Chapter 10
In This Chapter
● Introducing the Macedonians
● Conquering Greece with Philip II
● Building up Pella
● Growing up great: Alexander’s boyhood
● Taking charge of Illyria and Greece
Basically, by 360 BC the Greek city-states had blown it. The constant infighting and deal breaking among Athens, Sparta, and the rest had opened the door to foreign enemies. And so, during the fourth century BC, a new power emerged - Macedonia.
In a little over 50 years, the Macedonians went from being thought of as simple, barbarous hill people to being the dominant force in Greece and beyond. This amazing ascent came down to two men: Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. Their story, as well as the history of this fascinating culture, starts here.
Meeting the Macedonians
Macedonia was (and is) the territory to the north of Greece formed by the north and north-west ends of the Thermaic Gulf. Macedonia is a hard and rugged country, and throughout its earliest history it had always existed as a tribal society. The Macedonians were Greek in origin, and they spoke a broader, rougher version of the Greek language that was related to the traditional version spoken in Athens (Chapter 1 has more on the intricacies of the ancient Greek language).
Have you seen the film Alexander (2004)? It’s an entertaining depiction of Alexander the Great’s life with some fantastically shot battle sequences. However, one element of the film that people and reviewers criticised was actor Colin Farrell’s accent. Farrell spoke in his natural Irish accent throughout the movie. Viewers missed the point: The difference between Farrell’s regional accent and an English accent is a really good way of showing the contrast between the ancient Macedonian and Greek cultures. I’m not so sure about Angelina Jolie’s accent though. . . .
Growing very good at war
Throughout much of its early history Macedonia was a tribal society made up of a large number of competing groups who spent most of their time at war with each other. The lives most Macedonians led were quite simple - hunting and fighting, and then drinking long into the night to celebrate success in either.
The Macedonians were also excellent warriors. By the fourth century BC, they had extended their territory to the borders of Illyria in the west and Paeonia in the north.
The trouble was, as I said earlier, much like the Greek city-states during the same time period; the tribes of Macedonia were always fighting among themselves. For this reason, the country was very inward looking during much of its early history and only really interacted with other Greek states through a limited amount of trade.
Crowning a new kind of king: Philip II
The Macedonian kings traditionally ruled from a fortress in a town called Aegae. The Macedonian king didn’t have absolute power over his subjects:
The king had to observe Macedonian law and make decisions that were in keeping with it. This law had been set down generations earlier by previous tribal leaders and decisions were debated within a council of tribal leaders.
The king’s title wasn’t hereditary. When the king died, the tribal leaders chose his successor although often they chose the son of the previous king.
The big change to Macedonia and its governing processes came with the death of King Perdiccas in 359 BC. Perdiccas’s son Amyntas was only a child at the time of his father’s death and his uncle Philip became his protector. As guardian to the heir, Philip also became temporary ruler of the kingdom until a decision was made about who should succeed. However, he didn’t stay temporary for long.
Despite being only 24 years old, Philip made an immediate impact. He utterly rejected established laws and tradition and sought to establish himself as king through violence. Philip attacked in battle or murdered any other rival for the throne, and he set about securing the borders of Macedonia from the rebellious tribes of Illyria. As soon as that was done, he turned his ambitious eye to the south and Greece.
Considering Macedonian warfare
Prior to 350 BC, the Macedonians weren’t really too much of a threat to the inhabitants of southern Greece. So what changed?
Building a different army
The new way in which Philip II made war on his enemies was a huge change - and a huge threat to the southern city-states. Philip II created a unique fighting force that the traditional Greek hoplite phalanx (see Chapter 5) found difficult to deal with.
Following are some of the main tricks and tactics of the Macedonian forces under Philip II:
● Shock cavalry: Philip’s army was very large and mixed, meaning it contained a heavy infantry phalanx as well as cavalry and light troops. Unlike in traditional Greek armies, the Macedonians used their cavalry to charge and break the enemy line. Therefore the cavalry became the Macedonian’s main offensive weapon.
● The sarissa: The Macedonian infantry was armed differently to its southern Greek neighbours. Rather than the short spear or javelin used by the southern Greeks the Macedonian’s main offensive weapon was a 4.5-metre (15-foot) thrusting spear called a sarissa. This weapon made getting anywhere near the infantry line very difficult, particularly because the Macedonian phalanx was so well drilled it could form half a dozen different formations very quickly. See Figure 10-1 for some formation examples.
● The hypaspists: The Macedonians had their own special troops called the hypaspists who were used for special missions that required different tactics to a standard infantry battle. The hypaspists were famously fearless and took on all kinds of ludicrously dangerous tasks such as climbing cliffs to attack towns and assaulting cities at night. They were more lightly armed than the phalanx and, as such, much more mobile.
Figure 10-1: Macedonian infantry formations.
Repeating the secret weapon - camaraderie
Despite all the advances and adaptations of its army, the main reason that Macedonia became so powerful so quickly was the personality of Philip II himself.
The Macedonians had always been a warrior people but had spent generations fighting each other. Philip’s personality, political intelligence, and ruthlessness brought the warring tribal leaders together and focused their bravery and skill on mutual enemies.
Philip kept up a culture of hard work and hard play that involved drinking long into the night to celebrate victories. The hard work must have been exhausting - but it worked.
Taking Over: Philip's Successes
During the 350s BC, Philip II and a now professionalised Macedonian army began to seize control of large parts of Greece. In 357 BC, Philip captured the city of Amphipolis (which Athens had long thought its own), and by 352 BC virtually the whole of Thessaly in Northern Greece was under his control. The Thessalians were famous for using their heavily armed cavalry troops in a battle, and Philip quickly incorporated them into his army.
Another notable success occurred around this same time. Throughout his reign Philip regularly conducted dynastic marriages within the cities and territories he conquered. In 356 BC, he and Olympias of Epirus had a baby son whom Philip called Alexander. (Ever heard of him?) You can read a lot more about him in the section ‘Taking Over the Family Business: The Rise of Alexander the Great’ and in Chapter 11.
Continuing despite criticism
During the 350s BC the rest of Greece was too stunned by Philip’s success to really challenge him and the Macedonian forces. The main opposition came from a new Athenian statesman called Demosthenes. Demosthenes was a great speech writer and orator - and almost the exact opposite of Philip. Like Kleon (see Chapters 8 and 9), Demosthenes came from a trade background. His father had owned a business that made cutlery and so his nickname was the ‘cutler’.
Demosthenes delivered many great speeches in the Athenian ekklesia urging all Greeks to rise up against Philip. These orations became known as Philippics, a term people still use to this day to describe a character assassination delivered in the form of a speech. Indeed, 400 years after Demosthenes when the Roman orator Cicero was haranguing Mark Anthony, Cicero’s speeches were called philippics.
Philip carried on with his conquest plans, regardless of Demosthenes’s speeches, by making war in the north-west as far as Thrace. By 348 BC the Macedonians had destroyed the town of Olynthos and sold its population into slavery. Philip found some Athenians in town and kept them as hostages to use as a bargaining tool. He recognised that it wouldn’t be long before he came into conflict with Athens and the hostages would prove useful.
Agreeing to peace (sort of)
Athens had a problem. Despite all the urging of Demosthenes, Athens couldn’t afford to fight a war with Philip, and it didn’t have the manpower either.
In 346 BC, a peace conference was proposed and an Athenian called Philokrates led the negotiations. Philip eventually agreed to a non-aggression treaty with Athens.
Soon after the peace conference, Philip took advantage of trouble in southern Greece where the town of Phocis had seized the sacred town of Delphi. (Turn to Chapter 22 for more on this prophecy-rich city.) The Macedonians quickly marched south, kicked out the Phocians, and earned the thanks of Delphi. Thereafter Philip tried to portray himself as a kind of peacekeeper who’d intervene if necessary to settle disputes. It’s doubtful that people truly believed this but they weren’t really in a position to argue with him.
Invading everywhere except Athens
Philip wasn’t actually that bothered with Athens or much of southern Greece. He had other fish to fry: He had an eye on an amazingly ambitious invasion of Asia Minor.
Philip spent the years after the peace agreement concentrating on areas north-east of Athens, laying siege to the port of Byzantium on the Bosphorus. Of course, Athens viewed this attack as a threat to the cities in southern Greece because a great deal of grain came from there. The political intrigue against Philip continued in Athens which eventually spurred him into seizing the grain ships in 340 BC.
When Philip seized the ships he finally gave Demosthenes what his critic was looking for - the excuse for Athens to declare war on the Macedonians, which they duly did. The Athenians had support from some of the other major cities, such as Corinth and Thebes - all which feared Philip and felt that as rich, powerful cities, they’d be next on his hit-list.
Battling in Chaeronea (338 BC)
The Battle of Chaeronea was one of the biggest in Greek history and the last real stand of the old Greek states against the new Macedonian power from the north. The world was never the same again after this brutal fight.
The two sides - the Macedonians and the allied southern Greek city-states - met outside the town of Chaeronea in Boeotia.
The allies had a large force of more than 35,000 men from Athens, Corinth, Euboea, Megara, and Thebes, among others. Philip’s forces numbered a little less at about 30,000, but he had 1,800 cavalry (see the earlier section ‘Considering Macedonian warfare’), which was under the command of his then 18-year-old son Alexander.
The battle was a tough struggle, but in the end the Athenians blew it for themselves. After the two infantry lines came together, Philip’s hypaspists feigned a withdrawal. The Athenians on the left end of the allied line bought the ruse hook, line, and sinker, and chased after the Macedonians. The allied forces’ attack created a massive hole in their line, which Alexander exploited and drove the Macedonian cavalry through. Alexander was then able to surround the Thebans who were the most feared allied fighters. Game over.
Thousands of the Greek allies lost their lives at Chaeronea, and Philip took several thousand more prisoners. The famous Sacred Band was almost completely destroyed with 254 of the 300 killed. A permanent memorial was set up to honour them in the form of a large statue of a lion that still exists today.
Philip’s victory was complete. Several Greek towns including Thebes were garrisoned with Macedonian troops. As far as Philip was concerned, the job was done. In terms of his own lifetime he was correct but his son Alexander would have to finish the job after Philip’s death.
Enjoying Prosperity at Pella
Philip was an incredible soldier, and he also made great strides to turn Macedonia into what he considered to be a civilised power. One of his first moves was the confirmation of the second city of Pella as the base of his royal court, setting up residence there and meeting with the tribal chiefs. The city’s new status meant that tribal leaders from Macedonia and beyond flocked to the city because they wanted to be close to the king and the wealth and success that he’d generated.
Not much of the city survives today. Archaeologists have found the remains of a royal palace which could well have been developed from the one used by Philip. Evidence exists of a massive agora (town square) that would have been filled during the fourth century by all the visitors to the city.
Along with Pella’s new prominence, a new elite class soon emerged. All the sons of the Macedonian tribal leaders lived and were educated in the city. Chief among them was Philip’s son Alexander. The group of young nobles who grew up with Alexander became known as his ‘Companions’. They became a new generation who were both highly educated and skilled in war - a new warrior elite. Young men such as Ptolemy and Hephaestion grew up to share the amazing adventures of Alexander’s adult life. See the later section ‘Following in his father’s footsteps’ for more.
Pella became a magnet for artists and intellectuals who, like Renaissance painters, were keen to seek employment and patronage of the royal court where high fees would be paid for their skills. Some also worked as tutors to the ‘Companions’. This process had already begun under previous Macedonian kings - for example, the playwright Euripides spent time in Macedonia during the beginning of the fourth century BC - but the city’s stature increased tenfold under Philip.
Philip himself had no great interest in intellectual affairs, but he was happy to sponsor them because he recognised that if Macedonia was to become a truly international power its new generation of leaders would need to become more worldly. Philip had grand ambitions for Macedonia and ultimately he wanted to test its military power against the might of the Persian Empire.
In particular, he employed the Greek philosopher Aristotle (see Chapter 23) as one of Alexander’s tutors.
The Greek biographer Plutarch wrote an entertaining life of Alexander in which he quotes a letter from the young prince to Aristotle. Alexander complains that Aristotle has written a book describing some of the philosophical ideas that his tutor had shared with him:
What advantage shall I have over other men if these theories in which I have been trained are to be made common property?
The court at Pella gave Alexander a great training in all aspects of Greek knowledge. Combined with his obvious aptitude and first-hand experience of warfare on his father’s campaigns, he grew into an amazingly confident and authoritative young man.
Taking Over the Family Business:
The Rise of Alexander the Great
All things change, and in 336 BC, when Philip was at the height of his power, he suddenly and suspiciously died. His death could have been the end of a brief moment of Macedonian supremacy; instead it heralded the beginning of an era of even greater success under his son Alexander.
Slaying Philip
In 337 BC Philip had received a Greek delegation that wanted to sue for peace. The delegation ended up awarding him the title of hegemon (‘dominant leader’) of all the Greek armies. This title basically gave Philip the authority he needed to attack Persia because he would be doing so in the name of all Greece - on the premise of liberating the Greek cities in Asia Minor. (Yes, that old excuse again!)
In the summer of 336 BC, Philip was in Pella celebrating the marriage of his daughter when he was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. Suspicion immediately fell on his wife Olympias who’d recently been sent into exile after Philip had married again. The assassin was killed in the struggle by Alexander before he could be questioned - a fact that many people interpreted as an attempt to hush things up. Philip’s death certainly had benefits for Olympias - her son Alexander became king at the age of 20.
In Alexander (2004), Olympias is blamed as being behind the scheme and Alexander an innocent bystander. However, I find it difficult to believe that he didn’t know anything. What do you think?
Separating the man and the myth
Alexander the Great is a fascinating historical figure. He achieved incredible things in an amazingly short time. No one like him has ever existed before him - or after him. The problem with somebody like this is that he can become a magnet for all kinds of myths and stories. What Alexander did isn’t really in dispute, but how he did it and what he was like as a person always will be.
Alexander was also quite happy to make up his own myth. As a boy and throughout his adult life he was fascinated by Homer’s Thelliadand the heroes like Achilles and Hector that feature in it (see Chapter 21). Alexander thought of himself in the same terms and contended that he was actually descended from Achilles.
A horse and his boy
One of the most famous larger-than-life stories about Alexander concerns how he came to own Bucephalas ('Ox-Head'), the massive warhorse that he rode for most of his life.
Apparently, a trader from Thessaly brought the huge black horse to show Philip. Nobody could calm the creature enough to ride it. Alexander asked whether Philip would buy the horse for him if Alexander were able to train it, and Philip agreed. Within a few minutes Alexander was happily riding Bucephalas. Alexander had noticed that the horse was scared of its own shadow and turned him toward the sun so he couldn't see it any longer.
This story is a great example of a historical event that's probably exaggerated. Still, this story is simple and highlights Alexander's most obvious and admired characteristics - confidence, bravery, and intelligence - were present at an early age.
His mother didn’t help. From an early age Olympias had told Alexander that his real father was not Philip but Zeus, the king of the gods and that various prophecies had foretold his birth. (Philip and Olympias’s marriage was a less than ideal relationship, with him regularly accusing her of adultery. To be honest the family would’ve been perfect for Jerry Springer.)
As a result of this kind of upbringing, Alexander was a bit different. His family and early life explain a great deal about him - particularly his tremendous courage and drive. And his background also explains some of the strange decisions that he later made (see Chapter 11).
Following in his father's footsteps
When he assumed power, Alexander immediately began planning to do exactly what his father had intended - invade Asia Minor and attack the Persian Empire. Alexander had two distinct advantages:
● Alexander had all his father’s old generals - men like Parmenion, Antipater, and Cleitus - around to help and advise him. Alexander spent hours on the eve of a battle planning strategy with these generals, confident that they would carry out all manoeuvres to the letter.
● Alexander was also part of an exceptional group of young Macedonian men who became known as the ‘Companions’. As I mention in the section ‘Enjoying Prosperity at Pella’, these friends and peers - including Hephaestion, Ptolemy, Cassander, Nearchus, and others - had grown up with Alexander. The Companions fought alongside Alexander now; many of them riding in his companion cavalry.
Alexander, however, had a significant problem: As a new king, city-states with a grudge against Macedonia were going to try their luck against the new leadership. Before Alexander ventured off on his grand adventure to the east, he had to deal with problems closer to home.
Quieting Illyria and Thrace
The first areas to give Alexander trouble were the border regions in Illyria and Thrace. Times were tense because neither side yet knew whether the new young king would effectively take over after his father.
Alexander soon proved the doubters wrong. Within three months he invaded Thrace and utterly destroyed any opposition. While he was there, news came that the Illyrian tribes were now massing on the border with Macedonia and preparing to invade. Once again Alexander dealt extremely well with a difficult campaign.
After two difficult tests, Alexander was probably due a break - but he didn’t get one. As he was finishing off the Illyrians, news came of a revolt in Thebes.
Squelching the Theban revolt
After Thebes rebelled against Philip II (see the section ‘Battling in Chaeronea’), Philip left a Macedonian garrison in the city to keep an eye on the Thebans. However, while Alexander was campaigning in Illyria, a rumour began to circulate that he had been killed. Where had this rumour come from? Unsurprisingly, the source was dear old Demosthenes (see the section ‘Continuing despite criticism’) who produced an eyewitness who swore that Alexander had been killed. Demosthenes didn’t stop there; he urged Greece to revolt and write to Persia for support.
The Greek cities saw this as a great opportunity. If Alexander was dead Macedonia would be leaderless and it would be the perfect time to strike back. In Thebes two Macedonian officers were killed and the rest of the garrison were forced to go into hiding in the citadel.
In his biography of Demosthenes, Plutarch records his opinion of the young Alexander:
Demosthenes now completely dominated the Athenian assembly and he wrote letters to the Persian generals in Asia inciting them to declare war on Alexander, whom he referred to as a boy, and compared to Margites.
The ‘Margites’ that Plutarch mentions was a character in a comic story of the day who never really grew up and thought he knew much more than he actually did. Demosthenes and the rest of Greece were about to find out how wrong that comparison was.
Alexander’s response to the Theban revolt was swift and brutal. In 335 BC, he marched quickly south, surrounded the city, and took it with little effort. The walls of the city and many of its significant buildings were burned down. Alexander’s men massacred thousands of the population and sold those that survived into slavery. The city of Thebes effectively ceased to exist from this point on. Although many buildings were rebuilt, Thebes was never again a leading city.
Alexander had sent a harsh message to the ancient world: Any revolt or betrayal against Macedonia would be dealt with severely. Alexander needed to ensure that when he left for Persia he wouldn’t come under attack at home.
However, Alexander made some noteworthy exceptions in his destruction of Thebes. All the temples within Thebes were left alone, as were the houses of the descendants of the poet Pindar whom Alexander much admired. These exceptions illustrate the complex character of Alexander: fierce brutality mixed with an appreciation of architecture and literature.
After dealing with the Thebans, Alexander moved south. The Athenians, especially Demosthenes, must’ve been seriously worried that they were about to receive the same treatment the Thebans had. A hurried meeting of the ekklesiawas arranged, and Athens voted to send an embassy congratulating Alexander on his recent victories in the north and celebrate the just way that he’d dealt with the Thebans!
Initially, Alexander demanded that Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian agitators be handed over to him, but Demosthenes, as ever, managed to argue his way out of the situation. Athens received no further punishment, but Alexander ensured that an eye was kept on it.
By 334 BC, Alexander managed to get Greece back into the position it was in before his father’s death. He was acknowledged as the hegemon of the Greek cities and the general of their armies. With the borders of Macedonia secure, he now needed to complete his father’s project - the invasion of the Persian Empire.
Although Philip’s intention (and main excuse) for attacking the Persians had been the liberation of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, Alexander ended up taking his campaign so much farther - to India and back. This incredible story is what Chapter 11 is all about!