Chapter 16
In This Chapter
● Meeting victorious kings and mysterious queens
● Working at Deir el Medina
● Getting to know members of the royal administration
History is made up of people, not events. Fortunately, the archaeological evidence from Egypt provides lots of information about these ancient people. Unfortunately, this evidence only relates to the upper classes, including royalty and the elite, who formed only a small percentage of society (see Chapter 1). The majority of the population - the farmers and labourers - are completely lost to modern historians.
Although the elite are very interesting - ten of the most intriguing are the focus of this chapter - the unknown lower classes were almost certainly interesting as well, adding another dimension to the history of ancient Egypt. If you want to find out more about the individuals of ancient Egypt, see People of Ancient Egypt by yours truly (Tempus Publishing, 2005), and John Romer’s Ancient Lives (Phoenix Press, 2003).
Thutmosis III: The Egyptian Napoteon
Many of the kings of the 18th and 19th dynasties were military kings, but none more so than Thutmosis III. He didn’t start out his rule in the most conventional way, though, and he is lucky he was able to make his mark on the military history of Egypt.
Thutmosis III was the son of Thutmosis II and a secondary queen called Isis. On the death of his father, Thutmosis III became king at the tender age of 2 or 3 years old. Because he was clearly too young to rule, he was married to his stepmother Hatshepsut, the widowed Great Royal Wife of Thutmosis II. After a few short years, Hatshepsut took over the throne as a king in her own right (see Chapter 5 for details), shoving Thutmosis III to the side. When Hatshepsut died, Thutmosis III was still only 24 or 25 years old and took over the rule of Egypt as the rightful king.
At the beginning of his sole rule, Thutmosis III started re-establishing the borders and control that Egypt had over the Near East, starting with a great campaign to Megiddo (a city in modern Israel), territory of the Hittites. With great bravery, Thutmosis marched into Megiddo via the most difficult route, catching the Hittites off guard. The Egyptians, however, lost their advantage when they stopped to loot the Hittite camp. The Hittites were able to resist the Egyptians for more than seven months, and the Egyptians eventually returned home. Refer to Chapter 4 for more on this campaign.
Thutmosis didn’t give up though. During his 50 years or so of sole rule, he made 17 additional campaigns into Syria, as well as further campaigns into Nubia - some when he was in his 80s. Through his efforts, he firmly re-established Egypt as a power to be reckoned with.
Horemheb: The Maintainer of Order
Horemheb is a particularly appealing character in Egyptian history because his life is a true rags-to-riches story. He was born in a small town near the Faiyum, to a local middle-class family. He excelled at his studies and became a military scribe during the reign of Akhenaten in the 18th dynasty.
Horemheb slowly and carefully proceeded in his career and rose through the military ranks until he was a general - a powerful and influential position.
But the story gets better: By the time the boy-king Tutankhamun was on the throne, Horemheb was a very prominent figure in the royal court. He is recorded as being the only person who could calm the young king down when he was having a tantrum, and he may even have taught Tutankhamun his military skills. Tutankhamun rewarded this general with the title of deputy king, meaning that Horemheb stood in for the king in some royal appointments and ceremonies.
At the death of Tutankhamun, Horemheb didn’t push his right as deputy king and take over the throne. Instead he allowed the elderly vizier Ay to occupy the throne. Four years later, Ay died and Horemheb became king. A far cry from the middle-class family of his upbringing!
As king, Horemheb started the full-scale restoration of Egypt to the glory of the reign of Amenhotep III, before Akhenaten and his religious revolution (see Chapter 4). This set the standard for the 19th dynasty that was to follow, started by Horemheb’s army general Ramses I. The 19th dynasty was to be an empire-building, military-based, incredibly disciplined and yet religious period of Egyptian history.
Ramses II even built a shrine at the tomb of Horemheb at Saqqara to worship him as a god. From rags to riches to divinity - can anyone hope for more?
Nefertiti: The Beautiful One Has Come
Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten, is one of the most famous queens from ancient Egypt, which is strange because remarkably little is known about her. Although she is mentioned frequently during the reign of Akhenaten (see Chapter 4), no record of her parents, family, or background exists.
Some Egyptologists think Nefertiti was a Mittannian (from an empire that spread from western Iran to the Mediterranean) princess sent to Egypt for a diplomatic marriage. Her name means ‘the beautiful one has come’, which may show that she travelled to Egypt and was given the name when she arrived. However, the wife of Ay holds the title ‘wet nurse’ of Nefertiti, indicating Nefertiti was in Egypt as a young infant and was therefore unlikely to be a foreign princess sent for marriage. Egyptologists now widely accept that Nefertiti was the daughter of Ay, and his wife was her stepmother, indicating perhaps that Nefertiti’s own mother had died.
Nefertiti lived at Amarna and followed the religion of her husband; she is often depicted worshipping the sun disc alongside him. The most famous image of Nefertiti is a painted limestone bust. However, the bust does not have any identifying inscriptions; the identification as Nefertiti is based on the bust’s crown, a design that only she is ever shown wearing.
Nefertiti and Akhenaten had six daughters but no sons, as far as the records show, and one of Nefertiti’s daughters married Tutankhamun. Nefertiti disappeared from the records in year 13 of her husband’s reign when she was in her 30s. Whether she died or was disgraced and banished from the king’s palace to be replaced by another consort is unknown.
Although Nefertiti’s life and death is shrouded in mystery, people are intrigued by Nefertiti, probably because of the lovely bust of Nefertiti in the Berlin Museum, and because she is associated with one of the most written-about kings in Egyptian history. However, we know very little, and until a body is clearly attributed to her we’ll never really know who she was.
Ramose: The Honest Scribe
Ramose was a scribe from Deir el Medina, the village that housed the workmen who built the Valley of the Kings (see Chapter 2). He moved to the village as scribe during the reign of Sety I of the 19th dynasty and worked there for more than 40 years. Ramose was one of the richest and most popular men in the village. He spent a great deal of his wealth on religious shrines and temples and was particularly pious.
Unlike some of the other characters who lived in the village (see the following sections on Kenhirkhepshef, Naunakhte, and Paneb), Ramose was very honest. Available records include no accusations of corruption, bribery, or general naughtiness. He was a goody-two-shoes through and through.
Sadly, the one thing Ramose wanted more than anything was a child, and he and his wife Mutemwia tried for many years, unfortunately without success.
A stela was found at Deir el Medina begging the goddess Hathor to grant them a child in reward for all their piety. This also didn’t work, and Ramose and Mutemwia ended up adopting a new arrival to the village, a scribe called Kenhirkhepshef.
Kenhirkhepshef: An Ancient Historian
Kenhirkhepshef was also scribe at Deir el Medina during the fourth decade of the reign of Ramses II, and he held the position for more than 50 years. Various accusations of corruption were levelled against him, so he was not as honest as his adopted father Ramose.
Kenhirkhepshef is accused of taking bribes to cover up the misdeeds of others and forcing a number of workmen to work for him without pay:
The Draftsman Prahotep salutes his superior. . . Kenhirkhepshef: What does this bad way mean in which you treat me? I am to you like a donkey. If there is some work, bring the donkey; and if there is some food, bring the ox. If there is some beer; you do not look for me, but if there is work, you do look for me.
Corruption aside, Kenhirkhepshef has other intriguing facets. He had an extensive library with papyri on various topics. These papyri contained medical texts, religious spells and hymns, letters, poetry, household hints, and dream interpretations.
Kenhirkhepshef was an early historian and had a particular interest in the history of Egyptian kings. He liked to make long lists, and one of these records the kings of the 18th and 19th dynasty in chronological order. Kenhirkhepshef also had a copy of the Battle of Kadesh report, the famous battle of Ramses II, which shows that Kenhirkhepshef had an interest in current affairs.
Kenhirkhepshef, as an elder of the village, was very firm in his beliefs and didn’t seem to mind voicing them. He was particularly against alcohol, and a text from his library admonishes
Do not indulge in drinking beer for fear of uttering evil speech. If you fall no one will hold out a hand to you. Your companions will say ‘out with the drunk’ you lie on the ground like a little child.
Naunakhte: The Property Owner
Naunakhte lived at Deir el Medina during the reign of Ramses II, and she was married to Kenhirkhepshef, the scribe. At the time of their marriage, she was as young as 12 years old while he was between 54 and 70 years old. Naunakhte and Kenhirkhepshef were married for eight to ten years, although they did not have any children. Kenhirkhepshef was more of a father figure than a husband. He probably married Naunakhte as a means of caring for her and ensuring that she inherited his possessions. As a childless widow when she was only in her 20s, Naunakhte married a workman called Khaemnum from Deir el Medina, and they were married for 30 years. She had eight children with him - four boys and four girls.
Although little has survived about the life of Naunakhte, she left four papyri recording her last will, in which she disinherits four of her children. This meant they would inherit only their father’s and not her personal wealth. The reason she disinherits these children is neglect:
As for me I am a free woman of the land of Pharaoh. I brought up these eight servants of yours, and gave them an outfit of everything as is usually made for those in their station. But see l am grown old, and they are not looking after me in my turn. Whoever of them has aided me, to him I will give of my property but he who has not given to me; to him I will not give any of my property.
Two of the papyri list, item by item, all the objects she owns and which of her children she leaves them to. These documents show that women were in complete control of their own property; but they also show her rather petty and pedantic nature, because each bowl or dish is listed. Ironic, considering the most valuable item today is the papyrus itself.
Paneb: The Loveable Roque
Paneb was one of the most colourful characters from Deir el Medina. He lived there during the reign of Ramses II and probably knew Kenhirkhepshef in later life. Kenhirkhepshef was not keen on alcohol, so some friction may have existed between the two because Paneb was notorious for getting drunk and disorderly. Despite this behaviour, Kenhirkhepshef stood up for Paneb and covered some of his misdeeds.
Throughout his career at Deir el Medina, numerous accusations were made against Paneb of criminal deeds and adultery (for which he was punished).
All accusations were recorded on a document known as the Papyrus Salt (because it was purchased by archaeologist Henry Salt) by a man called Amenakht, who greatly resented the position that Paneb held. The accusations were numerous and varied, including
● Bribing the vizier to gain the position of foreman
● Forcing many workmen and their wives to work for him without payment, including making a relation of Amenakht’s feed his (Paneb’s) ox
● Using government tools to build his own tomb
● Stealing cut stones from the tomb of Merenptah and using them in his own tomb
● Threatening to kill his father, Neferhotep, while he was drunk
● Threatening to kill another Deir el Medina foreman, Hay
● Murdering some men who were to deliver a message to the king
Despite the slowly increasing severity of these accusations, none was proven, and therefore Paneb went unpunished. The accusation of murder, in fact, seems to be hearsay, because Amenakht doesn’t even bother to mention the victims’ names, indicating perhaps he didn’t know who they were.
However, some robbery accusations appear to be based in fact and may have resulted in punishment:
● Tomb robbery 1: A list of items stolen from the tomb of Sety II, includes tomb doors, chariot coverings, incense, wine, and statues. The case was brought before the vizier, and Paneb swore an oath saying ‘Should the vizier hear my name again I shall be dismissed from my office and become a stone mason once more’. This oath was enough to acquit him on this occasion.
● Tomb robbery 2: According to records, Paneb ‘went to the tomb of the workman Nakhmin and stole the bed which was under him. He carried off the objects which one gives to a dead man and stole them.’ No punishment for this, so perhaps the accusation was false.
● Tomb robbery 3: Paneb was accused of taking a model goose from the tomb of a wife of Ramses II, Henutmire. Paneb swore he didn’t take the goose, but the authorities found it in his house. This accusation was shortly followed by Paneb’s disappearance from the records, so perhaps this was enough to get him executed, which was the punishment for tomb robbery.
Bearing in mind he was in his 60s when he died, Paneb lived an active and interesting life. Even at 60 he was clearly a bit of a lad, ducking and diving until the day he got caught - or died.
Mereruka: The Princess's Husband
Mereruka was a very prominent official during the reign of King Teti in the fifth dynasty. Mereruka’s mother was ‘the royal acquaintance’, Nedjetempet, which means Mereruka came from a prominent noble family before his promotion. Mereruka held a number of important titles including
● Overseer of the house of weapons
● Overseer of the king’s harem
● Vizier
● High priest of Re
These important titles show that Teti held Mereruka in high esteem, a fact the king reinforced by allowing Mereruka to marry his daughter Sesheshat.
In addition to becoming son-in-law to the king, Mereruka was made ‘foster child of the king’, indicating that the king favoured him a great deal. So much in fact that Mereruka took the place of the eldest son, acting as Teti’s funerary priest during his funeral.
Mereruka had three children with Sesheshat, and he was also privileged enough to have a secondary wife with whom he had five sons. Mereruka led a busy and varied life, and as vizier he was responsible for much of the state administration (Chapter 1). He also supervised the construction of the pyramid complex of Teti at Saqqara, and in fact he had his own huge mastaba tomb (see Chapter 13) with 32 chambers very close to the pyramid of his king.
Mereruka’s is the largest tomb in the cemetery and is decorated with elaborately and beautifully carved decoration, showing that he was wealthy, prominent, and held the favour of the king. All in all a very privileged young man.
Asm: Chantress of Amun
Asru was a chantress of Amun at the temple of Karnak at Luxor in the third intermediate period. She was of noble birth and inherited the position of chantress, a priestly title, from her mother. Her mummified body was encased in two highly decorated coffins, and her remains tell us a lot about her life.
Fingerprints and footprints taken of the mummy show she was neither a dancer nor a musician, rather a singer who sang prayers and incantations for the worship of the god Amun. In her later years, Asru probably found singing difficult because of breathing difficulties.
Asru suffered from a number of parasitic worms, which caused nausea, dizziness, and anaemia. She probably saw blood and worms in her stools and urine. Her lungs showed evidence of sand pneumoconiosis, which was caused by breathing in sand and led to major respiratory problems. She also had a 20-centimetre cyst on her lung at the time of her death, caused by one of her worms.
When she died, Asru was 60-70 years old - elderly for an ancient Egyptian. She suffered from osteoarthritis and chronic arthritis throughout her body, which damaged the joints of her fingers. At some point in her life, she had a nasty fall that damaged her lower back, sending sciatica pains down her left leg. Her last years were painful, and walking and sitting were difficult, but as a full-time priestess she may have spent her last days in the temple teaching the younger priestesses how to continue their roles.
Nesperenub: The Priest of Khonsu
Nesperenub was a priest of Khonsu at Karnak in the third intermediate period. The temple at the time was very rich because the high priests of Amun had taken over the throne and were ruling the Theban region. This meant the priests at Karnak were well paid and well fed. But poor Nesperenub did not always have such a wealthy lifestyle. His body shows that when he was young he suffered a growth interruption, perhaps caused by poverty or disease.
As was traditional, Nesperenub inherited his position from his father; in fact generations of his family all held the same titles. He also held the title of fan bearer, and he probably fanned the god and ensured he did not overheat in the hot desert sun during processions (see Chapters 9 and 12). Nesperenub was the ‘fan bearer on the right of the king’, showing that he was also responsible for keeping the king cool - another very privileged position to hold.
Nesperenub was approximately 40 when he died, and a CT scan has shown he may have died from a brain tumour. A small hole on the inside of his skull may be the result of the fluids from the tumour eating into the skull. Imagine the headaches - and no ibuprofen to deal with it. The added pain and stink of the abscesses in his mouth and the wear on his teeth mean that Nesperenub was probably quite ratty.
CT scans of Nesperenub’s mummy also show a rather strange object on the back of his head - a small clay bowl used by the embalmers to catch excess resin when sticking the bandages in place. Clearly the embalmers forgot about the bowl, which allowed the resin to set solid and stick the bowl to the back of his head. Damage around the bowl indicates that the embalmers tried to chisel it off. Their efforts didn’t work, and they must have figured if they wrapped up the body, no one would ever know. Poor Nesperenub, destined to wander eternity with a bowl on his head.