This volume examines the power of Europe from 1830 to 1870.
Fellow of Corpus Christi College and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge
The period, one of improved methods and new institutions
Extension of agriculture
Enclosure, drainage and fertilisers
Improvement of farm equipment and its dependence on capital
Operation of the Com Laws
Agricultural prosperity between 1850 and 1873
Growth of textile industries
Machine production and increase in output of iron, steel and coal
Transport of goods and materials by road and water
The coming of the railways
The golden age of the American sailing ship Transport by steamship
Crossing the Atlantic
Improved communications and international trade
Tariffs and free trade
Raising of capital necessitated by trade expansion
Banks and banking
Extension of factory system
Migratory movements of labour
Living and working conditions Limitation of child labour
Repeal of Combination Laws Growth of Trade Union movement
Some tentative conclusions 1825-50 a period of extraordinary development
Improvement of working conditions, 1850-70
THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THOUGHT AND MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
1830-70 falls between the formative and modem periods of science
The state as patron. Contributions of Western Europe and the U.S.A
Little co-operation between science and production
Influence of scientific attitude on hygiene, farming and chemical industries and on philosophy. The Utilitarian, Positivist and Marxist philosophies
Interdependence of different branches of science illustrated in exploitation of mathematical analysis
Clerk Maxwell and Faraday’s theory
The perfecting of spectrum analysis
Thermo-dynamics
Atomic theory and table of atomic weights
The theory of valency
The periodic law. Mendel6ef and Meyer
Laboratory synthesis and commercial exploitation
Pasteur and microbiology
Opposing schools in experimental physiology
Geologists and the age of the earth
Theory of evolution and its opponents
Medical and surgical practice
Lister’s antiseptic system of surgery. Function of the inventor
The work of Comte and Spencer. Attitude of the Churches
RELIGION AND THE RELATIONS OF CHURCHES AND STATES
Ecclesiastical reaction following defeat of Napoleon. Papacy returns to Rome
The Liberal-Catholic movement in France
Lamennais’s appeal to the Pope. The bull Mirari vos
Ultramontanism and uniform use of Roman liturgy in France
The educational struggle; the Loi Falloux. The Swiss ‘Regeneration’ movement
The religious problem in Switzerland. Defeat of the Sonderbund
The Oxford Movement
Disputes in the Church of Scotland. Founding of Free Church of Scotland
Re-establishment of Roman Catholic hierarchy in England
Controversy between Anglicans and Nonconformists concerning state education
Ancient universities opened to non-Anglicans. The religious census of 1851
Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. Relations between church and state in Italy
Rise of Louis Napoleon. The Syllabus of Errors
The General Council
France’s attitude to General Council
Council prorogued sine die. War between France and Prussia
The definition of papal infallibility
Political aftermath of General Council unfavourable
The Irish Church and its disestablishment
Development of social conscience
Literary and historical criticism of the Bible
The aftermath of the French Revolution
The role of the state in education
The spread of liberalism and nationalism
Clerical and secular views of education
The Liberals and freedom of education
Swiss, German, English and French theorists
Primary education
The secondary school and modem studies
Education and liberal culture
The ‘public school’ system. Growing importance of technical and professional training
The universities
Secondary and higher education in Italy
The English universities. Educational history of the U.S. A
Education in self-governing colonies and India
The ‘ British Indian ’ system
The education of women
Adult education
Mechanics’ Institutes, libraries and museums
England’s lead in the development of the press
Abolition of the stamp duty. Unique position of The Times
Increase in number of newspapers. The French press
The German and Austrian press
Connection between press and political parties
Censorship, The Russian press
The American press
Some comparisons. New techniques
Growth of news agencies
Emancipation from patronage. Artistic lead of England c. 1760-c. 1800
The problem of individualism
English Victorian architecture
The Gothic revival and other imitative styles
The architect a purveyor of fagades. Similar developments abroad
The Neo-Gothic style in Germany, Italy and France
Neo-classical style in the U.S.A. Revival of native Renaissance styles
Inflated size of public buildings
A period of design in two, rather than three, dimensions. Consequent poverty of sculpture
French painting of the period
The work of Delacroix
Realism in painting the hall-mark of the period
Millet and Courbet
Industrial revolution exerts little influence on painting
The Pre-Raphaelites
Impressionism. The late Victorians
The novel dominates the field of literature
The desire to attain a belief; increasing preoccupation with‘psychology’
Literature as an instrument of exploration
Nineteenth-century realism
Consciousness of the social problems of the age
The ‘Bildungsroman’
Decline of the traditional heroic hero
The unruly genius of Victor Hugo
The ‘historic’ novel. Realism as a mode of presentation
The connection between literature and society
The world of the Russian novelist
Comparison between Tolstoy and Dostoevsky
Flaubert’s realism
Realism of the prose and romanticism of the poetry of the period
The poetry of the period
French
German
English
Baudelaire and Edgar Allan Poe
Nekrasov and Walt Whitman
Dramatic writing below level of that reached by the novel and poetry
German, Austrian and Russian drama
LIBERALISM AND CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
Changes in forms of government
No continuous advance towards liberal and democratic institutions
The Marxist challenge to liberalism
The first democratic institutions. Fundamental reforms in France, Belgium, Great Britain and Germany
Constitutional evolution of German states. The revised French charter of 1830
The Belgian constitution of 1831
British parliamentary reform and its influence
The U.S.A. and Belgium provide models for constitution-makers
American influence on German National Assembly
The Swiss constitution of 1848. Federal reform and failure in Habsburg Empire
The Kremsier draft constitution
The Italian constitutional dilemma of 1848-9
The Piedmontese Statuto of 1848 and its importance as a national symbol
The Years of Revolution and Reaction
The 1850’s a period of marking-time and consolidation
Emancipation of serfs
Liberalism menaced from both Left and Right
Improvements in administrative organisation
Tightening up the machinery of the centralised state
Lack of any tradition of self-government in Germany and Austria
Vicissitudes of the federal idea
Its failure in Italy and Austria
Its revival in Germany and Mexico, and triumph in Canada
1867 an annus mirabilis
Definition of nationality
Prospects of nationality in 1832
The role of France and of Paris and other West European cities before 1848
Irish nationalism
Nationalism in France
The Schleswig-Holstein problem
The Pan-Scandinavian movement
Separation of Belgium from Holland
The Flemish movement
The Swiss national movement
Mazzini and Italian nationalism
German nationalism
The Polish question reveals the divorce between liberalism and nationalism
Nationalism in Eastern Europe
Russia’s traditional nationalism
Finland, Latvia and Estonia
Slavophiles and Pan-Slavs
Failure of the Slav Congress in Prague
The great Polish emigration of 1831
Prussian, Austrian and Russian Poland
The Polish rising of 1863. The Lithuanians
The Polish poets. Austria the antagonist of national self-determination
Golden age of literature and scholarship in the Austrian Empire
The conflict of nationalities in Hungary
The Ottoman empire
Emergence of the Balkan states
The Jews
Progress of nationalism
THE SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES AND THE BALANCE OF POWER
The diplomatic division of Europe
Flexibility of the alliance system illustrated by the Belgian crisis of 1830
Palmerston secures acceptance of Belgian independence by the powers
Ambiguities of French policy
Reasons for the Eastern powers’ acquiescence in the peaceful solution of the Belgian problem
Widening of the gulf between the Eastern and Western powers. The Near East
The Sultan appeals to Russia. Russo-Turkish Treaty of 1833
Affairs of Portugal and Spain. The Quadruple Alliance, the West’s answer to Unkiar-Skelessi and Miinchengratz
Disruptive tendencies in the Anglo-French entente. Near Eastern crisis, 1839-40
Defeat of Mahmud’s forces. The four ambassadors meet in Vienna
Tsar sends Brunnov to London and drives a wedge between Great Britain and France
Quadruple Agreement. Isolation of France and danger of war
Russia attempts to formalise isolation of France. Mettemich’s mediation between France and the other powers. Straits Convention, 1841
Breakdown of the Anglo-French entente. France seeks understanding with Austria
Anglo-Russian relations more friendly
1848 Revolutions threaten balance of power
Lamartine’s‘Manifesto to the Powers’
Peace endangered by Prussia’s anti-Russian policy and the revolt of Lombardy and Venetia
Palmerston, Russia, and the Hungarian revolt
Threat of Austro-Prussian war. Prussia capitulates at Olmtitz. Schleswig-Holstein problem
Last successful meeting of Concert of Europe. Implications of the balance of power
Willingness of the powers to maintain peace. The Crimean turning point
Effects of the Crimean War
Great Britain’s tendency to withdraw from continental affairs
Alliances and diplomatic alignments cease to be defensive in purpose
Inability or unwillingness among statesmen to collaborate
ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WAR: NAVIES
Complete predominance of British navy
Extensive and rapid changes in materiel
The new type of fighting force envisaged by Paixhans
Early days of steamships
Introduction of the screw-propeller
The steamship in the Crimean War. The problem of coaling
Steam wins the battle with sail in the British navy
Transition from wood to iron. French and British hesitations
End of the wood-iron controversy. Roundshot or shell. The French again pioneers
Whitworth and Armstrong revolutionise gunnety
Armour, the answer to the shell. The broadside becoming obsolete
Temporary success of the‘ram’. Efficacy of the turret
Mine, submarine and torpedo
‘Commissioned officers’, ‘warrant officers’ and ‘men’ in the Royal Navy
Seniority
Block in promotion. Unemployed officers. Patronage
The navy as a full-time profession
Introduction of the ‘general commission’. The ‘active’ and the ‘retired’ list.
Conditions of entry
Senior officers’ selection of their own successors. Introduction of entry examinations
Naval College training of cadets. The spread of commissions
Jealousy between ‘executive’ and engineer officers
Evils of impressment. Improvement in conditions of service
Long-term service established, also fleet reserve. Genesis of the bluejacket
The seaman’s changed status
The navies of the U.S.A. and France
Graham’s new Register. Formation of Royal Naval Reserve
Direction and administration of the Royal Navy
ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WAR: ARMIES
Computing the strength of armed forces by the number of men
The flint-lock musket and the percussion system
The development of the rifle. Breech-loading
Development of artillery and machine guns
The French mitrailleuse
The military use of railways
Need for rapid concentration and deployment of forces
The electric telegraph
The Prussian‘General Staff ’
Conscription
The influence of Jomini and Clausewitz
The French conquest of Algeria
Radetzky’s brilliant generalship in the Austro-Italian War of 1848-9
Ill-management of the Crimean War
The Italian War of 1859
Bismarck observes the military weakness of France and Austria
The strategy of the Seven Weeks War of 1866
Strategic pattern of Franco-Prussian War
The American Civil War
THE UNITED KINGDOM AND ITS WORLD-WIDE INTERESTS
A rural and agricultural society becomes fundamentally urban and industrial
Increase and shifts in population
The age of railway construction
Trans-Atlantic shipping
Coal, iron and cotton
Britain a world power. Modification of political system
The two Houses of Parliament
Redistribution of constituencies
Elections and the electorate. Reform Act of 1867
Local government reform. Increase in public servants and officials
The Civil Service
Alignments and organisation of political parties
Cabinet solidarity and collective responsibility. The Queen’s memorandum about Palmerston
Abolition of slavery
Improvements in the conditions of factory workers
Repeal of the Com Laws
The Bank Charter Act of 1844
Working-class self-help and voluntary organisation
The early trade unions
The ‘Tolpuddle Martyrs’
The Chartist movement
The Co-operative movement
Britain’s peaceful policy
A new conception of Empire and Commonwealth
Development in the colonies. Shift in balance of imperial interests
The quest for markets
Self-government the goal of colonial administration
Rebellions in Canada; the Durham Report
Constitutional development of Australia, New Zealand and Cape Colony
General character of British development epitomised by imperial defence system
Survival and recurrence in Russian institutions and thought
The revolt of the Decembrists
Political police and censorship as instituted by edicts of 1826
The State Council
The Kochubei Committee of 1826
The tsar’s interest in agrarian reform
Increase in local peasant risings. The Polish insurrection (1830)
Uvarov, Minister of Education
Codification of Russian laws
Changes in economic policy
Russia’s interest in the strengthening of Prussia and Austria against international revolution
The revolutionary spirit passes from army and salon to scholar and publicist
Westerners and Slavophiles
Political controversy under the guise of literary criticism
The army the chief field for individual advancement
The new emperor Alexander II
Emancipation of the serfs
Home-based conspiracy and agitation
Nihilism and populism
The Polish revolt of 1863. Superficial liberalisation of Finland
The local government reform decree (1864)
The new judicial system of 1864
‘Peoples’ primary schools
Attempted assassination of tsar (1866)
Introduction of universal military service
Reform of the Bank of Russia
Economic conditions following the Crimean War
Economic failure of the agrarian revolution
The administration of Siberia
Alaska ceded to U.S.A
New forward policy at the expense of China
Pacification of Transcaucasia
Expeditions against the Khanates of Khiva, Bokhara and Khokand
Conditions that precede revolution
The instigators—intellectuals; their inspiration—France
Differing concepts of nationality
Significance of the social problem
Paris Revolution of 24 February
Its effect on Europe
Vienna the source of revolution in Central Europe
Liberation of Lombardy and Venetia
The rising in Berlin and its consequences
Some results of the revolutions
The ebb-tide of revolution in France
The effect on Europe
Election of Louis Napoleon
The Prussian Constituent Assembly dissolved
The Frankfurt Parliament
Frederick William of Prussia refuses the German crown
End of the political revolution in Italy, Hungary and Austria
Revolution comes to a standstill in France and Germany
Reform of the Germanic Confederation. Humiliation of Prussia
Louis Napoleon’s coup d'etat (1851)
Results of the revolution
Influence of steamship and railway
Extent of the Mediterranean
Climatic conditions
The arrival of the ‘tourist’
Relative activity of Mediterranean ports
Population of Mediterranean ports
The European ports
The Levantine ports
The ports of North Africa
Rivalries: traditional, trading, dynastic and national
Greece becomes independent kingdom
Egypt a disturbing force under Mehemet Ali
Mehemet Ali and the French capture of Algiers
Mehemet Ali’s invasion of Syria and Asia Minor
The Sultan defeated at Nezib. Settlement imposed by Convention of London (1840)
French influence in the Levant. Anglo-Russian rivalry a new factor in Mediterranean politics
Britain a predominant influence in Mediterranean politics
Operation of regular steamship lines
Demonstrations of British naval power
The Suez Canal project
Chevalier’s concept of inter-continental railways and canals
Enfantin’s belief in a canal connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea
English, French and Austro-German groups come to agreement
Plan for a railway gains ground
De Lesseps obtains formal concession
De Lesseps issues the prospectus and work is commenced
Completion of the canal
Louis Napoleon’s early life; his one purpose to restore the Empire
His failure to secure a revision of the constitution
The coup d'etat of December 1851; the new Constitution (January 1852)
Restoration of the Empire
Napoleon Ill’s supporters of diverse political views
The logic in his opportunism
Two periods in the reign: (1) the period of personal rule
The functions of the Corps Legislatif and Senate
Encouragement of economic expansion—credit, railways and lowering of tariffs
Increasing acceptance of the regime
(2) The period of unsteady equilibrium
Internal dissensions over religious issues
Social and political cleavages consequent on economic expansion
A resurgence of republicanism. Napoleon veers towards the left
Rapid increase in foreign investment and industrial production
Reasons for economic expansion. Social pre-eminence of the bourgeoisie.
Changes in the common people
The world of ideas lags behind economic enterprise
The rebuilding of Paris. The new rich
Napoleon’s aims in foreign policy
The Crimean War and the war against Austria (1859)
French intervention in Mexico
Napoleon’s role in the struggle between Prussia and Austria
The march of events culminating in Sedan
Collapse of Second Empire. Its mark on French history
The background of Russo-Turkish relations
Reasons for the war. The dispute over the Holy Places
Napoleon’s moderation in face of the tsar’s insult. Russia recognises probability of war, makes further demands on Turkey
Russian plans for dismembering the Ottoman empire
Turkey complies with an Austrian ultimatum
Menshikov’s mission
Turkey rejects the Russian demands
British and French fleets ordered to Besika Bay. Russian forces occupy line of the Danube
The Vienna Note. Arrival of Egyptian fleet
Russian Foreign Office document leaks out to the press. British and French fleets at Constantinople
Defeat of Turkish flotilla at Sinope. British and French fleets enter Black Sea
The Western powers declare war. Military operations slow to develop
Austria occupies Principalities for duration of war. Crimean peninsula becomes theatre of war
Missed opportunities. Austria signs Franco-British alliance
Fresh negotiations. Outcry in Britain against conduct of the war. Palmerston becomes Prime Minister
Decline in Austria’s influence. Fall of Sebastopol
Sardinia adheres to the Franco-British alliance. Overtures to Sweden
Palmerston plans bulwarks against Russia, but France makes informal soundings for peace
Russia accepts terms and armistice declared. Casualty figures
Press reports of mismanagement result in reorganisation of British army administration
Effects of the war in France, Russia and Turkey
The peace congress and the consequent treaty
Congress turns to afiairs of Poland, Greece and Italy
Decline in diplomatic prestige of Austria and Russia; they turn towards France
Partition of Turkey postponed
Russo-British hostility remains
PRUSSIA AND THE GERMAN PROBLEM, 1830-66
Revival of liberalism throughout Germany
Formation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) and the Tax Union (Steuerverein)
Prussian administrative system the envy of liberals throughout Europe
Accession of Frederick William IV raises hopes of political unity and a more liberal policy
The political situation in individual states
Prussia under the ministry of Count Brandenburg
The Habsburg claim to German leadership. Frederick William declines the Imperial crown of Germany
Failure of the Frankfurt Assembly
Alliance of the Three Kingdoms. Austria’s economic plans
Failure of Radowitz’s Prussian Union plan
Prussia’s humiliation at Olmtitz. Austria fails to gain admission to the Zollverein
Prussian conservatism. Liberals and the connection between power and sovereignty
Prussia’s expanding economy. Austria’s economic position weakens
The war in Italy. Austro-Prussian relations
Machinery of the German Confederation. The German National Association
William, prince of Prussia, becomes regent
Roon’s proposals for reforming the Prussian army
The regent encounters strong parliamentary opposition. The Progressive Party
Bismarck becomes head of the government
Bismarck’s speech in the Prussian Diet—‘by Blood and Iron’
Austria’s last attempt to assert preponderance in Germany
Russian goodwill necessary to Prussia
William I refuses to attend the Frankfurt Congress of Princes
The Schleswig-Holstein question
Bismarck gambles on French neutrality and secures the alliance of Italy
Bismarck breaks up the Confederation and prepares for war
The end of the struggle for supremacy
Formation of the North German Confederation
THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AND ITS PROBLEMS, 1848-67
Difficulties in the customary division of mid-nineteenth-century Austrian history
The equation being worked out by‘revolution’and‘reaction’
‘Reaction’ firmly in control of Austria
‘Historic units’ and Kreise. Ferdinand succeeded by Francis Joseph
Defeat of Hungarians. A new constitution applicable to the entire monarchy (March 1849)
Lombardy and Venetia kept under military control The government’s plans for Hungary
Hungarians proclaim their independence. The repression by Haynau
Settlement of Transylvania and the Southern Slav areas. Bach’s influence
Emancipation of the peasants. Judicial and educational reforms. Vigorous attempt to expand industry
German becomes the official language
Francis Joseph assumes sole political responsibility. A system of complete absolutism
Concordat of 1855 places Roman Catholic Church under special protection of the state
Easier material existence influences acceptance of absolutism in western half of the monarchy
Economic expansion and growing state expenditure
Conditions in Hungary. Continued dissatisfaction
Prospects of war. The stock-exchange crash of 1857
The Italian war (1859). Francis Joseph’s retreat from absolutism
The‘Laxenburg Manifesto’(August 1859). The Hungarian problem
The Reinforced Reichsrath recommends reconstruction of the monarchy
Concessions made to Hungary. The ‘October Diploma’
Hungary rejects the ‘October Diploma’
Schmerling’s ‘February Patent’ ill received
Francis Joseph makes approach to Hungary
The Austro-Prussian war. Andrdssy persuades Francis Joseph to drop federalism
Final agreement with Hungary
Desire for good government, but complete absence of national consciousness
Sardinia-Piedmont the nucleus for a greater kingdom. Minor insurrections in 1831
Austria restores order and the old regime continues
Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia
The neo-Guelph writers
The influence of Mazzini. Election of Pope Pius IX
Austria’s ill-advised entry into Modena and Ferrara. Insurrection in Palermo
Various rulers grant constitutions. Customs league between the Papal States and Tuscany
Rebellion in Milan precipitates war. Charles Albert compelled to act
Charles Albert refuses the collaboration of Garibaldi and is defeated at Custoza and Novara
Collapse of the revolution in Naples, Rome and Venice. Italy again becomes occupied territory
Abdication and death of Charles Albert. Victor Emmanuel partially re-establishes royal authority
The passing of the Siccardi laws. Cavour joins the D’Azeglio cabinet
Cavour replaces D’Azeglio. His methods
Piedmont’s intervention in the Crimean War
Increased clerical opposition. Cavour and Mazzini
Cavour’s diplomatic duel with Austria. Defeat of Austria at Magenta and Solferino
Cavour’s resignation and return to power
Mazzini’s belief in unification of Italy. Garibaldi captures Palermo
Naples falls to Garibaldi and Piedmontese troops enter the Papal States. A Kingdom of Italy proclaimed
Parliament meets in Turin, February 1861. Death of Cavour
Civil war in Sicily. The acquisition of Venice and Rome
THE ORIGINS OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR AND THE REMAKING OF GERMANY
Bismarck not wholly responsible for outbreak of war. Essential difference between Bismarck and Napoleon III
Prussia’s increase of territory and population. Bismarck’s policy of weakening his parliamentary enemies
Bismarck’s use of the draft Franco-Prussian treaty
Napoleon’s desire to compensate France for Prussia’s gains. The projected purchase of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg
Neutrality of Luxemburg to be guaranteed by the powers
Napoleon pursues the mirage of an alliance with Austria
The projected triple alliance ends in deadlock. Reorganisation of the French army 584 Neither France nor Prussia ready for war. The secret activities of Fleury and Daru 585 Napoleon returns to his plan for a triple alliance. Isabella of Spain takes refuge in France
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollem’s candidature for the Spanish throne
Prince Leopold persuaded to accept the Spanish crown
France makes two capital mistakes
Forces at work in the interests of peace
France confident of temporary military predominance
Karl Anton in his son’s name renounces any claim to throne of Spain
Gramont proposes a letter of apology to Napoleon from William I
Benedetti’s interview with William I and Bismarck’s published version of the Ems telegram
French Cabinet’s decision to mobilise
France declares war without allies
The surrender of Napoleon and fall of the Second Empire. The annexation of Alsace and Northern Lorraine
The German Empire is founded
NATIONAL AND SECTIONAL FORCES IN THE UNITED STATES
Sequence of development differs from that of Europe
Congress, the Executive and the Supreme Court moving towards nationalism
Growing economic unity
Two obstacles to the continued ascendancy of nationalism
Two major conflicts during the Jackson administration
Contrast between North and South
Antagonism between seaboard settlements and the interior
North and West tend to become reciprocal markets and sources of supply
Invention of the cotton gin. Expansion of the plantation system in the South
Four points of conflict between North and South
Absence of complete sectional unity
Reactions against slavery
The South unites in defence of slavery. Militant anti-slavery in the North
Slavery as a Federal question
The annexation of Texas
The Mexican war
The Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act
Marked deterioration of Union sentiment
Abraham Lincoln becomes President
Formation of the Confederate States of America
Lincoln's awareness of the importance of voluntary loyalty
The pivotal event in American history
Man-power of the opposing sides
The North’s superior economic potential
The importance of railways and the blockade of the Southern coast-line
The Confederate cause not a hopeless one
Confederate confidence in intervention by European powers
European powers recognise Confederacy as a belligerent. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation
Overall superiority of the North’s diplomacy. Effects of the cotton shortage
English public opinion moves in favour of the North. The Trent affair
The Alabama damage claims. The Laird rams
France’s ambitions in Mexico
Expansion of the North’s economic system
The Republican party’s wartime legislation
Northern war finance and army recruitment. The casualties
Lincoln’s bold exercise of his war powers
Factions within the major political parties
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation. The presidential election of 1864
The Confederate constitution
Jefferson Davis and his cabinet
Finance, recruitment and states rights in the South
General strategy of the war
The command system of the opposing armies
Results of the war
Former Spanish and Portuguese dominions become independent states
The Brazilian empire
Brazil’s gradual transition to independence
The rule of Dom Pedro
Chile and the Chilean constitution of 1833
Economic expansion of the ’forties and ’fifties
The presidency of Manuel Montt
Progressive liberalisation under President Perez. War with Spain
The paralysing problems of Bolivia Snd Ecuador
Peru’s prosperity and disorder. Venezuela and Colombia
United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata
The Age of Rosas in the‘Argentine Confederation’
Argentina’s constitutional problems and economic development. The police state of Paraguay
The Paraguayan war
Monarchy in Mexico followed by an unstable republic and separatist movements
Overthrow of Santa Anna. Benito Ju&rez elected president
Introduction of drastic innovations
Juarez’s struggle with the forces of reaction. His eventual re-election as president
British, Frenchand Spanishtroopslanded. Archduke Maximilian accepts the crown
Death of Maximilian; Judrez again president
The states of Central America
Britain’s connections with the Mosquito Indians
The transisthmian canal project; the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Further friction between Britain and the U.S.A. The colony of British Honduras
The negro republic of Haiti and the Dominican republic
Caudillismo
By the ’seventies Latin America is on the threshold of a new age
The massive political organism controlled by Peking
Lack of normal diplomatic intercourse with other powers
System of trade with Western nations
The trade in opium
Lord Napier as Superintendent of Trade
The Kowloon episode (1839)
British expeditionary force invests Nanking. China comes to terms with the Treaty of Nanking (1842)
Conditions bound to lead eventually to the outbreak of war
Provisions of the Treaty of Nanking
The International Settlement of Shanghai
Foreigners denied freedom of travel. Friction over application of treaties, especially the ‘right of entry’ into Canton
Activities of Western missionaries
The rise of the Taipings
The Taipings declare Nanking their capital. Weakening of their power
Their religious fanaticism. Forces raised to combat them
Sir George Bonham attempts to make contact with the Taipings
The Small Sword Society seizes Shanghai
British and French troops enter Canton (1857)
American and Russian envoys join the British and French plenipotentiaries
Russian encroachments in China
Capture of the Taku forts
The Tientsin treaties concede diplomatic representation and the right of travel
Treaty envoys barred admission
Treacherous attack on British and French envoys travelling under flag of truce
Flight of the Emperor exploited by Russia
The regency of the Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi
Final suppression of the Taiping rebellion
Repression of Chinese Muslim revolts. The restored empire enters into normal diplomatic relations with Western powers
The continuance of anti-foreign riots
French annexation of Cochin-China and expedition against Korea
The Japanese policy of seclusion
The Treaty of Kanagawa. The political system of the Tokugawa period
Attacks on Western nationals result in combined naval action
Western powers enforce imperial ratification of their treaties. The Meiji Restoration