinder Baweja, ‘Today, 10 Years Ago: What Really Happened’, Asian Age, 6 December 2002.

12

The conversation was reported in Sunday, 13–19 December 1992.

13

K. R. Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and HinduMuslim Relations (New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 1993), pp. 3–4.

14

Quoted in Venkitesh Ramakrishnan, ‘The Wrecking Crew’, Frontline, 1 January 1993.

15

Arun Shourie, ‘The Buckling State’, in Jitendra Bajaj, ed., Ayodhya and the Future India (Madras: Centre for Policy Studies, 1993), pp. 47–70.

16

Francine R. Frankel, India’s Political Economy, 1947–2004: The Gradual Revolution, 2nd edn (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 714–15.

17

‘Bloody Aftermath’, India Today, 31 December 1992.

18

Clarence Fernandez and Naresh Fernandes, ‘The Winter of Discontent’, in Dileep Padgaonkar, ed., When Bombay Burned (New Delhi: UBSPD, 1993), pp. 12–41.

19

Kalpana Sharma, ‘Chronicle of a Riot Foretold’, in Sujata Patel and Alice Thorner, eds, Bombay: Metaphor for Modern India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 277.

20

Translated from the Marathi and quoted in Vaibhav Purandare, The Sena Story (Mumbai: Business Publications, 1999), p. 369.

21

Clarence Fernandez and Naresh Fernandes, ‘A City at War with Itself’, in Padgaonkar, When Bombay Burned, pp. 42–104; Sharma, ‘Chronicle’, pp. 278–86.

22

Behram Contractor, ‘Bombay Has Lost its Character’, Afternoon Dispatch and Courier, 10 January 1993, reprinted in ‘Busybee’, When Bombay was Bombed: Best of 1992–3 (Bombay: Oriana Books, 2004).

23

Quoted in Lise McKean, Divine Enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 315.

24

Asoka Mehta, The Political Mind of India (Bombay: Socialist Party, 1952), p. 38.

25

Taya and Maurice Zinkin, ‘The Indian General Elections’, The World Today, vol. 8, no. 5, May 1952.

26

Susanne Hoeber and Lloyd I. Rudolph, ‘The Centrist Future of Indian Politics’, Asian Survey, vol. 20, no. 6, June 1980.

27

See the evidence and testimonies in Peter Gottschalk, Beyond HinduandMuslim: Multiple Identities in Narratives from Village India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001).

28

Khadar Mohiuddin, ‘Birthmark’, in Velcheru Narayana Rao, ed. and trans., TwentiethCentury Telugu Poetry: An Anthology (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 221–7.

29

D. R. Goyal, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, 2nd edn (New Delhi: Radhakrishna Prakashan, 2000), pp. 17–18. For a fuller exposition of this ideology, and from the horse’s mouth as it were, see M. S. Golwalkar, Bunch of Thoughts (Bangalore: Vikrama Prakashan, 1966).

30

On the growth of the RSS since 1947 see, among other works, Tapan Basu et al., Khaki Shorts and Saffron Flags: A Critique of the Hindu Right (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1993); Thomas Blom Hansen, The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999); Pralay Kanungo, ‘Hindutva’s Entry into a “Hindu Province”: Early Years of RSS in Orissa’, Economic and Political Weekly, 2 August 2003; Nandini Sundar, ‘Teaching to Hate: RSS’s Pedagogical Programme’, Economic and Political Weekly, 17 April 2004.

31

Cf. Thomas Blom Hansen, Urban Violence in India: Identity Politics,Mumbai, and the Postcolonial City (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001), p. 85.

32

Neerja Chowdhury, ‘Sonia Takes a Political Dip at the Kumbh’, New Indian Express, 20 January 2001.

33

On this last incident, see The Telegraph (Kolkata), 25 January 1999.

34

On the latter question see P. N. Mari Bhatt and A. J. Francis Zavier, ‘Role of Religion in Fertility Decline: The Case of Indian Muslims’, Economic and Political Weekly, 29 January 2005.

35

See Ashish Sharma, ‘Losing their Religion’, Express Magazine, 9 July 2000.

36

This paragraph draws upon, among other works, M. K. A. Siddiqui, Muslims in Free India: Their Social Profile and Problems (New Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies, 1998); Abusaleh Shariff, ‘On the Margins: Muslims in a State of Socio-Economic Decline’, Times of India, 22 October 2004; Yogendra Sikand, ‘Lessons of the Past: Madrasa Education in South Asia’, Himal, vol. 14, no. 11, November 2001, and ‘Countering Fundamentalism: The Ban on SIMI’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 October 2001; Arjumand Ara, ‘Madrasas and Making of Muslim Identity in India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 3 January 2004.

37

Navnita Chadha Behera, State, Identity and Violence: Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000), p. 179.

38

Sonia Jabbar, ‘Spirit of Place’, in Civil Lines 5: New Writing from India (New Delhi: IndiaInk, 2001), pp. 28–9.

39

Cf. reports in The Telegraph (Kolkata), 1 April 1990; in Frontline, 14–27 April 1990; Illustrated Weekly of India, 17 June 1990; Times of India, 11 February 1991. See also Alexander Evans, ‘A Departure from History: Kashmiri Pandits, 1990–2001’,Contemporary South Asia, vol. 11, no. 1, 2002.

40

Cf. Praveen Swami, ‘The Nadimarg Outrage’, Frontline, 25 April 2003.

41

This paragraph is based on Hasan Abbas, Pakistans Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and Americas War on Terror (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2005), chapters 9 and 10. The Tariq Ali quote comes from his The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads, and Modernity(London: Verso, 2002), p. 196.

42

Yoginder Sikand, ‘Changing Course of Kashmiri Struggle: From National Liberation to Islamist Jihad’, Economic and Political Weekly, 20 January 2001.

43

Pamela Constable, ‘Selective Truths’, in S. Thakur et al., Guns and Yellow Roses: Essays on the Kargil War (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1999), p. 52; Hafiz Mohammed Saeed, interviewed by Amir Mir in Outlook, 23 July 2001.

44

Cf. Anil Nauriya, ‘The Destruction of a Historic Party’, Mainstream, 17 August 2002; Praveen Swami, ‘The Killing of Lone’, Frontline, 21 June 2002.

45

News report in the Times of India, 24 January 1990; Joshua Hammer, ‘Srinagar Dispatch’, New Republic, 12 November 2001.

46

Reeta Chowdhuri-Tremblay, ‘Differing Responses to the Parliamentary and Assembly Elections in Kashmir’s Regions, and State-Societal Relations’, in Paul Wallace and Ramashray Roy, eds, Indias 1999 Elections and 20th-Century Politics (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2003).

47

Prabhu Ghate, ‘Kashmir: The Dirty War’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26 January 2002.

48

Jaleel, ‘I Have Seen my Country Die’, The Telegraph (Kolkata), 26 May 2002.

49

James Buchan, ‘Kashmir’, Granta, no. 57, spring 1997, p. 66.

50

See A. G. Noorani, ed., The Babri Masjid Question, vol. 2 (New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2003), pp. 197ff.

51

See Jyoti Punwani, ‘The Carnage at Godhra’, in Siddharth Varadarajan, ed., Gujarat: The Making of a Tragedy (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2002).

52

Ashutosh Varshney, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), esp. pp. 229–30, 240–1, 275–7; Jan Breman, ‘Ghettoization and Communal Politics: The Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion in the Hindutva Landscape’, in Ramachandra Guha and Jonathan Parry, eds, Institutions and Inequalities: Essays for André Béteille (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999); Udit Chaudhuri, ‘Gujarat: The Riots and the Larger Decline’, Economic and Political Weekly, 2–9November 2002.

53

Nandini Sundar, ‘A Licence to Kill: Patterns of Violence in Gujarat’, in Varadarajan, Gujarat; Achyut Yagnik and Suchitra Sheth, The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva and Beyond (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005), chapter 11; report by Ashis Chakrabarti in The Telegraph(Kolkata), 18 May 2002.

54

Bela Bhatia, ‘A Step Back in Sabarkantha’, Seminar, May 2002.

55

Anand Soondas, ‘Gujarat’s Children of a Lesser God’, The Telegraph (Kolkata), 13 March 2002; ‘Gujarat Villagers Set Terms for Muslims to Come Home’, New Indian Express, 6 May 2002.

56

Cf. Varadarajan, Gujarat, pp. 22f. For an insightful profile of Narendra Modi, see Sankarshan Thakur, ‘The Man Who Could Be Prime Minister’, Mans World, December 2002.

57

Frontline, 1 January 1993; Sunday, 13–19 December 1992; India Today, 31 December 1992.

58

Michael S. Serrill, ‘India: The Holy War’, Time, 21 December 1992.

59

The Times, 7 and 8 December 1992.

60

Geoffrey Morehouse, ‘Chronicle of a Death Foretold’, the Guardian, 10 March 2001.

61

Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India Since Independence, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 353–4, 365–6, 348–9.

28. RULERS

1

Anon., ‘After Nehru . . .’, Economic Weekly, special issue, July 1958.

2

When, in a column in The Hindu newspaper, I quoted from this prescient essay, correspondents wrote in to suggest who the anonymous writer might be. One who read the essay when it first appeared speculated that it might have been Nehru himself. Another (and in my view more likely) candidate is Penderel Moon, the ex ICS officer who worked with the government of India for a decade after Independence before retiring to All Souls College, Oxford.

3

Cf. M. P. Singh and Rekha Saxena, India at the Polls: Parliamentary Elections in the Federal Phase (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003).

4

E. Sridharan, ‘Coalition Strategies and the BJP’s Expansion, 1989–2004’, Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 43, no. 2, 2005.

5

See Rasheed Kidwai, Sonia: A Biography (New Delhi: Viking Penguin, 2003).

6

Harish Khare, ‘Reloading the Family Matrix’, Seminar, June 2003.

7

Sridharan, ‘Electoral Coalitions in 2004 General Elections: Theory and Evidence’, Economic and Political Weekly, 18 December 2004.

8

These paragraphs on the changes in the party system draw upon, among other works: E. Sridharan, ‘The Fragmentation of the Indian Party System, 1952–1999: Seven Competing Explanations’, in Zoya Hasan, ed., Parties and Party Politics in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002); Mahesh Rangarajan, ‘Congress in Crisis’, Seminar, January 2003; M. J. Akbar, ‘Prop and Proposition’, Asian Age, 13 July 2003; Giuseppe Flora, ‘The Crisis of 1989–1992: Some Reflections’, in K. N. Bakshi and F. Scialpi, eds,India 19471997: Fifty Years of Independence (Rome: Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 2002).

9

Robin Jeffrey, ‘“No Party Dominant”: India’s New Political System’, Himal, March 2002, p. 41.

10

These studies are summarized in Sunil Jain, ‘Vote Vajpayee’, Business Standard, 16 February 2004.

11

This account of the Cauvery dispute is based on S. Guhan, The Cauvery River Water Dispute: Towards Conciliation (Madras: Frontline, 1993); Ramaswamy R. Iyer, Water: Perspectives, Issues, Concerns (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2003), chapter 3.

12

Ramaswamy R. Iyer, ‘Punjab Water Imbroglio’, Economic and Political Weekly, 31 July 2004; Satyapal Dang, ‘Amrinder Singh and River Water Dispute’, Mainstream, 4 September 2004.

13

See D. Bandyopadhyay, Saila K. Ghosh and Buddhadeb Ghosh, ‘Dependency versus Autonomy: Identity Crisis of India’s Panchayats’, Economic and Political Weekly, 20 September 2003.

14

For details, see Mahi Pal, ‘Panchayati Raj and Rural Governance: Experiences of a Decade’, Economic and Political Weekly, 10 January 2004.

15

See T. M. Thomas Isaac and Richard W. Franke, Local Democracy and Development: Peoples Campaign for Decentralized Planning in Kerala (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 2000); Jos Chathukulam and M. S. John, ‘Five Years of Participatory Government in Kerala: Rhetoric and Reality’, Economic and Political Weekly, 7 December 2002.

16

Rashmi Sharma, ‘Kerala’s Decentralisation: Idea in Practice’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 September 2003; Pranab Bardhan and Dilip Mookherjee, ‘Poverty Alleviation Efforts of Panchayats in West Bengal’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 February 2004; Arild Engelsen Ruud,Poetics of Village Politics: The Making of West Bengal’s Rural Communism (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003); Nirmal Mukharji and D. Bandopadhyay, ‘New Horizons for West Bengal Panchayats’, in Amitava Mukherjee, ed., Decentralization: Panchayats in the Nineties (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1994).

17

There is a growing academic literature on these questions. See, inter alia, the essays by Niraja Gopal Jayal, Bishnu N. Mohapatra and Sudha Pai in the ‘Democracy and Social Capital’ special issue of Economic and Political Weekly, 24 February 2001; S. Sumathi and V. Sudarsen, ‘What Does the New Panchayat System Guarantee: A Case Study of Pappapatti’, Economic and Political Weekly, 20 August 2005.

18

Cf. the critique of Nehru’s views in Jaswant Singh, Defending India (Bangalore: Macmillan India, 1999), pp. 29, 39, 42–3, 57–8 etc.

19

Stephen P. Cohen, India: Emerging Power (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 144–5.

20

Anupam Srivastava, ‘India’s Growing Missile Ambitions: Assessing the Technical and Strategic Dimensions’, Asian Survey, vol. 40, no. 2, 2000.

21

George Perkovich, Indias Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 364–76.

22

Ibid., p. 412.

23

Quoted in Raj Chengappa, Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of Indias Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 2000), pp. 51–2.

24

See Paul R. Dettman, India Changes Course: Golden Jubilee to Millennium (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001), pp. 41f.

25

Interview in Newsline (Karachi), June 1998.

26

Bhumitra Chakma, ‘Toward Pokharan II: Explaining India’s Nuclearisation Process’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 39, no. 1, 2005.

27

For the links between the 1998 tests and India’s wider ambitions see Hilary Synnott, The Causes and Consequences of South Asias Nuclear Tests, Adelphi Paper 332 (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1999); Ashok Kapur, Pokharan and Beyond: Indias Nuclear Behaviour (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001). The arguments of the critics of India’s nuclear ambitions are collected in M. V. Ramana and C. Rammanohar Reddy, eds, Prisoners of the Nuclear Dream (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003).

28

See the cover story in India Today, 1 March 1999.

29

On why and how Pakistan planned the Kargil operation, see Hasan Abbas, Pakistans Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and Americas War on Terror (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2005), pp. 169–74; Owen Bennett Jones, Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (New Delhi: Viking, 2002), pp. 87ff.;Aijaz Ahmad, ‘The Many Roads to Kargil’, Frontline, 16 July 1999.

30

Praveen Swami, The Kargil War, revised edn (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 2000), pp. 10–11.

31

Rahul Bedi, ‘A Dismal Failure’, in S. Thakur et al., Guns and Yellow Roses: Essays on the Kargil War (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1999), p. 142.

32

The course of the Kargil war is described in the works cited in notes 30 and 31 above, and in Srinjoy Chowdhury, Despatches from Kargil (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000).

33

Abbas, Pakistans Drift into Extremism, p. 174; interview with Nawaz Sharif in India Today, 26 July 2004.

34

Cf. news reports in the Asian Age, 4 July 1999; The Telegraph (Kolkata), 9 July 1999; The Hindu, 19 July 1999.

35

The Asian Age, 6 July 1999; The Hindu, 4 July 1999.

36

Sarabjit Pandher, ‘Spirit of Nationalism Eclipses Memories of [Operation] Bluestar’, The Hindu, 16 June 1999.

37

‘Army Job Seekers Go Berserk’, The Hindu, 18 July 1999.

38

Sonia Jabbar, ‘Blood Soil: Chittisinghpora and After’, in Urvashi Butalia, ed., Speaking Peace: Womens Voices from Kashmir (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 2002), pp. 226f

39

There has been some dispute about the agents of the Chittisinghpora massacre. For the argument that the killers were recruited by Indian intelligence, which then sought to pin the blame on Pakistan, see Pankaj Mishra, Temptations of the West: How to be Modern in India, Pakistan and Beyond (London: Picador, 2006), pp. 197f. For the alternate point of view, namely, that the killers were militants who came in from Pakistan, see Praveen Swami, ‘Iron Veils: Reporting Sub-continental Warfare in India’, in Nalini Rajan, editor, Practising Journalism: Values, Constraints, Implications (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2005).

My own conclusion that these were most likely freelancers from across the border, is guided, among other things, by a key piece of evidence provided by the survivors. This was that the killers spoke both Punjabi and Urdu. Now Urdu is spoken by many Muslims in the Indian State of Uttar Pradesh who, however, do not speak any Punjabi. And the only Punjabis who speak Urdu in the Indian State of Punjab would have had their schooling in that language before Partition. They would now be at least seventy years of age, and presumably in no position to trek over high hills to effect a mass murder. On the other hand, there are millions of able-bodied young men in Pakistan Punjab who speak both their mother tongue and the national language, Urdu.

 

As this book must have made quite clear by now, the Indian state has been guilty of many criminal acts in Jammu and Kashmir. But the massacre of the Sikhs in Chittisinghpora does not appear to be among them.

40

See Atal Behari Vajpayee, ‘Musings from Kumarakom’, The Hindu, 2 January 2001.

41

For a list of major terrorist strikes see the Indian Express, 7 April 2005.

42

Himal South Asian, June 2002; Michael Krepon, ‘No Easy Exits’, India Today, 10 June 2002.

43

See Hindustan Times, 19 May 2002.

44

James Michael Lyngdoh, Chronicle of an Impossible Election: The Election Commission and the 2002 Jammu and Kashmir Assembly Elections (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2004), pp. 129, 141–2, 149–50, 180–1 etc.

45

Rekha Chowdhury and Nagendra Rao, ‘Kashmir Elections 2002: Implications for Politics of Separatism’, Economic and Political Weekly, 4 January 2003.

46

Quoted in the Times of India, 26 September 2003.

47

Cf. Hindustan Times, 20 June 2003.

48

Hindustan Times, 30 January 2005; the New Sunday Express, 30 January 2005.

49

Reported in The Hindu, 17 May 2005.

50

Muzamil Jaleel, writing in the Indian Express, 8 April 2005.

51

See ‘Politics as a Vocation’, in Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946).

52

See, for a general overview of corruption in contemporary India, Shiv Visvanathan and Harsh Sethi, eds, Foul Play: Chronicles of Corruption (New Delhi: Banyan Books, 1998).

53

B. S. Nagaraj, ‘Smokescreen Resort’, Indian Political Review, July 2003.

54

Peter Ronald deSouza, ‘Democracy’s Inconvenient Fact’, Seminar, November 2004; Prem Shankar Jha, ‘Keep it Poll-ution Free’, Hindustan Times, 2 January 2006; report in the Times of India (Bangalore edition), 21 January 2006.

55

Sunday, 2–9 March 1985.

56

Reetika Khera, ‘Monitoring Disclosures’, Seminar, February 2004. This account of the criminalization of politics also draws upon information supplied by Professor Trilochan Sastry, a founder member of the Association for Democratic Reforms, the group which filed the original PIL in the Supreme Court.

57

Samuel Paul and M. Vivekananda, ‘Holding a Mirror to the New Lok Sabha’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 November 2004.

58

For a vivid portrait of one notorious criminal in politics, the Bihar MP Mohammad Shahabuddin, see Saba Naqvi Bhowmick, ‘The Saheb of Siwan: The Tale of an Indian Godfather’, in First Proof: The Penguin Book of New Writing from India, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005).

59

Arild Engelsen Ruud, ‘Talking Dirty about Politics: A View from a Bengali Village’, in C. J. Fuller and Veronique Benei, eds, The Everyday State and Society in India (New Delhi: Social Science Press, 2000), pp. 116–18.

60

Report in the International Herald Tribune, 19 November 2004.

61

Jorge Louis Borges, The Total Library: Non-Fiction, 1922–1986, ed. Elliot Weinberger and trans. Esther Allen, Jill Levine and Elliot Weinberger (London: Penguin Books, 2001), p. 309; R. W. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 154.

62

See, in this connection, Akhil Gupta, ‘Blurred Boundaries: Corruption and the Local State’, originally published in the American Ethnologist and reprinted in Zoya Hasan, ed., Politics and the State in India (New Delhi, Sage Publications, 2000); Jonathan Parry, ‘The “Crises of Corruption” and “The Idea of India”’, in Italo Pardo, ed., Morals of Legitimacy: Between Agency and System (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2000).

63

See Ashish Khetan, ‘Taint at the Top’, Tehelka, 23 April 2005.

64

P. S. Appu, ‘The All-India Services: Decline, Debasement and Destruction’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26 February 2005.

65

M. N. Buch to the Prime Minister of India, 15 March 2003. (I am grateful to Mr Buch for sending me a copy of the letter.)

66

See Anindita Dasgupta, ‘Tripura’s Brutal Cul de Sac’, Himal, December 2001.

67

As reported in Grassroots Options, February 1997.

68

Harish Khare, ‘Voting the Periphery Out’, The Hindu, 20 March 2004.

69

André Béteille, ‘The Executive and the Judiciary’, The Hindu, 8 May 2001.

70

These paragraphs on the judiciary are based on the outstanding work of S. P. Sathe: Judicial Activism in India: Transgressing Borders and Enforcing Limits, 2nd ed. (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002). The Madurai example is taken from the New Indian Express, 23 September 2003.

71

M. P. Singh, ‘To Govern or not to Govern: The Dilemma of the Newlndian Party System, 1989–1991’, in M. P. Singh, ed., Lok Sabha Elections 1989: Indian Politics in the 1990s (Delhi: Kalinga Publications, 1992), p. 202.

29. RICHES

1

Quoted in the Current, 22 September 1954.

2

‘The World this Week’, MysIndia, 23 January 1955; ‘Towards Totalitarianism’, MysIndia, 8 May 1955; ‘A Fatal Economic Policy’, MysIndia, 8 November 1953.

3

Cf. Jagdish Bhagwati and Padma Desai, India: Planning for Industrialization: Industrialization and Trade Policies since 1951 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970).

4

J. R. D. Tata, interviewed by Fatma Zakaria, Times of India, 12 July 1981.

5

See Dani Rodrik and Arvind Subramanian, FromHindu Growthto Productivity Surge: The Mystery of the Indian Growth Transition (National Bureau of Applied Economic Research, Washington, March 2004).

6

Anne O. Krueger and Sajjid Chinoy, ‘The Indian Economy in Global Context’, in Anne O. Krueger, ed., Economic Policy Reforms and the Indian Economy (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002). For an overview of the Indian economy on the eve of the reforms, see Bimal Jalan, ed.,The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects (New Delhi: Viking, 1992).

7

Arvind Panagriya, ‘Growth and Reforms during 1980s and 1990s’, Economic and Political Weekly, 19 June 2004.

8

Ashok V. Desai, My Economic Affair (New Delhi: Wiley Eastern, 1993); Kaushik Basu, ‘Future Perfect?’, Hindustan Times, 5 May 2005.

9

Dennis J. Encarnation, Dislodging Multinationals: Indias Strategy in Comparative Perspective (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 214–15, 225.

10

Nagesh Kumar, ‘Indian Software Industry Development: International and National Perspective’, Economic and Political Weekly, 10 November 2001; Pradosh Nath and Amitava Hazra, ‘Configuration of Indian Software Industry’, Economic and Political Weekly, 23 February 2002; Arun Shourie, ‘Ensuring IT remains Indian Territory’, New Indian Express, 3 January 2004.

11

AnnaLee Saxenian, ‘Bangalore: The Silicon Valley of Asia?’, in Krueger, Economic Policy Reforms, p. 175.

12

Raj Chengappa and Malini Goyal, ‘Housekeepers to the World’, India Today, 18 November 2002; ‘Outsourcing to India’, The Economist, 5 May 2001.

13

Saritha Rai, ‘Prayers Outsourced to India’ and ‘US Kids Outsource Homework to India’, both originally published in The NewYork Times, reprinted in The Asian Age, 14 June 2004 and 11 September 2005.

14

Shankkar Aiyar, ‘Made in India’, India Today, 1 December 2003.

15

R. Nagaraj, ‘Foreign Direct Investment in India in the 1990s: Trends and Issues’, Economic and Political Weekly, 26 April 2003.

16

Arvind Virmani, ‘India’s External Reforms: Modest Globalisation, Significant Gains’, Economic and Political Weekly, 9 August 2003.

17

This paragraph is based on Harish Damodaran, Indias New Capitalists (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2008).

18

E. Sridharan, ‘The Growth and Sectoral Composition of India’s Middle Class: Its Impact on the Politics of Economic Liberalization’, India Review, vol. 3, no. 4, 2004.

19

Cf. William Mazzarella, Shovelling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 74–6, 240, 258 etc.

20

Filippo Osella and Caroline Osella, Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict (London: Pluto Press, 2000), p. 127.

21

See, among other works, the special issue on ‘Poverty Reduction in [the] 1990s’, of the Economic and Political Weekly, 25–31 January 2003; K. Sundaram and Suresh D. Tendulkar, ‘Poverty in India in the 1990s: An Analysis of Changes in 15 Major States’,Economic and Political Weekly, 5 April 2003; Angus Deaton, ed., The Great Indian Poverty Debate (New Delhi: Macmillan India, 2005).

22

The words of the novelist Eduardo Galeano, writing of the Latin American city, which in these respects is wholly of a piece with its Indian counterpart, in ‘The Other Wall’, New Internationalist, November 1989.

23

Cf. special issue on ‘Footloose Labour’, Seminar, November 2003; Supriya Roychowdhury, ‘Labour Activism and Women in the Unorganised Sector: Garment Export Industry in Bangalore’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 May–4 June 2005; and, for a more general overview, Ajit K. Ghose, ‘The Employment Challenge in India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 27 November 2004.

24

P. K. Joshi, Ashok Gulati, Pratap S. Birthal and Laxmi Tewari, ‘Agriculture Diversification in South Asia: Patterns, Determinants and Policy Implications’, Economic and Political Weekly, 12 June 2004; M. S. Sidhu, ‘Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industry in India: An Appraisal of the Post-Reform Period’, Economic and Political Weekly, 9 July 2005.

25

Ramesh Chand, ‘Whither India’s Food Policy: From Food Security to Food Deprivation’, Economic and Political Weekly, 12 March 2005; Jean Drèze, ‘Praying for Food Security’, The Hindu, 27 October 2003; Madhura Swaminathan, Weakening Welfare: The Public Distribution of Food in India (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 2000); Ashok Gulati, Satu Kåhkonen and Pradeep Sharma, ‘The Food Corporation of India: Successes and Failures in Foodgrain Marketing’, in Satu Kahkonen and Anthony Lanyi, eds,Institutions, Incentives and Economic Reforms in India (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2000); and, especially, P. Sainath, Everybody Loves a Good Drought: Stories from India’s Poorest Districts (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1996).

26

P. Sainath, ‘Trains Raided for Water in TN’, Times of India, 14 May 1993; Sowmya Sivakumar and Eric Kerbart, ‘Drought, Sustenance and Livelihoods: “Akal” Survey in Rajasthan’, Economic and Political Weekly, 17 January 2004.

27

Verrier Elwin, Maria Murder and Suicide (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1943).

28

Farmers’ suicides are the subject of a remarkable series of field reports published by P. Sainath in The Hindu, too numerous to list individually, but easily tracked down on www.thehinduonnet.com. See also R. S. Deshpande and Nagesh Prabhu, ‘Farmers’ Distress: Proof beyond Question’,Economic and Political Weekly, 29 October 2005; Tehelka, special issue on the farming crisis, 6 March 2004.

29

Cf. Myron Weiner, The Child and the State in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).

30

Jean Drèze and Aparajita Goyal, ‘Future of Mid-Day Meals’, Economic and Political Weekly, 1 November 2003.

31

Sucheta Mahajan, ‘MVF India – Education as Empowerment’, Mainstream, 16 August 2003; Rukmini Banerji, ‘Pratham Experiences’, Seminar, February 2005.

32

See ‘The PROBE Team’, Public Report on Basic Education in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), chapter 9.

33

Vimala Ramachandran, ‘The Best of Times, the Worst of Times’, Seminar, April 2004.

34

Subhadra Menon, No Place to Go: Stories of Hope and Despair from Indias Ailing Health Sector (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2004).

35

Jo Johnson, ‘The Road to Ruin’, Financial Times, 13 /14 August 2005.

36

Pamela Philipose, ‘India Is Seriously Sick’, New Indian Express, 24 January 2006.

37

Arjan De Haan and Amaresh Dubey, ‘Poverty, Disparities, or the Development of Underdevelopment in Orissa’, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 May–4 June 2005; Sanjay Kumar, ‘Adivasis of South Orissa: Enduring Poverty’, Economic and Political Weekly, 27 October 2001; Jean Dreeze, ‘No More Lifelines: Political Economy of Hungerin Orissa’, Times of India, 17 September 2001.

38

Meena Menon, ‘The Battle for Bauxite in Orissa’, The Hindu, 20 April 2005.

39

Anon., The Struggle against Bauxite Mining in Orissa (Bangalore: Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, 2003); Anon., How Wrong? How Right? (Kashipur: Agragamee, 1999).

40

Quoted in Manash Ghosh, ‘Sins of Development’, The Statesman, 9 March 1999.

41

Darryl D’Monte, ‘Another Look at “Backwardness”’, Lokmat Times, 13 October 2000, and ‘Recent Memories of Underdevelopment’, article posted at www.tehelka.com, 12 October 2000.

42

The Struggle against Bauxite Mining, pp. 15–16; reports in the Indian Express, 18 and 19 December 2000.

43

Bibhuti Mishra, ‘Patnaik’s Industrialisation Killing Orissa’s Environment?’, Tehelka, 19 November 2005.

44

See reports in The Hindu, 4 and 5 January 2006.

45

Montek S. Ahluwalia, ‘Economic Reform of States in Post-Reform Period’, Economic and Political Weekly, 6 May 2000; S. Mahendra Dev, ‘Post-Reform Regional Variations’, Seminar, May 2004.

46

Cf. K. P. Kannan, ‘Shining Socio-Spatial Disparities’, Seminar, May 2004; Jean Drèze, ‘Where Welfare Works: Plus Points of the T[amil] N[adu] Model’, Times of India, 21 May 2003.

47

Angus Deaton and Jean Drèze, ‘Poverty and Inequality in India: A Re-Examination’, Economic and Political Weekly, 7 September 2002.

48

T. N. Srinivasan, Eight Lectures on Indias Economic Reforms (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 31.

49

On migration from rural Bihar in particular, see Gerry Rodgers and Janine Rodgers, ‘A Leap Across Time: When Semi-Feudalism Met the Market in Rural Purnia’, Economic and Political Weekly, 2 June 2001; Alakh N. Sharma, ‘Agrarian Relations and Socio-economic Change in Bihar’,Economic and Political Weekly, 5 March 2005.

50

Amartya Sen quoted in an interview in India Today, 20 February 2006.

51

Report in The Statesman, 20 September 2001.

52

T. N. Ninan, ‘Big Growth, Bigger Debates’, Seminar, January 2006.

53

See Naushad Forbes, ‘Doing Business in India: What Has Liberalization Changed?’, in Krueger, Economic Policy Reforms, p. 131.

54

On the EGS debate see Jean Drèze, ‘Bhopal Convention on the Right to Work: Brief Report and Personal Observations’, Social Action, vol. 54, no. 2, 2004; Rinku Murgai and Martin Ravallion, ‘Employment Guarantee in Rural India: What Would it Cost and How Much Would it Reduce Poverty?’, Economic and Political Weekly, 30 July 2005.

55

On the links between liberalization and corruption, see Rob Jenkins, Democratic Politics and Economic Reform in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 87, 90, 93–4, 99, 102–3.

56

See Abhay Mehta, Power Play: A Study of the Enron Project (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2000).

57

Stephen P. Cohen, India: Emerging Power (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. xv, 285–92.

58

News bulletin on CNN/IBN, 22 February 2006.

59

Larry Pressler, ‘Shun Pakistan, Favour India’, first published in the New York Times, reprinted in The Asian Age, 23 March 2005.

60

Cf. C. Raja Mohan, Crossing the Rubicon: The Shaping of Indias Foreign Policy (New Delhi: Viking, 2003), chapter 4; Strobe Talbot, Engaging India (New Delhi: Viking Penguin, 2005).

61

Jairam Ramesh, Making Sense of Chindia: Reflections on India and China (New Delhi: India Research Press, 2005).

62

See cover story in Frontline, 18 July 2003.

63

Report in The Asian Age, 11 April 2005; News bulletin on NDTV, 9 April 2005.

64

Daniel H. Pink, ‘The New Face of the Silicon Age’, Wired, February 2002 (http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.02/india_pr.html).

65

Manjeet Kripalani and Pete Engardio, ‘The Rise of India’, Business Week, 8 December 2003 (http://www.businessweek.com./magazine/content/03_49/ b3861001_mz001.htm).

66

Ron Moreau and Sudip Mazumdar, ‘An Indian Champion’, Newsweek, 12 April 2004.

67

Fareed Zakaria, ‘India Rising’, Newsweek, 6 March 2006.

68

Thomas Friedman, The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the 21st Century (London: Allen Lane, 2005), p. 459.

69

Jeffrey D. Sachs, The End of Poverty: How We Can Make it Happen in our Lifetime (London: Penguin Books, 2005), pp. 185–7.

70

Cf. The Economist, 5 March 2005; Roger Cohen, ‘A New Asia’s Roar is Heard’, published in the International Herald Tribune, and reprinted in The Asian Age, 19 April 2005.

71

Clyde Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists: The Great Shift of Wealth and Power to the East (New York: Basic Books, 2005), pp. 101–5, 232–5.

72

Bharat Jhunjhunwala, ‘Gathering Storm of Indian Imperialism’, New Indian Express, 10 August 2005.

30. A PEOPLE’S ENTERTAINMENTS

1

Useful histories of the Indian film industry include Erik Barnouw and S. Krishnaswamy, Indian Film, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); B. D. Garga, So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India (Bombay: Eminence Designs, 1996). Since this chapter is concerned less with individual achievement and more with social history, it is somewhat parsimonious in speaking of the great actors, directors, singers and composers of Indian cinema, for which the reader is referred to the excellentEncyclopaedia of Indian Cinema, 2nd edn, edited by Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999).

2

As claimed in Amrit Gangar and Virchand Dharamsey, Indian Cinema: A Visual Voyage (New Delhi: Publications Division, 1998), p. 90.

3

The Current, 27 September 1950; The Hindu, 6 August 1953.

4

The Current, 24 December 1952.

5

Garga, So Many Cinemas, p. 151.

6

Rajya Sabha Debates, 26 November and 10 December 1954: the Current, 22 December 1954.

7

Amrit Gangar, ‘Films from the City of Dreams’, in Sujata Patel and Alice Thorner, eds, Bombay: Mosaic of Modern Culture (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1995).

8

Cf. Ranjani Mazumdar, ‘The Bombay Film Poster’, Seminar, May 2003.

9

Satyajit Ray, Our Films, Their Films (Calcutta: Orient Longman, 1976), pp. 90–1.

10

Manmohan Desai quoted in Peter Manuel, Cassette Culture: Popular Music and Technology in North India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 45.

11

George Gissing, New Grub Street (1891; reprint London: J. M. Dent, 1997), p. 354.

12

The best introduction to the narrative structure of the Indian film is Nasreen Munni Kabir’s Bollywood: The Indian Cinema Story (London: Channel 4 Books, 2001). But see also Panna Shah, The Indian Film (Bombay: The Motion Picture Society of India, 1950); Agehananda Bharati, ‘Anthropology of Hindi Films’ (in two parts) Illustrated Weekly of India, 30 January and 6 February 1977.

13

S. S. Vasan, quoted in Robert L. Hardgrave and Anthony C. Neidhart, ‘Films and Political Consciousness’ in Tamil Nadu,’ Economic and Political Weekly 11 January 1975.

14

Mukul Kesavan, ‘An Undergraduate History of Hindi Cinema’, in B. G. Verghese, Tomorrows India: Another Tryst with Destiny (New Delhi: Viking, 2006), p. 323.

15

Naresh Fernandes, ‘Remembering Anthony Gonsalves’, Seminar, November 2004. See also Vanraj Bhatia, ‘Film Music’, Seminar, December 1961; Manuel, Cassette Culture, chapter 3.

16

Ashraf Aziz, Light of the Universe: Essays on Hindustani Film Music (New Delhi: Three Essays Collective, 2003), pp. xvii–xviii.

17

Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, quoted in H. Y. Sharada Prasad, ‘Ye kaun aaj aaya savere savere’, The Asian Age, 18 May 2005.

18

Nasreen Munni Kabir, ‘Playback Time: A Brief History of Bollywood Film Songs’, Film Comment, May–June 2002, p. 41. For loving and informative sketches of the lyricists, composers and singers in Hindi film music, see Manek Premchand, Yesterdays Melodies, Todays Memories(Mumbai: Jharna Books, 2003).

19

Steve Derné, Movies, Masculinity and Modernity: An Ethnography of Mens Filmgoing in India (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), chapter 2. Cf. also Narendra Panjwani, ‘A Small Town Goes to the Movies’, Hindi, vol. 2, no. 2, 2001.

20

Sara Dickey, Cinema and the Urban Poor in South India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), and ‘Opposing Faces: Film Star Fan Clubs and the Construction of Class Identities in South India’, in Rachel Dwyer and Christopher Pinney, eds,Pleasure and the Nation: The History, Politics and Consumption of Public Culture in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001).

21

On Bachchan’s career see, inter alia, Chidananda Das Gupta, The Painted Face: Studies in Indias Popular Cinema (New Delhi: Roli Books, 1991), pp. 239ff.; Ashok Banker, Bollywood (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2001), pp. 67–77.

22

E.g. Sunday, issue of 24 February–2 March 1985.

23

Kaveree Bamzai, ‘A Legend turns 60’, India Today, 21 October 2002.

24

These biographical details have been gleaned from Harish Bhimani, In Search of Lata Mangeshkar (New Delhi: Indus, 1995); Punita Bhatt, ‘The Lata Legend’, Filmfare, 1–15 June 1987.

25

Sunil Sethi, quoted in Garga, So Many Cinemas, p. 192.

26

Cf. Anupama Chopra, Sholay: The Making of a Classic (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000), p. 29 and passim.

27

Ashokamitran, My Years with Boss: At Gemini Studios (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2002), pp. 16–17.

28

The Current, 3 September 1952.

29

Mukul Kesavan, ‘Cine Qua Non!’, Outlook, 18 August 1997.

30

See Mukul Kesavan, ‘Urdu, Awadh and the Tawaif: The Islamicate Roots of Hindi Cinema’, in Zoya Hasan, ed., Forging Identities: Gender, Communities and theState (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1994).

31

Jerry Pinto, ‘The Woman who Could not Care’, in First Proof: The Penguin Book of New Writing from India, vol. 1 (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005), pp. 49–50.

32

Mamooty quoted in Shajahan Madampat, ‘Portrait of a Religious Muslim as a Secular Icon’, unpublished paper kindly shown to me by its author.

33

Bunny Reuben, Follywood Flashback: A Collection of Movie Memories (New Delhi: Indus, 1993), p. 267.

34

Among the many studies of Ray the best are probably Andrew Robinson, Satyajit Ray: The Inner Eye (London: André Deutsch, 1989); and Chidananda Dasgupta, The Cinema of Satyajit Ray, 2nd edn (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2001).

35

The work of these and other directors is discussed in Yves Thorat, The Cinemas of India (1896–2000) (New Delhi: Macmillan India, 2000).

36

This account draws on Rustom Bharucha, ‘Ninasam: A Cultural Alternative’, chapter 14 of his Theatre and the World (New Delhi: Manohar, 1990); various reports publishedby Ninasam and my own visits to Heggodu.

37

H. Y. Sharada Prasad, ‘Subanna’, The Asian Age, 19 October 2005.

38

Sudhanva Deshpande, ‘Habib Tanvir: Upside-Down Midas’, Economic and Political Weekly, 13 September 2003.

39

Gaddar’s life and work is the subject of a forthcoming book by Venkat Rao. Among many articles by Rao, see especially his ‘Writing Orally: Decolonization from Below’, Positions, vol. 7, no. 1, 1999.

40

See, among other works, Bonnie C. Wade, Music in India: The Classical Traditions (1979; revised edn Delhi: Manohar, 2001); Mohan Nadkarni, The Great Masters: Profiles in Hindustani Classical Music (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 1999); Ludwig Pesch, The Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999).

41

See Indira Menon, The Madras Quartet: Women in Karnatak Music (New Delhi: Roli Books, 1999), pp. 173–8. The most recent biography of Subbulakshmi is T. J. George’’s MS: A Life in Music (New Delhi: HarperCollins India, 2004). I have also drawn here on an unpublished essay on MS by the music scholar Keshav Desiraju.

42

There is, as yet, no biography of Ravi Shankar. I have drawn here on his own autobiography, Raga Mala (Guildford: Genesis Publications, 1997), on conversations with music lovers and on my own thirty-year experience of listening to Ravi Shankar.

43

For more on these and other artists, the interested reader is referred to Kumar Mukherji’s The Lost World of Hindustani Music (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2006), a quite wonderful and richly anecdotal history by a scholar-performer.

44

Times of India (Bangalore), 3 March 2003; The Asian Age, 3 March 2003.

45

The arguments in these paragraphs have been elaborated at greater length in Ramachandra Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field: The Indian History of a British Sport (London: Picador, 2002). Cf. also Richard Cashman, Patrons, Players, and the Crowd: The Phenomenon of Indian Cricket (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1980).

46

C. Rajagopalachari, quoted in Pon. Thangamani, History of Broadcasting in India: With Special Reference to Tamil Nadu, 1924–1954 (Chennai: Ponnaiah Pathipagam, 2000), pp. 104–5.

47

See Mehra Masani, Broadcasting and the People (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1976). Cf. also David Lelyveld, ‘Transmitters and Culture: The Colonial Roots of Indian Broadcasting’, South Asia Research, vol. 10, no. 1, 1990.

48

The Hindu, 19 July 1953.

49

David Lelyveld, ‘Upon the Subdominant: Administering Music on All-India Radio’, in Carol A. Breckenridge, ed., Consuming Modernity: Public Culture in a South Asian World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).

50

Ritu Sarin, ‘Doordarshan: The Money Machine’, Sunday, 18–24 August 1985.

51

Chidananda Dasgupta, ‘Cinema: The Unstoppable Chariot’, in Hiranmay Karlekar, ed., Independent India: The First Fifty Years (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 442.

52

See Wimal Dissanayake and Malti Sahai, ‘Raj Kapoor and the Indianization of Chaplin’, paper presented at a symposium on ‘Humour in Cinema: East and West’, Waikiki, Hawaii, 29 November–3 December, 1986.

53

The Current, 28 September 1955.

54

Bunny Reuben, Raj Kapoor: The Fabulous Showman (New Delhi: Indus, 1995), pp. 88f.

55

Times of India, 5 January 1952.

56

K. A. Abbas, I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977), p. 372.

57

Personal communication from Professor James C. Scott of Yale University.

58

Stephen Alter, Amritsar to Lahore: Crossing the Border between India and Pakistan (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000), pp. 132–3, 136, 172–3, 178.

59

‘Bowled Over by Bollywood’, Guardian Weekly, 27 May–5 June 2005.

60

‘Move over LA, Here Comes Bombay’, The Times, 22 June 2000.

61

Time, 27 October 2003. See also the essays in Raminder Kaur and Ajay J. Sinha, Bollywood: Popular Indian Cinema through a Transnational Lens (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2005).

62

Sudhanva Deshpande, ‘Hindi Films: The Rise of the Consumable Hero’, Himal South Asian, August 2001.

63

Times of India, 25 February 2004.

64

S. S. Vasan, ‘Film Production in India Today’, in R. M. Ray, ed., Film Seminar Report 1955 (New Delhi: Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1955), pp. 33–5.

Epilogue: Why India Survives

1

Robert D. Kaplan, ‘The Lawless Frontier’, Atlantic Monthly, September 1999.

2

Ayaz Amir, ‘The Beauty of Democracy’, first published in Dawn, reprinted in The Asian Age, 17 May 2004.

3

Yogendra Yadav, ‘Understanding the Second Democratic Upsurge: Trends of Bahujan Participation in Electoral Politics in the 1990s’, in Francine R. Frankel, Zoya Hasan, Rajeev Bhargava and Balveer Arora, eds, Transforming India: Social and Political Dynamics of Democracy (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 133.

4

Report in the Deccan Herald, 10 October 2004.

5

Bela Bhatia, ‘The Naxalite Movement’ in Central Bihar’, unpublished PhD thesis, Faculty of Social and Political Studies, Cambridge University, 2000, pp. 11–20.

6

J. M. Lyngdoh, quoted in Times of India, 3 December 2003.

7

See, for instance, the collected works of R. K. Laxman, published by Penguin India. Laxman is the most prolific and (by common consent) the most original of Indian cartoonists, but there have been many other gifted practitioners, who, like him, specialize in political satire.

8

Obituary in The Telegraph (Kolkata), 2 January 2003.

9

Benedict Anderson, The Spectre of Comparisons (London: Verso, 1998), p. 132.

10

Sunil Khilnani, ‘Democracy and Nationalism in India’, lecture delivered at the Collège de France, 30 May 2005, p. 2.

11

Isaiah Berlin, ‘Nationalism: Past Neglect and Present Power’ (1979), in his Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas, ed. Henry Hardy (London: Pimlico, 1997), pp. 346–7, 353–4.

12

The modern literature on nationalism would fill a decent-sized library. For a sampling of relevant works see Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origin of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited (London: Verso, 1997). Cf. also the classic early work of Hans Kohn: Nationalism: Its Meaning and History (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1955).

13

See Mukul Kesavan, Secular Common Sense (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2001).

14

See Javeed Alam, Who Wants Democracy? (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2004).

15

Bernard D. Nossiter, Soft State: A Newspaperman’s Chronicle of India (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), pp. 119–23.

16

Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question (London: Martin Lawrence, 1936), pp. 5–6.

17

Quoted in Peter A. Blitstein, ‘Nation-Building or Russification? Obligatory Russian Instruction in the Soviet Non-Russian School’, in Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin, eds, A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Building in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 255.

18

See Neil DeVotta, Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 89–91.

19

See S. M. Burke, ed., Jinnah: Speeches and Statements 1947–1948 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 150 (emphasis added).

20

Arundhati Roy, ‘How Deep Shall We Dig’, The Hindu, 25 April 2004.

21

Cf. Hugh Tinker, Reorientations: Studies on Asia in Transition (Bombay: Oxford University Press), pp. 71f.

22

Pratap Bhanu Mehta, The Burden of Democracy (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2003), pp. 28, 114–15.

23

Michael Howard, quoted in Samuel Huntingdon, Who Are We? America’s Great Debate, Indian edn (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2004), pp. 28–9.

24

Cf. David Gilmour, The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (London: John Murray, 2005).

25

CAD, vol. 10, pp. 43–51.

26

On the history and functioning of the IAS see David C. Potter, India’s Political Administrators: From ICS to IAS (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996); K. P. Krishnan and T. V. Somanathan, ‘Civil Service: An Institutional Perspective’, in Devesh Kapur and Pratap Bhanu Mehta, eds, Public Institutions in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004).

27

Nehru to General Lockhart, 13 August 1947, in Group 49, Part I, Cariappa Papers, National Archives of India, New Delhi.

28

See papers in Group21, Part II, ibid.

29

Nehru to Cariappa, 13 October 1952, in Group XLIX, Part I, Cariappa Papers.

30

Report in The Hindu, 14 January 1953, reproduced in the same newspaper on 14 January 2003.

31

See correspondence in Group 49, Part I, Cariappa Papers, National Archivesof India, New Delhi.

32

Note of 12 December 1958, Group 33, Part I, ibid. Cariappa went on to claim that for these Pakistani generals ‘war between India and Pakistan was simply unthinkable’.

33

Frank Moraes to General Cariappa, 19 December 1968, Group 49, Part I, ibid.

34

J. S. Aurora, ‘If Khalistan Comes, the Sikhs will be the Losers’, in Patwant Singh and Harji Malik, eds, Punjab: The Fatal Miscalculation (New Delhi: Patwant Singh, 1985), pp. 137–8.

35

C. Rajagopalachari quoted in Guy Wint, Spotlight on Asia (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1955), p. 130.

36

George Woodcock, Beyond the Blue Mountains: An Autobiography (Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1987), p. 105.

37

S. Gopal, ‘The English Language in India Since Independence’, in John Grigg, ed., Nehru Memorial Lectures, 1966–1991 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 202–3.

38

Jonathan Parry, ‘Nehru’s Dream and the Village “Waiting Room”: Long-Distance Labour Migrants to a Central Indian Steel Town’, paper to be published in Contributions to Indian Sociology.

39

See Nasreen Munni Kabir, Talking Films: Conversations on Hindi Cinema with Javed Akhtar (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 35.

40

Martin Walker, Makers of the American Century (London: Chatto and Windus, 2000), Preface.

41

Samuel Huntingdon, Who Are We? (reprint: New Delhi. Penguin India, 2004), pp. xv–xvi, 12, 40, 61, 63, 171, 232, 316 etc.

42

John Howard interviewed in Time, 6 March 2006.

43

Ronald W. Clark, JBS: The Life and Work of JBS Haldane (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968).

44

J. B. S. Haldane to Geoff Conklin, 25 July 1962, J. B. S. Haldane Papers, National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh.

45

J. Neyman(Professor of Statistics, University of California, Berkeley) to Haldane, 18 September 1961, ibid.

46

Haldane to Neyman, 26 September 1961, ibid.

47

D. N. Chatterjee to P. N. Haksar, 6 July 1971, Subject File 171, Haksar Papers, Third Instalment, NMML.

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