Chapter 6
In This Chapter
● Invading other nations and surviving invasions
● Dividing the rule among leaders, cities, and nations
● Meeting famous figures: Alexander the Great, Cleopatra, and others
Until the end of the New Kingdom (see Chapter 4), Egypt was a strong, economically solvent, and powerful country, with control over a large number of surrounding areas. Egypt was a country to be reckoned with.
However, by the end of the New Kingdom in the 20th dynasty (1185-1070 BC), the traditional Egyptian culture began to decline. This decline started with a division of the throne of Egypt - from one king to two (and sometimes more) ruling from separate cities. A united Egypt under one king was one of the most important aspect of kingship, so this change did not bode well for ancient traditions.
This chapter ambitiously covers more than 1,000 years of Egyptian history - from the glorious period just after the reigns of Ramses II and Ramses III all the way to the dramas of Cleopatra.
Egyptian history at this point takes numerous twists and turns - some of which modern historians are still working to understand. Try keeping your head straight by focusing on the bigger picture here. While the specifics are interesting, pay more attention to the waves of change and phases of control as led by various groups, cultures, and nations.
To give you an overall sense of the end of the ancient Egyptian empire, these 1,000-plus years can be outlined as follows:
● Third Intermediate Period (1080-525 BC): Characterised by numerous rulers reigning at the same time from different regions of Egypt.
● Late Period (525-332 BC): Characterised by foreign invasion and regularly changing dynasties.
● Graeco-Roman Period (332-30 BC): Began with the invasion of Alexander the Great and resulted in drastic cultural changes due to the influx of the Greeks into Egypt.
Dividing the Two Lands: Ramses Xl and After
The decline of the Egyptian empire began during the early years of the reign of Ramses XI (1098-1070 BC).
The power of the king was slowly diminishing due primarily to economic problems. The priests of Amun were gaining in power and wealth. (Rather ironically, the king contributed to this increase in power through a number of gifts, offerings, and building works at the temple of Karnak in Luxor.) Eventually the priests held almost as much power as Ramses XI; the king had control of the army - a difference that kept him one step ahead.
Problems occurred when the Viceroy of Nubia, Panehsy, came into conflict with the high priest of Amun, Amenhotep. Panehsy held the upper hand for nine months, preventing the high priest from carrying out his religious duties. Amenhotep eventually turned to Ramses XI for help.
As a very religious king, Ramses fought against Panehsy. Panehsy was eventually exiled to Nubia, and Amenhotep was reinstated as high priest and remained in the position for a number of years before Herihor succeeded him.
Herihor becomes too big for his boots
Ramses XI maintained his good relationship with the priesthood of Amun and bestowed on Herihor the military titles previously held by the exiled Panehsy. This was a huge mistake, because for the first time one man held religious and military titles, making Herihor more powerful than Ramses.
Herihor made the most of the situation and took over the role of king while poor Ramses XI was still alive. It must have been clear to Ramses that Herihor was just waiting for him to die to complete the transaction. No doubt he watched his back, just in case.
Although Herihor died before he could become a true king, he adopted a cartouche (see Chapter 11) and passed on his elevated position to his son-in-law Piankhy, who also ruled alongside Ramses in the same manner. When Ramses XI eventually died, in 1070 BC, four years after Piankhy’s reign started, Piankhy continued to rule Thebes as a king in his own right, albeit only for a few months.
Despite this new elevation of the priests of Amun, their power did not extend outside the Theban region - probably because of a lack of interest on the priests’ behalf.
Ruling in the north: Tunis kings
While the high priests of Amun were ruling in the south of Egypt, the north was ruled by Smendes (1069-1043 BC), a man of rather obscure origins. He ruled from the site of Tanis in the eastern Delta (refer to the Cheat Sheet map), built from the remains of Ramses II’s city at Pi-Rameses. Smendes legitimised his claim to the throne by marrying a daughter of Ramses XI.
Smendes was followed on the throne by Psusennes I (1039-991 BC), who allowed his daughter to marry the high priest of Amun, Menkhepere. This union indicates that a good relationship existed between the northern and southern rulers.
This generally positive relationship between the north and the south continued throughout the rest of the third intermediate and to a certain extent the late period too. The Tanis dynasty, known as the 21st dynasty, lasted for approximately 350 years, prospering during this time, and improved trade and the economy - even if only those in the north of the country experienced the benefit.
The cemetery of the Tanis kings was discovered in 1939 and included the only intact royal burial to be found in Egypt. (Even Tutankhamun’s tomb was robbed in antiquity at least twice.) The artefacts in these tombs were impressive but did not get the recognition they deserved, because the media were tied up reporting the Second World War. Interesting discoveries included:
● The burial assemblage of Psusennes I. Psusennes’s mummy featured a gold death mask and a solid silver anthropoid (human-shaped) coffin. These items were placed inside a sarcophagus that was originally used by Merenptah, the son of Ramses II, which shows that trade between the north and south of Egypt was active, despite the north and south being ruled by different kings.
● The coffin of Sheshonq I. Sheshonq’s coffin is beautiful and unique - a silver, falcon-shaped box. In fact, silver was more valuable than gold because it was not native to Egypt. The use of silver highlights the wealth of the Tanis dynasties and indicates that their trade relations were strong.
Briefly uniting the two lands: Sheshonq 1
The 21st Tanis dynasty was followed by the 22nd dynasty (945-745 BC), the members of which also ruled from Tanis but are believed to be of Libyan origin. The first king of the period is Sheshonq I (945-924 BC), who legitimised his claim to the throne by marrying a daughter of Psusennes II, the last king of the 21st dynasty.
Sheshonq seems to be a Libyan chieftain - specifically a leader of the Meshwesh, a Libyan nomadic tribe. Sheshonq held military titles and adopted the royal titles of Smendes, who had ruled more than 100 years previously. These titles gave his claim to the throne a bit of a kick start.
Although he was Libyan, Sheshonq I reunited the divided Egypt and effectively ruled both Upper and Lower Egypt, which was especially important for him to be accepted as a true king of Egypt. He managed to gain control over the south of Egypt because his son held the title of high priest of Amun, uniting the northern throne and the southern priesthood.
The end of Sheshonq's peace
Despite Shehonq I’s best efforts to rule a unified Egypt and maintain the military prowess of the Egyptian nation, the end of the 22nd dynasty caused unrest and national division. Although the priesthood of Amun was now under the control of the northern king through family ties, near the end of the dynasty the high priesthood experienced a gap in succession that resulted in a civil war lasting for more than a decade.
After this civil war was over, the peace was short lived with further uprisings and hostilities that caused not only north-south divisions but even east-central divisions in the Delta between chiefs of Leontopolis (central) and Tanis (east). The harmony of the reign of Sheshonq I was slowly collapsing into chaos.
Too many kings
The problems in the Delta eventually saw a dynastic change while the seventh king of the 22nd dynasty, Sheshonq III, was still ruling from Tanis.
Three more kings ruled over the next 100 years until the end of the 22nd dynasty, but in the meantime many other rulers emerged throughout the
Delta. Notable among these was Pedibast, a local chieftain in Leontopolis, who took over the rule of the central Delta and split the rule of Egypt into three sections. Members of both Pedibast’s and Sheshonq’s families (east) travelled south to join the priesthood of Amun, ensuring that royal connections existed with this powerful faction.
Towards the end of the 23rd dynasty, the introduction of yet another dynasty of kings brought about further divisions:
● King Sheshonq III at Tanis (22nd dynasty)
● King Iupet at Leontopolis (23rd dynasty)
● King Peftjauabastet at Herakleopolis (23rd dynasty)
● King Nimlot at Hermopolis (23rd dynasty)
● King Tefnakht at Sais (24th dynasty)
Each of these kings ruled only a small area, but all took the full title of king and wrote their names in cartouches. Everyone seemed happy with the arrangement and left one another alone.
However, at the end of the period (around 727 BC), a much bigger threat emerged that stopped any further divisions from developing - the power of Nubia. In fact, this new threat encouraged the kings to join together and work in harmony.
Libyan liberator
In 925 BC, Sheshonq I went to war with Palestine and proved that Egypt's military was still a force to be reckoned with. His campaign has even been comparedto that of Ramses III against the Sea People (see Chapter 4). When King Solomon died in 930 BC, his son Rehoboam ruled Judah, and Jeroboam I (the first king of the tribe of Ephraim to rule Israel) ruled Israel. These rulers were in the throws of a civil war when Sheshonq decided to prove that Egypt was still great.
The Egyptian army first marched to Judah and camped outside the walls of Jerusalem, which was governed by King Rehoboam. The Bible records that Sheshonq (Shishak) was bribed with a great deal of gold and the much coveted Ark of the Covenant so that he would not enter and sackthe city.
Sheshonq continued his march to Israel until he reached Megiddo, the site where Thutmosis III fought his famous battle (see Chapter 4). Sheshonq erected a stela at this site to commemorate his victory against ancient Israel. He further recorded his victories in the quarries of Gebel Silsila and at Karnaktemple.
Exerting Pressure from the South: Nubian Influences
Around 727 BC, the power and influence of the Nubians were spreading north from their homeland as far as the Theban region. If Nubians travelled further north, they may interfere with the tranquillity of a divided north. The northern kings of the 22nd (Tanis), 23rd (Leontopolis), and 24th (Sais) dynasties therefore joined forces to enable them to deal with the Nubian group of rulers (25th dynasty) to prevent the latter’s power from expanding further.
Grouting pouter
Nubia had never really been a threat to the Egyptians before. Until the reign of Ramses II (see Chapter 4), the area had been firmly under the control of the Egyptians, who exploited the Nubians’ quarries and gold mines. After Ramses II’s strength faded, Nubia began to distance itself from the Egyptians and managed to form its own capital city in Napata (near the fourth cataract of the Nile).
During the 21st dynasty, the high priests of Amun gained a great deal of influence over Nubia and even built a large temple to Amun at Gebel Barkal, within Nubian territory. The Nubian priests of this temple also expanded their power throughout the surrounding area and eventually usurped the Nubian kingship.
These Nubian kings used titles and cartouches in the manner of traditional Egyptian kings. After the Nubian dynasty had established itself, it started to move northwards to Egypt, where the Egyptian kingship was obviously in a weakened state because of its numerous divisions. The Nubians saw their advance as an opportunity to turn the tables and control Egypt for a change.
Egypt's the limit: Piankhy
The Nubian king Piankhy (sometimes Piye) confronted the four northern kings of the 22nd-24th dynasties in 727 BC and was victorious against them. Although he stripped them of their kingly titles, Piankhy did allow them to have a certain amount of power in their new positions as local governors, which in all honesty may not have been a great deal different from their roles as petty kings of small regions.
In order to reinforce his position as Egyptian king fully, Piankhy took over the priesthood of Amun, which gave him ultimate power over the Theban region. The kings who succeeded him maintained this connection with the cult of Amun, both in Thebes and in Nubia.
Despite this affiliation with the cult of Amun in Thebes, Piankhy chose to rule from the Nubian capital of Napata. He was buried in a pyramid at el-Kurru, north of Gebel Barkal. Later rulers were also buried in pyramids. These pyramids were very different from the Old Kingdom Egyptian pyramids (see Chapter 14) because they were small but tall and narrow. Many of the Nubian pyramids have produced a number of grave goods, including gold jewellery.
The successor of Piankhy, his son Shabaka, increased the area controlled by the Nubian dynasty to include all of Egypt from the south to the north up to the boundary of the Sais region in the Delta.
Conquering the Near East: The Assyrians
At the same time as Nubian influence over Egypt was expanding, the Assyrian empire was also expanding throughout the Near East. Several Assyrian uprisings happened close to the Egyptian borders, but the Nubian kings quashed these.
However, by the reign of Nubian pharaoh Taharqa (690-664 BC), the Assyrians and the Nubians had engaged in numerous confrontations. Both sides had gained the upper hand alternately, showing that they were equally matched. The situation must have been quite unnerving for the new Nubian dynasties that hadn’t long gained the coveted prize of rule over Egypt.
In 671 BC, the Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, actually entered Egypt, gaining control of the north as far as Memphis. This meant that King Taharqa had to flee to the south of Egypt. Although they maintained their control over the Delta, the Assyrians left, only to return in 669 BC. However, Esarhaddon died on the way and was succeeded by his son Ashurbanipal, who finally gained control of Egypt.
Ashurbanipal eventually took control over Thebes in 661 BC, making him the king of Upper and Lower Egypt. This caused Taharqa and his successors to flee further south to the Nubian capital, Napata, outside the boundaries of Egypt, never to enter Egypt again.
The Saite Period: Psamtik I and Others
After 665 BC, the Assyrians were in control of Egypt - although they chose local people to take the role of the king, under their rule, of course. Egypt was now a vassal state of the Assyrian empire. The capital city was located at Sais in the Delta, and the kings of the Saite period formed the 26th dynasty. (Because the Nubian 25th dynasty was still in control when the Assyrians captured the north, these two dynasties occurred concurrently.)
Psamtik I (664-610 BC) of the Saite 26th dynasty was given the job of consolidating Assyrian control throughout Egypt, including Thebes. Psamtik sent his daughter Nitocris to the temple of Amun at Karnak, where she was given the priestly title of God’s wife of Amun, which placed her rather high in the cult hierarchy. This combination of royal and religious power - as well as the cult’s wealth - ensured that the north and south were ruled by one individual.
This unified Egypt was not stable, however, and Psamtik was forced to gather an army to deal with numerous petty chieftains who had arisen in the Delta. The chieftains all wanted a slice of Egypt to control, and the Assyrians wanted a single ruler who was easier to control.
Returning to traditions
Throughout the 50 years or so of Psamtik’s reign, he brought a number of changes to Egypt. He tried to bring Egypt back to the traditions of the past, to show a continuity of the culture. To do this, he reintroduced a number of religious, artistic, and ritual elements from the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
However, being a truly traditional king in a traditional Egypt meant freedom from foreign influence. The elimination of outside influence was difficult to achieve, but that was what Psamtik I did. In 653 BC, after a number of internal problems had weakened the Assyrians, Psamtik broke free from the Assyrians and gained control of Egypt in his own right. This separation meant that Egypt was once again the driving force of the Near East.
In the navy
Psamtik’s successor, Nekau II, continued to improve Egypt’s status in the Near East and took control of Syria-Palestine once again. Nekau formed the first official Egyptian naval service, which included a number of Ionian Greeks. Prior to this, Egypt had been primarily a riverine nation with no real need for a navy.
During the 26th dynasty, Egypt enjoyed increased commerce with the Greeks, whose trade network was growing immensely. In order to increase the scope for trade in Egypt, Nekau began the construction of a canal joining the Wadi
Tumilat to the Red Sea - 2,500 years before the Suez Canal was formed for the same purpose. The completed canal was wide enough to navigate a trade fleet through and changed Egypt’s trade relations.
Appeasing the masses
Because of increased trade relations during this period, a number of foreign immigrants settled in Egypt, primarily in the Delta region. Initially they were relatively peaceful, but throughout the reign of Ahmose II (known as Amasis; 570-526 BC), numerous civil wars flared up between different foreign groups.
Ahmose tried to limit these conflicts by giving specific trading rights to foreigners living in the Delta town of Naukratis, thus creating a sort of ‘free zone’ for immigrants to Egypt. Some may view this action as a little unfair to the native Egyptians living there, but at least the fighting stopped, which further encouraged trade relations and foreign immigration to Egypt.
Not even cold get
Psamtik’s separation from the Assyrians (see the section ‘Returning to traditions’, earlier in this chapter) led to the gradual decline and eventual collapse of the Assyrian empire, and meant that Egypt was once again the most powerful nation in the region. This status did not last long, because everyone wanted to fill the gap left by the Assyrians. The weakened Assyrian kings were under attack from many people, including:
● Babylonians under king Naboplassar
● Medes (ancient Iranians)
● Scythians (Ukrainian and Southern Russians)
The Assyrians even asked Psamtik (who had separated from them) to help with these attacks. Even so, the Assyrians lost, and in 612 BC the Assyrian empire ended with the fall of Nineveh under the attack of the Persian army.
The celebration of the collapse of this once-great empire was short lived for the Egyptians, because the Persians soon marched on Egypt, entered its borders and took over the throne in 525 BC. The inexperienced king, Psamtik III, tried to stop the Persians from gaining control of Egypt. However, Psamtik III was eventually chased to Memphis before being captured and transported to the Persian capital as a prisoner of war, leaving Egypt unguarded and without a king.
Yet again, invasion led to another set of kings and yet another dynasty (the 26th), starting the late period of Egyptian history.
Settling of the Persians
The Persian 27th dynasty lasted for more than 100 years (525-404 BC) and is recorded by Herodotus. He records three potential reasons for the Persian king Cambyses II invading Egypt in the first place, although Herodotus wasn’t sure of the reliability of any of these explanations:
● Cambyses wanted an Egyptian concubine and was sent a second-rate noblewoman instead of a princess, so he invaded Egypt.
● Cambyses may have been half-Egyptian, perhaps the illegitimate son born of a daughter of the Saite king Apries.
● Cambyses made a promise as a child to invade Egypt in revenge for an insult paid to his mother.
If Herodotus wasn’t sure why Cambyses invaded Egypt, how on earth can modern historians be? Whatever the specific inspiration, the Persian invasion was a nasty one, aided by the Bedouins who led the way to the Egyptian borders. After the Bedouins and the Persians arrived, they were violent and cruel and even removed the embalmed body of the Saite king Ahmose (Amasis) and set fire to it. Granted, the Egyptians were not so nice either.
In revenge for a mercenary general’s betrayal, the Egyptians paraded his two sons in front of him and the Persian army and slit their throats. The blood was collected in a large bowl, mixed with water and wine, and drunk by all the soldiers. However, in the same way that Herodotus had doubts about the stories of Cambyses, perhaps this description was also an exaggerated myth. No other records exist of the Egyptians drinking human blood.
Ruling Egypt from a distance
Although Cambyses and the Persians had taken on the Greeks and the Egyptians and won, they didn’t fancy staying in the country of their victory. Cambyses lived and was buried in Persia (modern Iran). During his reign (525-522 BC) he hired a provincial governor to rule in Egypt on his behalf - although he was represented in Egypt as an Egyptian with his names written in a cartouche as a traditional ruler.
However, Cambyses’s successor Darius I (521-486 BC) took a lot of interest in Egypt. He built a number of temples and instigated repairs from the Delta to Aswan. Darius also continued and completed the building of the canal between the Wadi Tumilat and the Red Sea that Nekau of the Saite 26th dynasty started.
In 486 BC, despite the positive influence that Darius had on Egypt, the Egyptians revolted. This revolt was not crushed until the next king, Xerxes, came to the throne. His reign (485-465 BC) was not a peaceful one, and later in his reign the Greeks invaded Egypt.
After a short period of respite, Xerxes was assassinated amid another Egyptian revolt. This fighting went on for some time, with the Persian king being defeated by descendants of the 26th dynasty from the Delta along with the aid of Greek mercenaries.
The Egyptians were finally able to gain control during the reigns of the final two kings of the Persian period, Darius II (423-403 BC) and Artaxerxes II (405-359 BC), following a number of problems within the Persian family, which weakened their defences and left them open for attack.
Yet more dynasties
The decline of the Egyptian culture was really on the final stretch by 400 BC, with kings taking control willy-nilly and causing a great deal of confusion. Perhaps the situation was less confusing for the ancient Egyptians!
● The 28th dynasty (404-399 BC) consisted of only one very little-known king called Amyrtaeus, who had succeeded after six years of guerrilla warfare against the Persian kings to bring the throne back to Egyptian control. He briefly gained control of the whole of Egypt, from his capital at Sais in the Delta down to the Aswan border.
● The 29th dynasty (399-380) moved the capital from Sais to Mendes further south, which indicates that the Egyptian’s control was still widespread. Mendes was certainly better placed for government. The two kings of this dynasty were also probably buried at this site, although they have not been discovered yet.
● The 30th dynasty (380-343 BC) was a little more substantial, with a total of three kings. These kings spent a great deal of time supervising building according to ancient traditions to show some continuity between their reign and the earlier dynasties.
This dynasty was also involved in a number of battles defending Egypt from Persian invasion (yet again - they don’t give up!).
Nectanebo II was given a short respite from Persian attack because of more Persian internal quarrels and conflicts with the Greeks and the Levantines. In 343 BC, Nectanebo II, with the Egyptian army and 20,000 Greek mercenaries, guarded the Delta borders against a major Persian attack led by Artaxerxes III. The borders were soon penetrated, and the Delta and then Memphis fell to the Persian invaders. Nectanebo fled to Nubia, but shortly afterwards disappeared; presumably he died.
The death of Nectanebo II in 343 BC was a major blow to Egypt for a couple of reasons. First, the Egyptians were yet again under the rule of the Persian kings. Second, Nectanebo was the last Egyptian ruler to govern the country until the first president of the Republic of Egypt, General Muhammad Naguib, in AD 1953. That is a long period of foreign rule.
Another round of Persian rule
The end of the reign of Nectanebo II saw the start of the second Persian period (343-332 BC). The Persians were again a little harsh to their adopted country. The Greek records describe how the Persians razed cities to the ground, robbed temples, killed a number of sacred animals, and taxed the population until the people were broke.
Once again, the Persian kings ruled though a governor while residing in Persia. This dynasty (which some historians consider the 31st) only lasted for 10 years, with the first two kings, Artaxerxes III and Arses, being assassinated, and the cowardly Darius III opening the borders of Egypt in 332 BC to allow Alexander the Great to enter Egypt.
Invading Macedonians: Alexander the Great
The assassination of Phillip II of Macedonia in 336 BC saw the start of Alexander’s attack on the Persian empire. Alexander was the son of Phillip and felt that he should continue with his father’s campaign. Alexander came to Egypt in 332 BC, which instigated a further decline in the ancient Egyptian culture. If the Persians had not occupied Egypt at this time then perhaps Alexander would have left it alone, producing a very different end to the story.
Becoming divine
Alexander wanted to be accepted into the Egyptian culture. One of the first things he did was to travel to Siwa to consult the oracle of Amun (see Chapter 9 for information on oracles) in order to prove that he was the divine son of the god and therefore a legitimate king of Egypt.
Alexander’s coronation was carried out in the traditional centre of Memphis, and to a certain extent he ruled in a traditional Egyptian manner. He saw the renovation of Luxor temple with some elaborate images of himself making offerings to Amun-Min.
Alexander, however, left Egypt to continue his campaigns across the Near East. Before his death in 323 BC, Alexander had extended the Macedonian empire, which included Egypt, all the way to the Indus Valley. Being part of the vast empire brought new rich and exotic imports to Egypt.
Making Egypt a home of his own
When Alexander the Great was not invading and conquering nations, he concentrated on the administration of Egypt. Specifically he:
● Introduced a monetary system to Egypt, which had previously relied on a bartering system. The coins introduced by Alexander bore a Hellenistic image of himself on one side and an image of an Egyptian god on the other, showing the juxtaposition of the two cultures.
● Founded the city of Alexandria, which became the capital of Egypt at this time. The city was built on the site of an ancient Egyptian settlement called Raqote (also spelt Rakhotis), although not much of this ancient town has survived. Alexander left the building works to his architect Deinokrates and an official called Kleomenes.
Alexandria was large - at its height it had a population of more than half a million including a large number of Greek and Jewish immigrants.
It was a very cosmopolitan city and included many famous buildings, such as a library and a museum that were sadly burned down in antiquity. The later city included Roman baths, a theatre, and a gymnasium. The larger houses of the Roman settlement were even decorated with mosaics in true Roman style, as Figure 6-1 shows.
The city of Alexandria was not complete until the reign of Ptolemy II (285-246 BC). Ptolemy I (305-282 BC) started building the Pharos lighthouse in Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the world’s earliest lighthouse. This structure has long since disappeared - and may be on the bottom of the sea.
Figure 6-1: Villa of the Birds, Kom el Dikka, Alexandria
Alexander the Great died in 323 BC of a fever, leaving no obvious heir to take over his empire. His death led to the gradual collapse of the Macedonian empire, with various generals splitting to their own favoured areas.
Ending the Empire: The Ptolemaic bynasty
Following the death of Alexander the Great and the collapse of his control over the Persian empire, many petty wars and battles ensued, fought by Alexander’s generals. Everyone (especially Alexander’s generals) tried to win a slice of the empire.
Ptolemy eventually returned to Egypt as governor under Phillip Arrhidaeus (323-317 BC), the successor to Alexander the Great’s son Alexander IV (317-305 BC - born after his father’s death). During the reign of Alexander IV, Ptolemy, his childhood friend, was effectively ruling, and on Alexander’s death Ptolemy became king in his own right. By 301 BC Ptolemy had gained control of Palestine and Lower Syria, starting a small empire of his own.
However, Egypt could have done with a ruler with more imagination, as Ptolemy started a dynasty of rulers all called Ptolemy (up to Ptolemy XV), and queens called either Cleopatra (seven ruled as queens) or Berenice (four ruled as queens). Can you imagine the chaos when calling your kids in for dinner if they all answered to the same name?
The Ptolemaic dynasty was an example of the juxtaposition between two very different cultures - the ancient Egyptians and the Greeks. The rulers supported the traditional religion of Egypt and contributed to many temples, including building the temples of Dendera, Edfu, Philae, and Kom Ombo. On the walls of all these temples the kings are displayed in traditional Egyptian costume and pose, yet on the coins minted at the time they are presented in traditional Hellenistic fashion.
Steeping with one eye open
Those in the Ptolemaic family were not a nice group of people. This may sound like a sweeping statement, but this family was obsessed with the power of the throne and did anything to keep this power. They were notorious for marrying their brothers and sisters as a means of legitimising claims to the throne or keeping the throne within the family. (Of course, many ancient Egyptian kings married within their families as well, but not all these marriages ended in children. The Ptolemaic marriages were consummated - regularly.)
Despite these very close family connections, the Ptolemaic family had absolutely no qualms about bumping off their brothers, sisters, husbands, and wives in order to rule alone - or about disposing of unpopular or unsuitable individuals.
As a member of this terrifying family, you really needed to be on your guard. A number of sovereigns and officials were murdered or died in a suspicious manner:
● Phillip Arrhidaeus was assassinated by one of his bodyguards.
● Berenice II was poisoned and scalded to death by her son Ptolemy IV.
● Ptolemy IV’s wife, Arsinoe, was poisoned by the brother of Ptolemy’s secondary wife, Agathoclea.
● Ptolemy VII was killed by his stepfather and uncle Ptolemy VIII (who was nicknamed Potbelly and was very unpopular).
● Memphites was murdered by his father, Ptolemy VIII, who sent the dismembered body to his sister/wife, Cleopatra II, as a birthday present. (I’m sure she’d have preferred some bath salts!)
● Cleopatra III was possibly murdered by her younger son, Ptolemy X (although, earlier in life, her older son, Ptolemy IX, was accused of plotting to murder her).
● Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy IX, was murdered within a month of marrying Ptolemy XI. He disliked her and wanted the throne to himself. To be fair, Berenice probably didn’t think much of him either.
● Ptolemy XI was lynched by the public after ruling for only 19 days, because Berenice had been very popular.
● Berenice (another one!), the daughter of Ptolemy XII, was murdered by the Romans because of her revolt against her father as she tried to take over the throne. Ptolemy XII asked Julius Caesar, dictator of Rome, for help.
● Ptolemy XIV, the brother and husband of Cleopatra VII (of Mark Antony fame), was probably disposed of by the queen so that she could promote her son Ptolemy XV to the throne, protecting him from the Romans.
The majority of these murders were about power and the throne. However, during many struggles with the Ptolemaic family, Rome was conscripted in to help sort out the arguments. Although Roman involvement ensured that someone won the arguments and had the support and power of Rome behind them, Rome did not forget the debts incurred while aiding the warring Ptolemies. And during the reign of Cleopatra VII, Roman leaders came to collect the debt - eventually leading to the final collapse of the Egyptian civilisation.
Making romantic history: Cleopatra and Mark Antony
The story of Cleopatra and Mark Antony is one of the most famous tragic love stories in the world. This story stars Cleopatra VII, born in approximately 70 BC - the daughter of Ptolemy XII (nicknamed the flute-player) and his sister Cleopatra V. Strange to think, Cleopatra’s mother is also her aunt and her father is also her uncle.
Ptolemy XII was not very popular in Egypt because of his sycophantic attitude to Rome. He was also a weak and cruel ruler (which probably made him fit well into the Ptolemaic family). In 60 BC, Ptolemy XII’s unpopularity had reached such proportions that he fled Egypt for the safety of Rome, while his eldest daughter, Berenice, took the throne. After a number of years, and with the support of Rome, Ptolemy returned to Egypt and reclaimed his throne.
He ruled until his death in 52 BC when Cleopatra VII, aged 19 and married to her 10-year-old half-brother Ptolemy XIII, took over the throne.
Because her husband was so young, Cleopatra ruled Egypt virtually alone and even omitted Ptolemy’s face from her coins. Unlike her father, Cleopatra was a popular ruler with the Egyptian people - probably because she was the only Ptolemaic ruler who had bothered to learn to speak Egyptian!
Spinning a web of deceit
Ptolemy XIII’s spin doctors used the populace’s affection for the queen against her by issuing a decree in her name that all available grain should be sent to Alexandria and none to Middle and Upper Egypt. This angered the Egyptian populace, and they turned against Cleopatra. Cleopatra fled in fear of her life to Ashkelon in Syria.
In 48 BC, Julius Caesar headed towards Egypt to sort out the hostilities between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra. At the same time, Cleopatra herself had gathered an army on Egypt’s border to charge against her brother.
Caesar arrived in Alexandria determined to put Cleopatra back on the throne, until Ptolemy’s courtiers brought him a gift - the head of one of Caesar’s friends. This didn’t exactly endear the young boy-king to Caesar, and Caesar marched into the city, seized the palace, and generally took charge.
Both Ptolemy and Cleopatra were ordered to dismiss their armies and meet with Caesar, who would settle their dispute (rather like a father and two naughty children). Cleopatra, however, was far from daft and knew that if she entered Alexandria openly, Ptolemy would have her killed. So she sneaked into the palace inside an oriental rug. When the rug was unrolled, Cleopatra fell out and Caesar fell in love.
They became lovers that night and by morning Ptolemy stormed out of the palace because he felt he had been betrayed. He was arrested shortly after, but his army laid siege to the palace. Caesar released Ptolemy, but the siege continued for almost six months and only ended when Ptolemy drowned in the Nile. Alexandria then surrendered to Caesar.
Now a widow, Cleopatra married her brother Ptolemy XIV, who was 11 or 12 years old. Julius Caesar gave them Cyprus as a wedding gift. His own interest in Cleopatra had been awakened.
Enjoying lazy summer days with Julius
The relationship between Cleopatra and Julius Caesar developed, and in 47 BC they went on a romantic Nile cruise. Cleopatra was only 23 years old and pregnant with Caesar’s child, nicknamed Caesarion. The baby was born not long after they returned to Alexandria.
In the temple of Hathor at Denderah, a sculpted relief (see Figure 6-2) shows Cleopatra presenting her son Caesarion to the gods and naming him ‘Ptolemy Caesar son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra’ to show that he was the heir to the throne.
Figure 6-2: Cleopatra and Caesarion at Denderah
More brains than beauty
Despite Hollywood's depiction of Elizabeth Taylor as the Queen of the Nile, Cleopatra does not have a reputation as a great beauty. She was, however, considered witty, charming, intelligent, and bursting with sex appeal.
The Greek historian Plutarch (46-127 AD) records that Cleopatra spoke a total of eight languages, including several African languages, Hebrew, and Aramaic, plus her native Greek. She was also the only Ptolemaic ruler to speak Egyptian, which endeared her to the Egyptian population. Historians have suggested that her father taught her these languages because he was looking further afield than the boundaries of Egypt for eventual rule.
For pleasure, Cleopatra studied fragrant and protective unguents and wrote a beauty book on how to mix these substances to moisturise and protect the skin. While no copies of this book have been discovered, the Romans recorded its existence.
In 46 BC, Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV, and Caesarion went on a holiday to Rome to visit Julius Caesar. They stayed in Caesar’s villa near Rome for almost two years - now that’s a holiday and a half. During this time, Julius gave Cleopatra a ton of gifts and titles and even erected a statue of her in the temple of Venus Genetrix. The Romans were horrified at this affair, and it eventually led (in part) to Julius’s assassination in 44 BC.
Cleopatra, in fear for her own and her son’s life, scurried back to Egypt. Before or on their return to Egypt, Cleopatra’s husband Ptolemy XIV mysteriously died at age 15, possibly poisoned, leaving Cleopatra free to marry her son Caesarion and make him her co-regent, Ptolemy XV.
Enter Mark Antony
At the death of Caesar, the Roman empire was divided among three men: Caesar’s great-nephew Octavian, Marcus Lepidus, and Marcus Antonius, better known today as Mark Antony.
Cleopatra had met Mark Antony when she was 15, while her father was alive, when Mark Antony had travelled to Egypt in support of Julius Caesar. The next time Cleopatra met Mark Antony, in 42 BC, she was 28 years old and he was over 40. Mark Antony had taken over the eastern section of the Roman empire and was to spend a great deal of time in Egypt over the next 16 years.
Living it up
Mark Antony and Cleopatra’s relationship was a jovial one, as recorded by Plutarch:
She played at dice with him, drank with him, hunted with him; and when he exercised in arms, she was there to see. At night she would go rambling with him to disturb and torment people at their doors and windows, dressed like a servant-woman, for Anthony also went in servant’s disguise . . . However; the Alexandrians in general liked it all well enough, and joined good-humouredly and kindly in his frolic and play.
Over the next four years of the relationship, Cleopatra bore twins: Alexander Helios (the sun) and Cleopatra Selene (the moon). Antony acknowledged paternity of both children and actually offered Alexander in marriage to the king of Armenia’s daughter in an attempt to appease a quarrel. The king of Armenia refused, and Antony attacked him in 34 BC. That taught him.
In 37 BC, on his way to invade Parthia, Antony enjoyed a rendezvous with Cleopatra, even though Octavian had married Antony to Octavian’s sister Octavia as a means of preventing Antony from returning to Egypt. Despite this, from then on Alexandria was Antony’s home and Cleopatra was his life. Antony married Cleopatra in 36 BC in Antioch in North Syria, where he dressed as Osiris and she dressed as Isis.
Shortly after this wedding, Cleopatra gave birth to another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, whom Antony also acknowledged. In 34 BC, Antony made Alexander Helios the king of Armenia, Cleopatra Selene the queen of Cyrenaica and Crete, and Ptolemy Philadelphus the king of Syria.
The beginning of the end
Antony completely abandoned his Roman wife, Octavia, which upset the Romans and Octavian. After three years, Octavian decided to rule alone and turned on Cleopatra and Antony. In 31 BC, Antony’s forces fought the Romans in a sea battle off the coast of Actium (northern Greece), aided by Cleopatra and 60 Egyptian ships.
When Cleopatra saw that Antony’s cumbersome, badly manned galleys were losing to the Romans’ lighter, swifter boats, she fled the scene. Antony abandoned his men to follow her. Although they may have prearranged their retreat, the Romans saw it as proof that Antony was enslaved by his love of Cleopatra, unable to think or act on his own.
Love does not conquer all
In 30 BC, Octavian reached Alexandria, and Mark Antony greeted him with his slowly diminishing soldiers and navy. As soon as the navy saw the Romans, they saluted with their oars and sailed over to join the other side, shortly followed by the desertion of the cavalry and infantry - leaving Antony alone. Cleopatra, now afraid, locked herself in her tomb and sent word to Antony that she was dead! Clearly, things were backfiring.
Antony, feeling somewhat unstable, tried to kill himself, only to mess it up and inflict an eventually fatal wound. While he was bleeding to death, he heard that Cleopatra was in fact alive and demanded that his body be taken to her immediately. When Antony arrived at the tomb, Cleopatra was too afraid to open the door. She and her two serving women let down ropes from a window and pulled Antony up. Distraught, Cleopatra laid Antony on her bed and he died in her arms.
Octavian, meanwhile, had invaded Alexandria and taken control of Cleopatra’s palace, with the intention of taking Cleopatra back to Rome and dragging her through the streets in chains. Octavian and his men marched to the tomb, but Cleopatra wouldn’t let him in. Instead they negotiated through the closed door, Cleopatra demanding that her kingdom be given to her children.
Meeting Antony for the first time
Julius Caesar, Cleopatra's lover, had just been assassinated, and Mark Antony had taken over control of the eastern part of the Roman empire. Mark Antony sailed to Tarsus (in modern-day Turkey) and summoned Cleopatra to him to interrogate her about her role in assisting his enemies.
The meeting of Antony and Cleopatra is described by Plutarch, writing between AD 46 and 127. It was the stuff of fairytales - and all from the elaborate imagination of the enigmatic Cleopatra. Cleopatra arrived at Tarsus in a boat. To be honest, this was more than a boat: It was a barge with a gilded stern, purple sails, and silver oars. Cleopatra's maids, dressed as sea nymphs, sailed the boat. Cleopatra herself was dressed as Venus, the goddess of love, and she reclined under a golden canopy, fanned by boys dressed in Cupid costumes. Antony, a simple soldier, was impressed by this blatant display of luxury, just as Cleopatra had intended. Cleopatra refused to leave the boat and entertained Antony on the boat that night. This gave her the upper hand by ensuring that they met on Egyptian territory.
The next night, Antony invited Cleopatra to supper, hoping to outdo her in magnificence. He failed, but joked about it in a good-natured way. Like Julius Caesar before him, Antony was enthralled with Cleopatra, becoming the second great love in Cleopatra's life. First impressions clearly count.
As juicy as this story is, it needs to be taken with a pinch of salt. Plutarch, like most authors, wrote with an agenda and may have exaggerated the decadence of the story to highlight the exotic setting and the passions of Antony and Cleopatra. Of course, when Shakespeare incorporates these details into his play, all suddenly becomes fact, of sorts.
While Cleopatra was distracted at the door, Octavian’s men set up ladders and climbed through the window. Cleopatra instantly tried to stab herself, but was disarmed and taken prisoner along with her children. Octavian allowed Cleopatra to arrange Antony’s funeral, and Cleopatra buried Antony in royal style. After the funeral Cleopatra was so grief stricken, she stayed in bed.
Cleopatra was determined to die to be with her beloved Antony and arranged for an asp (a venomous snake) to be brought to the tomb in a basket of figs, all in secrecy without the knowledge of the Romans. The guards even checked the basket and found nothing suspicious, so they allowed it to be given to the queen. When she reached into the basket the asp bit her and she died. In her final moments, Cleopatra wrote a letter to Octavian asking if she could be buried in Antony’s tomb.
Octavian ran to the tomb, but it was too late - Cleopatra was dead. The only person in the way of Octavian’s control of Egypt was Caesarion, whom Octavian promptly disposed of. Egypt was now open for Roman rule.
The Romans are coming
Cleopatra’s suicide in 30 BC left the path to Egypt open for the Romans to take control. However, Egypt was not made a Roman province, in the true sense of the word, straight away. Octavian (later the Emperor Augustus), used Egypt as a personal estate, governed by an official answerable to him alone. Egypt became the primary provider of grain to the Roman empire and was known in contemporary records as Rome’s bread basket.
The emperors who followed Augustus on the throne of Egypt attempted to rule in traditional Egyptian fashion, building temples to traditional Egyptian gods, and even representing themselves as Egyptian kings while performing traditional rituals.
Although the Egyptian culture was unrecognisable because of the Hellenistic invasion by Alexander, many of the Egyptian cults were maintained under the Romans. In AD 394, Philae temple was still in use and in fact this carried the last inscription written in hieroglyphs in Egypt. It was to be another 1,400 years before anyone could read it again (see Chapter 11).