Notes

Introduction: Seeing the world with the past. A call to historians and policymakers

1 Stephen Stoll, Ramp Hollow: The Ordeal of Appalachia, Hill and Wang, New York, 2017, p. 31.

2 Frank Bongiorno, ‘The Citizen Historian, Stuart Macintyre, 1947–2021’, Inside Story, 1 December 2021, <www.insidestory.org.au/the-citizen-historian/>, accessed 14 December 2021.

1Writing the history of the future

1 Francis Bacon, ‘Of Studies’, in his Essays (1597), Everyman edition, Dent and Sons, London, 1906, p. 151.

2 Jo Guldi and David Armitage, The History Manifesto, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014, p. 13.

3 Deborah Cohen and Peter Mandler, ‘AHR Exchange: The History Manifesto: A critique’, American Historical Review, vol. 120, no. 2, 2015, pp. 530–42; Marc Parry, ‘Historians attack the data and ethics of colleagues’ manifesto’, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 17 April 2015. For a range of responses to The History Manifesto, see <www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-file-manager/file/5788a54071ffd65665313b7a/The-History-Manifesto-Media.pdf>, accessed 14 January 2022.

4 Karen Barlow, ‘Scott Morrison defends minister Greg Hunt and Pfizer deal, but keeps key details in doubt’, Canberra Times, 9 September 2021.

5 George Santayana, The Life of Reason: The Phases of Human Progress, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1955.

6 Lucy Delap, Simon Szreter and Paul Warde, ‘History & Policy: A decade of bridge-building in the United Kingdom’, Scandia, vol. 80, no. 1, 2014, pp. 97–118.

7 Michael Howard, The Lessons of History, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989, pp. 5, 195.

8 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The short twentieth century, Abacus, London 1994, p. 585.

9 Eric Hobsbawm, ‘Looking Forwards: History and the future’, (1981), in his On History, Weidenfelt and Nicholson, London, 1997, pp. 37–55.

10 Richard Neustadt and Ernest May, Thinking in Time: The uses of history for decision-makers, Free Press, New York, 1986.

11 Peter Hall, Great Planning Disasters, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1980.

12 Graeme Davison, ‘History on the Witness Stand: Interrogating the past’, in Iain McCalman and Ann McGrath (eds), Proof and Truth: The humanist as expert, Australian Academy of the Humanities, Canberra, 2003, pp. 53–67.

13 Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality, Doubleday, New York, 1967, p. 5.

14 Tom Griffiths, ‘History, Fiction and Truth-telling’, Address to History Teachers’ Association of Victoria Conference, July 2018, p. 13. I am grateful to Tom Griffiths for permission to quote from this unpublished address.

15 Richard Evans, In Defence of History, Granta Books, London, 1997, pp. 224–52.

16 See <www.honesthistory.net.au/wp>, accessed 14 January 2022.

17 Bain Attwood, Telling the Truth about Aboriginal History, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2005; Henry Reynolds, Truth-Telling: History, sovereignty and the Uluru Statement, NewSouth, Sydney, 2021.

18 First Nations National Constitutional Convention & Central Land Council (Australia), Uluru: Statement from the Heart, 2017, <www.nla.gov.au/nla.obj-484035616>, accessed 14 February 2022.

19 Henry Reynolds, The Law of the Land, Penguin Books, Melbourne, 1987, pp. 81–103.

20 Graeme Davison, The Use and Abuse of Australian History, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2000, pp. 221–37.

21 Hugh Stretton, Selected Writings, edited by Graeme Davison, LaTrobe University/Black Inc., Melbourne, 2018, pp. ix–xxvii. See also Graeme Davison, City Dreamers: The urban imagination in Australia, NewSouth, Sydney, 2016, pp. 195–216.

22 Stretton, Application for Rhodes Scholarship 1945 in Rhodes Scholarship Selection Committee Papers, University of Melbourne Archives.

23 Hugh Stretton, ‘A Use for History’, in Stretton, Selected Writings, pp. 211– 14.

24 Hugh Stretton, Political Essays, Georgian House, Melbourne, 1987, p. 251.

25 Hugh Stretton, Capitalism, Socialism and the Environment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976, p. 15.

26 Griffiths, ‘History, Fiction and Truth-telling’, p. 16.

27 Lawrence Wright, The Plague Year: America in the time of Covid, Allen Lane, London, 2021, pp. 49–51, 55–56; and see Markel et al., The Influenza Encyclopedia, <www.influenzaarchive.org/about.html>, accessed 14 February 2022.

28 Howard Markel, ‘History Won’t Help Us Now’, Atlantic, 19 August 2021, <www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/08/1918-influenza-pandemic-history-coronavirus/619801/>, accessed 14 February 2022.

29 Emma Dawson and Janet McCalman (eds), What Next? Reconstructing Australia after COVID-19, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2020, p. 19.

30 Another stimulating example, which came too late for me to consider here, is Hilary Cooper and Simon Szreter, After the Virus: Lessons from the past for a better future, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.

2Learning the right lessons? Two policy stories

1 Stuart Macintyre, ‘The Writing of Australian History’, in D.H. Borchardt (ed.), Australians: A guide to sources, Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, Sydney, 1987, p. 8.

2 R.M. Crawford, ‘A Bit of a Rebel’: The life and work of George Arnold Wood, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 1975; Andrew G. Bonnell, ‘Stephen Roberts as a Commentator on Fascism and the Road to War in Europe’, History Australia, vol. 11, no. 3, 2014, pp. 9–30.

3 Laura Tingle, ‘Political Amnesia: How we forgot how to govern’, Quarterly Essay, no. 60, 2015.

4 Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War, Macmillan, London, 1973, chapter 2.

5 Paul Kelly, The End of Certainty: The story of the 1980s, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1992, chapter 1.

6 John Rickard, H.B. Higgins: The rebel as judge, George Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1984, pp. 186–87.

7 Frank Bongiorno, ‘Whatever Happened to Free Trade Liberalism?’, in Paul Strangio and Nick Dyrenfurth (eds), Confusion: The making of the Australian two-party political system, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2009, pp. 249–74.

8 Ian W. McLean, Why Australia Prospered: The shifting sources of economic growth, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford, 2013, chapters 3–6.

9 N.G. Butlin, A. Barnard and J.J. Pincus, Government and Capitalism: Public and private choice in twentieth-century Australia, George Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1982, chapter 4; David Merrett and Simon Ville, ‘Tariffs, Subsidies, and Profits: A re-assessment of structural change in Australia 1901–39’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 51, no. 1, 2011, pp. 46–70; Francis G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the political development of the welfare state in Australia and New Zealand, 1890–1980, Allen & Unwin in association with Port Nicholson Press, Wellington and Sydney, 1985.

10 McLean, Why Australia Prospered, p. 151; C.B. Schedvin, Australia and the Great Depression: A study of economic development and policy in the 1920s and 1930s, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 1970, pp. 141–45.

11 George Megalogenis, The Longest Decade, Scribe, Melbourne, 2006; Paul Kelly, The March of Patriots: The struggle for modern Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2009.

12 James Walter and Carolyn Holbrook, ‘Policy Narratives in Historical Transition: A case study in contemporary history’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 49, no. 2, 2018, p. 234.

13 Frank Bongiorno, The Eighties: The decade that transformed Australia, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2015.

14 Kevin Rudd, ‘The Global Financial Crisis’, Monthly, February 2009, <www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2009/february/1319602475/kevin-rudd/global-financial-crisis/>, accessed 14 January 2022.

15 Kerry O’Brien, Keating, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2015, p. 318.

16 McLean, Why Australia Prospered, p. 223.

17 Margaret Macmillan, Dangerous Games: The uses and abuses of history, Modern Library, New York, 2009, p. 159.

18 Macmillan, Dangerous Games, pp. 162–63.

19 Macmillan, Dangerous Games, p. 164.

20 Alexander Downer, ‘Earle Page Politics Speech’, Earle Page College, University of New England, Armidale, 17 May 2005, <www.australianpolitics.com/2005/05/17/alexander-downer-earle-page-politics-speech.html>, accessed 14 January 2022.

21 Christopher Waters, Australia and Appeasement: Imperial foreign policy and the origins of World War II, I.B. Taurus, London and New York, 2012, pp. 2, 80, 130.

22 John Edwards, John Curtin’s War, vol. 1, Viking, Melbourne, 2017, pp. 132–35, 246–49.

3Historians: Bridging the divide with policymakers

1 Stuart Macintyre and Anna Clark, The History Wars, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2003.

2 John Howard, The Menzies Era: The years that shaped modern Australia, HarperCollins, Sydney, 2014; David Kemp, A Liberal State: How Australians chose liberalism over socialism, 1926–1966, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2020.

3 Steven Kennedy, ‘Australia’s Response to the Global Financial Crisis’, Australian Government/The Treasury, Canberra, 24 June 2009, <http://www.treasury.gov.au/speech/australias-response-to-the-global-financial-crisis>, accessed 14 January 2022; Steven Kennedy, Secretary to the Treasury, ‘Emerging from the Crisis: Recovery and reform’, Address to the Australian Business Economists, Canberra: Australian Government/The Treasury, 18 May 2021 <www.treasury.gov.au/speech/address-australian-business-economists>, accessed 14 January 2022.

4 Harold Lasswell, Who Gets What, When, How?, Whittlesey House, New York, 1936.

5 Matthew Laing, Scientists and Policy Influence: A literature review, CRC for Water Sensitive Cities, Melbourne, 2015, pp. 47–48.

6 James Button, Speechless: A year in my father’s business, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2012; Dennis Glover, An Economy is Not a Society: Winners and losers in the new Australia, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2015.

7 Miriam Dixson, The Real Matilda: Woman and identity in Australia 1788–1975, Penguin, Melbourne, 1976; Kay Daniels and Mary Murnane, Uphill All the Way: A documentary history of women in Australia, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1980; Anne Summers, Damned Whores and God’s Police, Penguin, Melbourne, 1975; Beverley Kingston, My Wife, My Daughter and Poor Mary Ann, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1975.

8 Marian Sawer, Femocrats and Ecorats: Women’s policy machinery in Australia, Canada and New Zealand, Geneva: UNRISD Occasional Paper, No. 6, United Nations, 1996.

9 Committee to Review Australian Studies in Tertiary Education, Windows onto Worlds: Studying Australia at tertiary level, AGPS, Canberra, 1987.

10 Jill Roe, ‘Kay Daniels: 1941–2001’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 33, no. 119, 2002, pp. 186–89.

11 Peter Shergold, Report of the Task Group on Emissions Trading, Australian Government, Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading, Canberra, 2007.

12 See Carolyn Holbrook, ‘Redesigning Collaborative Governance for Refugee Resettlement Services’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 55, no. 1, 2020, pp. 86–97; Doug Dingwall, ‘Peter Shergold’s Refugee Role Takes Him Back to Beginnings’, Canberra Times, 19 October 2020, <www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6917108/peter-shergolds-refugee-role-takes-him-back-to-beginnings/>, accessed 14 January 2022.

13 Don Watson, Recollections of a Bleeding Heart: A portrait of Paul Keating PM, Random House, Sydney, 2002.

14 Kerry O’Brien, Keating, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2016, pp. 540–41; and see Paul Ryder and Jonathan Foye, ‘Whose Speech Is It Anyway? Ownership, authorship, and the Redfern Address’, M/C Journal, vol. 20, no.5, 2017, <www.doi.org/10.5204/mcj.1228>.

15 Research such as that manifest in Don Watson, Caledonia Australis: Scottish Highlanders on the frontier of Australia, Collins, Sydney, 1984.

16 Watson remains a prolific contributor to public debate, much of his work drawing historical lessons; see his The Bush: Travels in the heart of Australia, Hamish Hamilton, Melbourne, 2014.

17 Academy of Social Sciences in Australia (ASSA), The Social Sciences Shape the Nation, ASSA, Canberra, 2017; Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Reference Committee, ‘Nationhood, National Identity and Democracy’, public round table conducted 7 February 2020, <www.parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A”committees%2Fcommsen%2F30c8ad35-bd2a-4ec8-a3ea-04f3f2859396%2F0000>, accessed 14 January 2022.

18 See Laing, Scientists and Policy Influence, p. 41.

19 Cited in Stuart Macintyre, ‘An Expert’s Confession’, Australian Quarterly, Spring, 1995.

20 Stuart Macintyre, Rethinking Australian Citizenship, Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia, Canberra, 1992.

21 See Civics Expert Group, Whereas the People: Civics and Citizenship Education, AGPS, Canberra, 1994; Macintyre, ‘An Expert’s Confession’.

22 Kemp’s A Liberal State is the fourth volume in his intended five-volume history.

23 See Gordon Crane, ‘The Civics Push’, Education Links, no. 56–57, 1998, pp. 13–16.

24 John Hirst, Australia’s Democracy: A short history, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2002; John Hirst, The Sentimental Nation: The making of the Australian Commonwealth, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2000.

25 For instance, Brian Galligan and John Chesterman, Defining Australian Citizenship, Melbourne University Publishing, Melbourne, 1999; John Chesterman, Citizens Without Rights: Aborigines and Australian citizenship, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1997; James Walter and Margaret MacLeod, The Citizens’ Bargain, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2002.

26 Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Reference Committee, ‘Nationhood, National Identity and Democracy’.

27 See James Walter, ‘Bureaucracy and Democracy in the American Century: A.F. Davies on administration and “The Knowledgeable Society”’, Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 58, no. 1, 1999, pp. 23–32.

28 On punctuated equilibrium, see J.L. True, Bryan D. Jones and Frank R. Baumgartner, ‘Punctuated-Equilibrium Theory’, in Paul Sabatier (ed.), Theories of the Policy Process (2nd ed.), Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 2006, pp. 155–87.

29 On policy windows, see John Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (2nd ed.), HarperCollins, New York, 1995.

30 Ross Gittins, ‘The Era of Neoliberalism is Ending and Reversing’, blogpost, 19 July 2017, <www.rossgittins.com/2017/07/the-era-of-neoliberalism-is-ending-and.html>, accessed 14 January 2022.

31 Larry Elliott, ‘The Pandemic-Induced Global Slump is Just Part of a 20-year Financial Crisis’, Guardian Australia, 26 August 2021, <www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/aug/25/pandemic-global-slump-20-year-financial-crisis>, accessed 14 January 2022.

32 Emma Dawson and Janet McCalman, What Happens Next? Reconstructing Australia after COVID-19, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2020.

33 See <www.naa.gov.au/about-us/tune-review#scope-of-review>, accessed 14 January 2022.

34 On advocacy coalitions, see Paul Sabatier and Christopher Weible, ‘Advocacy Coalition Frameworks’, in Sabatier (ed.), Theories of the Policy Process.

35 Senator the Hon Michaelia Cash, ‘$67.7 Million to boost National Archives’, Media release, Australian Government, Attorney-General’s Department, I July 2021, <www.ministers.ag.gov.au/media-centre/67-million-boost-national-archives-01-07-2021>, accessed 18 February 2022.

36 Henry Reynolds, The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia, Penguin, Melbourne, 1982, has been notably influential. Originally published in 1981 by James Cook University.

37 Richard H. Bartlett, The Mabo Decision and the Full Text of the Decision in Mabo and Others v. State of Queensland, Butterworths, Sydney, 1993. Murray Goot and Tim Rowse, Divided Nation? Indigenous Affairs and the imagined public, Melbourne University Publishing, Melbourne, 2007.

38 Lyndall Ryan, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 1981.

39 See, for example, Keith Windschuttle The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Vol. One, Van Diemen’s Land 1803–1847, Macleay Press, Sydney, 2002, chapter 5.

40 Paul Daley summarises key works: ‘As the toll of Australia’s frontier brutality keeps climbing, truth telling is long overdue’, Guardian Australia, 4 March 2019, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/mar/04/as-the-toll-of-australias-frontier-brutality-keeps-climbing-truth-telling-is-long-overdue>, accessed 14 January 2022.

41 See the Colonial Frontier Massacres in Australia 1788–1930 website, <www.c21ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/introduction.php>, accessed 14 January 2022; Guardian Australia, 18 November 2019, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/ng-interactive/2019/mar/04/massacre-map-australia-the-killing-times-frontier-wars>, accessed 14 January 2022; Ceridwen Dovey, ‘The Mapping of Massacres’, The New Yorker, 6 December 2017, <www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/mapping-massacres>, accessed 14 January 2022.

42 For instance, Peter Read, Haunted Earth, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2003; Tim Rowse, Indigenous and other Australians since 1901, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2017.

43 Grace Karskens, Colony: A history of early Sydney, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2009; Grace Karskens, People of the River: Lost worlds of early Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2020. On policy action and ‘webs of meaning’, that is, social facts constituted by the meaning actors give to them, see Mark Bevir and R.A.W. Rhodes, ‘Interpretation and Its Others’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 40, no. 2, 2005, pp. 169–87.

44 See <www.prosecutionproject.griffith.edu.au/about/the-research-project/>, accessed 14 January 2022.

45 Mark Finnane, ‘What Counts? Essays from the Prosecution Project’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 51, no. 3, 2020, pp. 245–49.

46 See <www.prosecutionproject.griffith.edu.au/publications/>, accessed 14 January 2022.

47 Finnane, ‘What Counts?’, p. 246.

48 See Laing, Scientists and Policy Influence.

4Making time for history: Climate change and detoxing from progress

1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5°C, 2018, <www.ipcc.ch/2018/10/08/summary-for-policymakers-of-ipcc-special-report-on-global-warming-of-1-5c-approved-by-governments/>, accessed 11 August 2021.

2 Lisa Freidman, ‘What is the Green New Deal?’, New York Times, 21 February 2019; Emma Foehringer Merchant, ‘Should We Respond to Climate Change Like We Did for WWII?’, New Republic, 12 May 2016.

3 Cameron Muir, Kirsten Wehner and Jenny Newell (eds), Living with the Anthropocene, NewSouth, Sydney, 2020.

4 Extinction Rebellion Australia, <www.ausrebellion.earth/what-is-xr>, accessed 11 August 2021; Erica Chenoweth and Maria J. Stephan, Why Civil Resistance Works, Columbia University Press, New York, 2011.

5 Greta Thunberg, ‘I have a dream that the time for fairytales is over’, Independent, 20 September 2019, <www.independent.co.uk/voices/greta-thunberg-congress-speech-climate-change-crisis-dream-a9112151.html>, accessed 11 August 2021.

6 Paul Kramer, ‘Bringing in the Externalities: Historians, time work and history’s boundaries’, History Australia, vol. 17, no. 2, 2020, p. 293.

7 Samia Khatun in ‘What You Look For is What You Find’, Archive Fever podcast, 2021, <www.archivefeverpod.com/s3ep08>, accessed 11 August 2021.

8 Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2000, p. 250.

9 Khatun, ‘What You Look For is What You Find’.

10 Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past, Columbia University Press, New York, 2004, p. 267.

11 Koselleck, Futures Past, p. 266.

12 Priya Satia, Time’s Monster, Allen Lane, London, 2020.

13 Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, p. 8.

14 Satia, Time’s Monster, p. 6.

15 Satia, Time’s Monster, p. 261.

16 Samia Khatun, Australianama, Hurst & Company, London, 2018, p. 5.

17 Catherine Hall, Macaulay and Son, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2012.

18 Hall, Macaulay and Son, p. xv.

19 Satia, Time’s Monster, pp. 264–71.

20 Anna Tsing, The Mushroom at the End of the World, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2015, p. 20.

21 Katie Holmes, ‘Generation Covid: Crafting History and Collective Memory’, Griffith Review, no. 71, 2021, <www.griffithreview.com/articles/generation-covid>, accessed 11 August 2021; Tony Birch, ‘Having Gone, I Will Come Back’, in Muir, Wehner and Newell (eds), Living with the Anthropocene, p. 27.

22 Amitav Ghosh, The Great Derangement, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2016, p. 79.

23 Joëlle Gergis, ‘The Great Unravelling’, in Sophie Cunningham (ed.), Fire, Flood, Plague, Vintage, Sydney, 2020, p. 46.

24 Paul Kramer, ‘History in a Time of Crisis’, Chronicle of Higher Education, 19 February 2017, <www.chronicle.com/article/History-in-a-Time-of-Crisis/239208>, accessed 11 August 2021.

25 Rebecca Solnit, Whose Story is This?, Granta, London, 2019, p. 159.

26 Ursula K. Le Guin, ‘Books aren’t just commodities’, Guardian, 21 November 2014, <www.theguardian.com/books/2014/nov/20/ursula-k-le-guin-national-book-awards-speech>, accessed 11 August 2021.

27 Satia, Time’s Monster, p. 289.

28 Yves Rees and Ben Huf, ‘Training Historians in Urgent Times’, History Australia, vol. 17, no. 2, 2020, p. 275.

29 Rebecca Solnit, Hope in the Dark, Haymarket Books, Chicago, 2016, pp. 7, 26.

30 Speth quoted in Christine Wamsler, ‘Contemplative Sustainable Futures’, in Walter Leal Filho and Adriana Consorte McCrea (eds), Sustainability and the Humanities, Springer, Cham, 2019, p. 360.

31 Khatun, ‘What You Look For is What You Find’.

32 Audre Lorde, Sister Outsider, Crossing Press, Trumansburg, 1984, p. 112.

33 Tyson Yunkaporta, Sand Talk, Text, Melbourne, 2019, p. 88.

34 Margo Neale and Lynne Kelly, Songlines, Thames & Hudson, Melbourne, 2020, p. 101.

35 Yunkaporta, Sand Talk, p. 57.

36 Satia, Time’s Monster, p. 294.

37 Fiona Harvey, ‘Major climate changes inevitable and irreversible’, Guardian, 9 August 2021, <www.theguardian.com/science/2021/aug/09/humans-have-caused-unprecedented-and-irreversible-change-to-climate-scientists-warn>, accessed 11 August 2021.

5Urban water policy in a drying continent

This chapter is based on research funded by the Australian Research Council (ARC DP180100807)

1 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘National Water Reform’, Productivity Commission Inquiry Report, no. 87, 19 December 2017, pp. 15–16.

2 Margaret Cook et al., Cities in a Sunburnt Country: Water and the making of urban Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2022.

3 Margaret Levi, ‘A Model, a Method and a Map: Rational choice in comparative and historical analysis’, in A.I. Lichbach and A.S. Zuckerman (eds), Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture and Structure, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, p. 28.

4 Third Annual Report of the Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, NSW, 1891, Appendix 7; 102nd Annual Report, Water Board, NSW, p. 88.

5 Andrea Gaynor, ‘Lawnscaping Perth: Water supply, gardens, and scarcity, 1890–1925’, Journal of Urban History, vol. 46, 2020, pp. 63–78.

6 F.L. Trelease, ‘Policies for Water Law: Property rights, economic forces and public regulation’, Natural Resources Journal, vol. 5, 1865, pp. 1–48; W. Musgrave, ‘The Political Economy of Resource Use: Water’, in J.A. Sinden (ed.), The Natural Resources of Australia. Prospects and problems for development, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1974; Ruth Morgan, Running Out? Water in Western Australia, University of Western Australia Press, Perth, 2015, pp. 104, 117–18.

7 In 2011 the Productivity Commission noted that while some of the desalination infrastructure was justified, other projects could have been deferred, constructed on a smaller scale, or replaced with investment in lower cost sources of water, including recycled water. Commonwealth of Australia, ‘Australia’s Urban Water Sector’, Productivity Commission Inquiry Report, Productivity Commission, Melbourne, 2011, pp. xxiii–xxiv, <www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/urban-water/report>, accessed 27 August 2021. See also Patrick Troy (ed.), Troubled Waters: Confronting the water crisis in Australia’s cities, ANU E Press, Canberra, 2008, <www.press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p20601/pdf/book.pdf>, accessed 16 June 2021.

8 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘National Water Reform’, Productivity Commission Inquiry Report, no. 87, 19 December 2017, pp. 2 & xvi.

9 J.I. Viggers, H.J. Weaver and D.B. Lindenmayer, Melbourne’s Water Catchments: Perspectives on a world-class water supply, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, 2013, pp. 13–14.

10 Viggers, Weaver and Lindenmayer, Melbourne’s Water Catchments, p. 17; L.E.D. Smith and K.S. Porter, ‘Management of Catchments for the Protection of Water Resources: Drawing on the New York City watershed experience’, Regional Environmental Change, vol. 10, 2010, pp. 311–26; Margaret Cook and Peter Spearritt, ‘Water Forever: Warragamba and Wivenhoe Dams’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 52, no. 2, 2021, p. 215.

11 David Lindenmayer and Chris Taylor, ‘Researchers allege native logging breaches that threaten the water we drink’, Conversation, 26 November 2019, <www.theconversation.com/researchers-allege-native-logging-breaches-that-threaten-the-water-we-drink-127509>, accessed 27 August 2021.

12 Christopher Sheil, Water’s Fall: Running the risks with economic rationalism, Pluto Press, Sydney, 2000; J.D. Spoehr et al., State of Secrecy: Outsourcing – promise and performance, Centre for Labour Research, Adelaide University, Adelaide, 2002; John Quiggin, ‘Contracting Out: Promise and performance’, Economic and Labour Relations Review, vol. 13, no. 1, 2002, pp. 88–104; K. Hartley, Independent Audit of the Bolivar Wastewater Treatment Plant to Determine the Causes of a Major Odour Event, Uniquest, Brisbane, 1997; Peter McClellan, Sydney Water Inquiry: Final Report, Sydney Water Inquiry Secretariat, Sydney, 1998.

13 Caroline Wenger, Karen Hussey and Jamie Pittock, Living with Floods: Key lessons from Australia and abroad, National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast, 2013, pp. 19–31; Margaret Cook, ‘Vacating the Floodplain: Urban property, engineering and floods in Brisbane (1974–2011)’, Conservation and Society, vol. 15, no. 3, 2017, pp. 344–54.

14 This resembles the argument made in relation to climate change by Mike Hulme, ‘Am I a denier, a human extinction denier?’, <www.mikehulme.org/am-i-a-denier-a-human-extinction-denier/>, accessed 16 June 2021.

15 Nick Dyrenfurth, Getting the Blues: The future of Australian Labor, Conor Court, Brisbane, 2019.

16 Water Corporation, Water Forever: Towards climate resilience, Water Corporation, Perth, 2009.

17 Samuel Alexander, ‘Life in a “degrowth” economy, and why you might actually enjoy it’, Conversation, 2 October 2014, <www.theconversation.com/life-in-a-degrowth-economy-and-why-you-might-actually-enjoy-it-32224>, accessed 16 June 2021.

18 Degrowth is defined by Jason Hickel as ‘a planned reduction of energy and resource throughput designed to bring the economy back into balance with the living world in a way that reduces inequality and improves human well-being’. Jason Hickel, ‘What does degrowth mean? A few points of clarification’, Globalizations, 4 September 2020.

19 See, for example, this survey from the United States: Pew Research Center, ‘What lessons do Americans see for humanity in the pandemic?’, 8 October 2020, <www.pewforum.org/essay/what-lessons-do-americans-see-for-humanity-in-the-pandemic/>, accessed 27 August 2021.

6War with China: What can history teach us?

1 Douglas Newton, Hell-Bent: Australia’s leap into the Great War, Scribe, Melbourne, 2014; David Lee, Stanley Melbourne Bruce: Australian internationalist, Continuum, London, 2010; David S. Bird and J.A. Lyons, The Tame Tasmanian: Appeasement and rearmament in Australia, 1932–39, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, 2008.

2 A.J.P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1961, p. 7.

3 Tim Bouverie, Appeasing Hitler: Chamberlain, Churchill and the road to war, Bodley Head, London, 2019, p. xii.

4 For an important dissenting view, see John Charmley, Mr Chamberlain and the Lost Peace, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1989.

5 Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe went to war in 1914, Allen Lane, London, 2012.

6 See, for example, Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1992.

7 Coral Bell, Negotiation from Strength: A study in the politics of power, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1963.

8 ‘How Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of August influenced decision making during the Cuban Missile Crisis’, Reader’s Almanac: The official blog of the Library of America, 19 March 2012, <www.blog.loa.org/2012/03/how-barbara-tuchmans-guns-of-august.html>, accessed 24 January 2022.

9 Prime Minister Scott Morrison, ‘Address – Launch of the 2020 Defence Strategic Update’, 1 July 2020, <www.pm.gov.au/media/address-launch-2020-defence-strategic-update>, accessed 24 January 2022.

10 Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis, volume II, T. Butterworth, London, 1923.

11 E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years Crisis 1919–1939, Macmillan, London, 1939, 1981.

12 Henry Kissinger, A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the problem of peace 1812–22, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1957, p. 1.

13 This question was explored in Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War, Basic Books, New York, 1998.

7Past as prologue: Repairing Australia’s trade relationship with China

The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not reflect the authors’ involvements with specific organisations.

1 V.R. Panchamukhis, ‘Complementarity and Economic Cooperation: A methodological discussion’, Foreign Trade Review: Quarterly Journal of Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, vol. 39, no.1, 2004, pp. 5–18; M.Y. Hou, ‘China-Australia Trade: How important and complementary is it?’, Journal of East Asian Affairs, vol. 20, no. 1, 2006, pp. 155–79.

2 Observatory of Economic Complexity, ‘Australia-China’, <www.oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/aus/partner/chn?depthSelector=HS2Depth&dynamicBilateralTradeSelector=year1997>, accessed 29 August 2021.

3 UNICEF, Children in China: An atlas of social indicators 2018, UNICEF China, Beijing, 2018, p. 37, <www.unicef.cn/sites/unicef.org.china/files/2019-04/Atlas 2018 final ENG.pdf>, accessed 2 August 2021.

4 J.Y. Lin, ‘Rural Reforms and Agricultural Growth in China’, American Economic Review, vol. 82, no. 1, 1992, pp. 34–51.

5 China Power Team, ‘How Well-off is China’s Middle Class?’, China Power, 26 April 2017, <www.chinapower.csis.org/china-middle-class/>, accessed 20 September 2021.

6 Ross Garnaut, Australia and the Northeast Asian Ascendancy: Report to the prime minister and the minister for foreign affairs and trade, AGPS, Canberra, 1989.

7 Laura Berger-Thomson, John Breusch and Louise Lilley, Australia’s Experience with Economic Reform, The Treasury, Commonwealth of Australia, 2018.

8 Ann Kent, ‘Australia-China Relations, 1966–1996: A critical overview’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 42, no. 3, 2008, pp. 365–84; Australia–China Relations Institute (ACRI), Whitlam and China, UTS, Sydney, 2014.

9 ACRI, Fraser and China, UTS, Sydney, 2015.

10 Yi Wang, Australia-China Relations Post 1949: Sixty years of trade and politics, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham, 2012; Roy Campbell McDowall, Howard’s Long March, ANU Press, Canberra, 2009; and The Australia-China Story, ‘The Gillard Government and Australia-China Relations’, <www.aus.thechinastory.org/archive/the-gillard-government-and-australia-china-relations/>, accessed 29 August 2021.

11 The Australia-China Story, ‘Kevin Rudd and Australia-China Relations’, <www.aus.thechinastory.org/archive/kevin-rudd-and-australia-china-relations/>, accessed 29 August 2021.

12 Evan S. Medeiros, ‘China’s Foreign Policy Objectives’, in China’s International Behavior: Activism, opportunism, and diversification, RAND Corporation, Pittsburgh, 2009, p. 49.

13 Medeiros, ‘China’s Foreign Policy Objectives’.

14 Aaron L. Friedberg, The Past, Present, and Future of US-China Relations [A conversation with Aaron L. Friedberg hosted by the Institute for US-China Issues], 29 April 2021, <www.yout ube.com/watch?v=KPrfjGtQf6M>, accessed 18 July 2021.

15 In 2019, the Morrison government established the National Foundation for Australia-China Relations, which built on the legacy of the Australia-China Council.

16 Edmund S.K. Fung, ‘Australia’s Relations with China in the 1980s’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 32, no. 2, 1986, pp. 186–200.

17 McDowall, Howard’s Long March, p. 22.

18 Wang, Australia-China Relations, p. 111.

19 Wang, Australia-China Relations, p. 112.

20 Australian Government Human Rights Delegation, Report of the Australian Human Rights Delegation to China 14–26 July 1991, AGPS, Canberra, 1991, p. viii; Australian Government Human Rights Delegation, Report of the Australian Human Rights Delegation to China 8–20 November 1992, AGPS, Canberra, 1992.

21 Wang, Australia-China Relations, p. 143.

22 The Howard government also initiated a bilateral human rights dialogue with China.

23 McDowall, Howard’s Long March, pp. 10–12.

24 Geoff Raby, China’s Grand Strategy and Australia’s Future in the New Global Order, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2020, p. 3.

25 Friedberg, The Past, Present, and Future.

26 The foreign relations law requires ‘states and territories and their entities to seek approval from the Minister for Foreign Affairs if they propose to negotiate, or enter, or have entered a foreign arrangement’. See <www.foreignarrangements.gov.au/>, accessed 20 September 2021.

27 Ben Oquist, ‘Australia’s diplomatic approach needs a major revamp’, Canberra Times, 28 November 2020.

28 The foregone goods export revenue from China was estimated to be A$6.6 billion between July 2020 and February 2021. Ron Wickes, Mike Adams and Nicolas Brown, Economic Coercion by China: The impact on Australia’s merchandise exports, Institute for International Trade, Adelaide, July 2021.

29 Troy Bramston, ‘Gough’s man in China: Fix this mess’, Australian, 2 March 2022.

30 Wang, Australia-China Relations.

8Foreign aid: Australia’s reputation at stake?

This research was supported (partially or fully) by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council’s Discovery Projects funding scheme (project DP17010229). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Australian Government or Australian Research Council. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance of Jacqui Baker, Anna Kent and Brad Underhill in data preparation for this chapter.

1 Ravi Tomar, ‘The Ever-Shrinking Aid Budget’, Budget Review 2015–16, Australian Parliamentary Library Research Paper, May 2015, <www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview201516/Aid>, accessed 2 July 2021.

2 Tim Costello, quoted in the Sydney Morning Herald, 17 December 2014.

3 Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), ‘Australian Aid: Promoting prosperity, reducing poverty, enhancing stability’, June 2014, p. iii, <www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian-aid-development-policy.pdf>, accessed 20 September 2016.

4 Jack Corbett, Australia’s Foreign Aid Dilemma: Humanitarian aspirations confront democratic legitimacy, Routledge, Abingdon, 2017.

5 For the Colombo Plan, see David Lowe, ‘Colombo Plans, Old and New: International students as foreign relations’, International Journal of Cultural Policy, vol. 21, no. 4, 2015, pp. 448–62. For high levels of interest in, and support for, emergency and disaster relief in the early 1980s, see J.V. Remenyi, ‘Australia’s Foreign Aid Involvement: A report on a survey of the attitudes of Australians’, Australian Outlook, vol. 38, no. 1, 1984, pp. 9–15; and for similar findings in 2009, see the report commissioned by AusAID, Instinct and Reason, Community Attitudes Study: Segmentation Report, 2009.

6 Remenyi, ‘Australia’s Foreign Aid Involvement’; Instinct and Reason, Community Attitudes Study.

7 Corbett, Australia’s Foreign Aid Dilemma.

8 DFAT, In the National Interest: Australia’s foreign and trade policy (White Paper), DFAT, Canberra, 1997, p. 11.

9 DFAT, In the National Interest, p. 13.

10 US Whitehouse, Remarks by President Biden, Prime Minister Morrison of Australia, and Prime Minister Johnson of the United Kingdom Announcing the Creation of AUKUS (transcript), 15 September 2021, <www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/09/15/remarks-by-president-biden-prime-minister-morrison-of-australia-and-prime-minister-johnson-of-the-united-kingdom-announcing-the-creation-of-aukus/>, accessed 20 September 2021.

11 Danielle Chubb and Ian McAllister, Australian Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Attitudes and trends since 1945, Springer, Singapore, 2020, pp. 185–95.

12 Chubb and McAllister, Australian Public Opinion, p. 194.

13 A. Maurits van der Veen, Ideas, Interests and Foreign Aid, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011. Van der Veen’s frames might not be quite the same as values, according to government pronouncements, and they are less abstract, but they have the advantages of usability for speakers, and recurrence over time. Another advantage of considering multiple frames that sit above the level of policy goals is that they allow multiplicity, overlap and measuring changes in emphasis.

14 Historic Hansard database, <www.historichansard.net/>, accessed 30 August 2021.

15 The method used to undertake this analysis involved compiling the times in which the term ‘foreign aid’ was used in Hansard (as per Historic Hansard), and then coding them to the most predominant frame (including, when several frames appeared in the same speech, the most emphasised one) as per Van der Veen’s framework. The data was then analysed and the table on page 123 demonstrates the use of the term in the Australian Parliament over time.

16 William McMahon, House of Representatives, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates (henceforth CPD), vol. 35, 31 August 1967, p. 651, <www.historichansard.net/hofreps/1967/19670831_reps_26_hor56/#subdebate-15-0-s1>, accessed 30 August 2021.

17 Len Reid, House of Representatives, CPD, no. 19, 9 May 1972, p. 2236, <www.parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/hansard80/hansardr80/1972-05-09/toc_pdf/19720509_reps_27_hor78.pdf>, accessed 30 August 2021.

18 Terence Wood and Chris Hoy, ‘Helping Us or Helping Them? What makes aid appeal to Australians’, Devpolicy Discussion Paper 75, December 2018, Crawford School of Public Policy, ANU, Canberra, <www.papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3302958>, accessed 3 August 2021

19 Terence Wood, ‘Can Information Change Public Support for Aid?’, The Journal of Development Studies, vol. 55, 2019, pp. 2162–76.

20 Terence Wood and Camilla Burkot, ‘Want to Sell Aid to the Australian Public? Look to values not national interests’, Devpolicy Blog, 23 March 2017, Crawford School of Public Policy, ANU, <www.devpolicy.org/want-sell-aid-australian-public-values-not-national-interests-20170323/>, accessed 1 August 2021.

21 Hasluck to Menzies, 17 September 1964, A1838 2020/1/24 part 3, National Archives of Australia (henceforth NAA).

22 Australian External Aid: Report to the Minister for External Affairs by the Interdepartmental Committee to Review Australian External Aid, p. 5, 25 March 1965, CRS A4311 item 147/1, NAA.

23 F.B. Hall, Acting High Commissioner, Karachi, to A. Tange, 24 November 1964, A1838 2020/1/24/1 part 1, NAA.

24 ‘Australia’s External Aid: Report to the Minister of External Affairs by the Interdepartmental Committee to Review Australian Aid’, 25 March 1965, CRS A 4311 item 147/1, NAA.

25 The 20 documents, from file series CRS A1838 2020/1/24 parts 1, 3, NAA, cover submissions from Australian overseas posts, and from officers based in the Department of External Affairs.

26 Official speeches and statements from Current Notes on International Affairs, vol. 26, nos 1–2 and vol. 36, nos 1–12. The number of predominant references to reputation/self-affirmation was 58; the number of predominantly security references was 47.

27 Aid Policy Section, Foreign Affairs ‘External Aid and the Future Development of Papua New Guinea’, no date (1972), CRS 1838 item 3080/10 4/3 part 1, NAA. Italics are mine.

28 Senator Gareth Evans, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade, Address to ACFOA ‘One World or None’ Conference, Canberra, 8 September 1989, <www.gevans.org/speeches/old/1989/080989_fm_australiasaidpr.pdf>, accessed 2 August 2021.

29 Van der Veen, Ideas, Interests and Foreign Aid, p. 231.

9An open door? Foreign investment and multinational companies

1 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), Economic Activity of Majority Foreign Owned Businesses in Australia, DFAT, Canberra, 2016.

2 R. Vernon, Sovereignty at Bay: The multinational spread of U.S. enterprises, Longman, London, 1971.

3 R. Fitzgerald, The Rise of the Global Company: Multinationals and the making of the modern world, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015.

4 Ann M. Carlos and Stephen Nicholas, ‘“Giants of an Earlier Capitalism”: The chartered trading companies as modern multinationals’, Business History Review, vol. 62, no. 3, 1988, pp. 398–419. For a recent broad ranging summary of the literature, see Teresa da Silva Lopes, Christina Lubinski and Heidi J. Tworek (eds), The Routledge Companion to the Makers of Global Business, Routledge, London, 2020.

5 DFAT, ‘About foreign investment’, n.d. <www.dfat.gov.au/trade/investment/Pages/about-foreign-investment>, accessed 8 August 2021.

6 Geoffrey Jones, ‘Origins, Management and Performance’, in Geoffrey Jones (ed.), British Multinationals: Origins, management and performance, Gower, Aldershot, 1986, p. 7.

7 Simon Ville and David T. Merrett, ‘Investing in a successful resource-based colonial economy: International business in Australia before World War One’, Business History Review, vol. 94, no. 2, 2020, pp. 321–46. Several earlier studies include Geoffrey Blainey, ‘The History of Multinational Factories in Australia’, in Akio Okochi and Tadakatsu Inoue (eds), Overseas Business Activities, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1984; Geoffrey Blainey, Jumping over the Wheel: A centenary history of Pacific Dunlop, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1993; Geoffrey Blainey, White Gold: The story of Alcoa in Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1997; David T. Merrett, ANZ Bank: A history of the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Limited, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1985. For a major study of Australian firms expanding overseas see, Howard W. Dick and David T. Merrett (eds), The Internationalisation Strategies of Small-Country Firms: The Australian experience of globalisation, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2007.

8 A forthcoming history of early international business: Simon Ville and David T. Merrett, International Business in Australia before World War One: Shaping a multinational economy, Palgrave.

9 Mira Wilkins, ‘The Free‐Standing Company, 1870–1914: An important type of British foreign direct investment’, Economic History Review, vol. 41, no. 2, 1988, pp. 259–82.

10 Frances Steel, ‘Re-routing Empire? Steam age circulations and the making of an Anglo Pacific, c.1850–90’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 46, no. 3, 2015, pp. 356–73.

11 Anne Rees, ‘Travelling to Tomorrow: Australian Women in the United States, 1910–1960’, PhD thesis, La Trobe University, 2016, pp. 11–13. (Note: Yves Rees formerly published as Anne.)

12 Alfred D. Chandler Jr, Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism, Harvard Belknap Press, Cambridge MA, 1990.

13 Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American business abroad from the colonial era to 1914, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1970, pp. 93–95.

14 Fitzgerald, Rise of the Global Company, p. 137.

15 A. Douglas Simmons, Schweppes: The first 200 years, Acropolis Books, Atlanta GA, 1983, p. 45.

16 Simon Ville and Claire Wright, ‘Buzz and Pipelines: Knowledge and decision-making in a global business services precinct’, Journal of Urban History, vol. 45, no. 2, 2019, pp. 199–203.

17 Pierre van der Eng, ‘Beyond Liability of Foreignness: European firms in Australia, 1850s–1980s’, World Economic History Congress, Boston, 2018.

18 The history of international business in Australia in the twentieth century is the subject of a current research project: Simon Ville, Pierre van der Eng, David Merrett and Andre Sammartino, ‘A History of Foreign Multinational Enterprises in Australia since Federation’, ARC Discovery Project DP 200101363.

19 Robert Conlon and John Perkins, Wheels and Deals: The automotive industry in twentieth-century Australia, Ashgate, Aldershot, 2001.

20 Jack Fahey, ‘The Cultivation of an Australian Identity: New insights into public relations at General Motors-Holden in the interwar era’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 50, no. 4, 2019, p. 484.

21 Mira Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American business abroad from 1914 to 1970, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 2013; Donald T. Brash, American Investment in Australian Industry, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1966, pp. 289–327.

22 Pierre van der Eng, ‘Turning Adversity into Opportunity: Philips in Australia, 1945–1980’, Enterprise & Society, vol. 19, no. 1, 2018, p. 183.

23 Van der Eng, ‘European Firms in Australia’.

24 Australian Trade and Investment Commission, Japanese Investment in Australia, Australian Government, Canberra, 2017.

25 Percentage in brackets. 1820–70 counts all firms that arrived in those years, while 1914 and 2010 are benchmark years that list firms in Australia during that year. 2010 ‘others’ are 48 nations with four or less firms in Australia.

26 Bureau of Industry Economics (BIE) Multinationals and Governments: Issues and Implications for Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service (AGPS), Canberra, 1993; Peter Drysdale and Christopher Findlay, ‘Chinese foreign direct investment in Australia: Policy issues for the resource sector’, China Economic Journal, vol. 2, no. 2, 2009, pp. 133–58; Ross Garnaut, Australia and the Northeast Asian Ascendancy, AGPS, Canberra, 1989.

27 Greg Crough and Ted Wheelwright, Australia: A Client State, Penguin Books, Melbourne, 1982.

28 Brash, American Investment.

29 Fitzgerald, Rise of the Global Company, pp. 70–74.

30 Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise, p. 157.

31 Although Queensland sugar plantations and farms drew upon imported indentured cheap labour from the Pacific Islands from the 1860s to the 1900s.

32 David Tolmie Merrett, ‘Paradise Lost? British banks in Australia’, in Geoffrey Jones (ed.), Banks as Multinationals, Routledge, London & New York, 1990, pp. 62–84.

33 Royal Commission of the Meat Export Trade, Government Printer State of Victoria, Melbourne, 1914, Appendix D, p. 39.

34 Howard Cox, The Global Cigarette: Origins and evolution of British-American Tobacco Company, 1880–1945, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000, p. 104.

35 Christopher Pokarier, ‘Australia’s Foreign Investment Policy: An historical perspective’, International Journal of Public Policy, vol. 13, no. 3–5, 2017, pp. 212–31.

36 OECD Centre for Tax Policy and Administration, ‘The OECD’S Project on Harmful Tax Practices – 2006 Update on Progress in Member Countries’, <www.oecd.org/tax/harmful/37446434.pdf>, accessed 9 October 2021.

37 OECD, ‘Ending Offshore Profit Shifting’, <www.oecd.org/about/impact/combatinginternationaltaxavoidance.htm>, accessed 9 October 2021.

38 KPMG and the University of Sydney, Demystifying Chinese Investment in Australia, Sydney, July 2021, pp. 10–11, <www.assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/au/pdf/2021/demystifying-chinese-investment-in-australia-july-2021.pdf>, accessed 9 October 2021,

39 Drysdale and Findlay, ‘Chinese Foreign Direct Investment’, p. 152.

10Tackling inequality: Lessons from the postwar reconstruction

1 Simon Ville and Glenn Withers (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Australia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, Appendix 6.

2 Liam Byrne, ‘Becoming John Curtin and James Scullin: Their early political career’, Parliamentary Library Lecture delivered on 17 March 2021, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2021, p. 7.

3 Commonwealth of Australia, Full Employment in Australia, Australian Government Printer, Canberra, 1945.

4 David Graeber, Bullshit Jobs, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2018. Though note that Graeber’s empirical findings for the modern labour market have been questioned: Magdalena Soffia, Alex J. Wood and Brendan Burchell, ‘Alienation Is Not “Bullshit”: An empirical critique of Graeber’s Theory of BS Jobs’, Work, Employment and Society, June 2021.

5 Diane Hutchinson, ‘Manufacturing’, in Ville and Withers (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Australia, pp. 287–308.

6 Andrew Leigh, Battlers and Billionaires: The story of inequality in Australia, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2013, p. 37.

7 Unemployment figures for 1901–1965 are those compiled by N.G. Butlin, and published in Wray Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical statistics, Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates, Sydney, 1987. Figures for 1966–1977 are an average of ABS quarterly seasonally adjusted estimates. Figures for 1978–2020 are averages of ABS monthly seasonally adjusted estimates (ABS, Labour Force, cat. no. 6202.0, Table 1).

8 Tim Hatton and Glenn Withers, ‘The Labour Market’, in Ville and Withers (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Australia, pp. 351–72.

9 Commonwealth Housing Commission, Final Report of the Commonwealth Housing Commission, 25 August 1944, Ministry of Post-War Reconstruction, Canberra, Commonwealth Government, 1944.

10 Quoted in Rae Dufty-Jones, ‘A Historical Geography of Housing Crisis in Australia’, Australian Geographer, vol. 49, no. 1, 2018, pp. 5–23.

11 Robert Freestone, ‘Post-War Reconstruction and Planning Promotion in 1940s Australia’, in 15th IPHS Conference Proceedings, International Planning History Society Conference, Sao Paolo, Brazil, 2012.

12 Home ownership figures are drawn from Advisory Council for Intergovernment Relations, Australian Housing Policy and Intergovernment Relations, Discussion Paper No. 14, 1981, Table B. 4 (in turn compiled from Census Reports); ABS, A Picture of the Nation (Catalogue no. 2070.0), Housing Overview, p. 211; ABS, Housing: A Statistical Overview (Catalogue No.1320), 1996; and ABS, 2011 Census QuickStats, Dwelling – dwelling structure.

13 Martin Shanahan, ‘Wealth and Welfare’, in Ville and Withers, (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Australia, p. 500. Note that Shanahan uses a slightly different measure of home ownership, being the share of all housing that was owner-occupied (rather than the share of people who owned their homes).

14 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Yearbook 1960, ABS, Canberra, 1960, p. 378.

15 Vehicle ownership data are drawn from ABS, Motor Vehicle Census, Australia, 1955–2020 and ABS, Year Book Australia, 1908–1996. Because the motor vehicle census figure is not available every year, I revert to the Year Book figure where using the vehicle census figure would imply an implausible drop in vehicle numbers. Household numbers are interpolated where missing, and extrapolated for 2017–2020 on the assumption that the average household size in these years is the same as in 2016 (2.9 persons). Vehicle ownership figures for 1910–1919 are drawn from state police reports, as compiled by Lester Hovenden, ‘The Motor Car in New South Wales’, MA(Hons) thesis, Department of History, University of Sydney, 1981, p. 57. Due to the absence of annual household counts for New South Wales in 1901–1919, I use state population figures to calculate the number of NSW households, assuming that NSW households are the same size as the national average in that year.

16 Henry Lawson, ‘Since Then’, in When the World Was Wide, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1900, p. 179.

17 Pamela Katic and Andrew Leigh (‘Top Wealth Shares in Australia 1915–2012’, Review of Income and Wealth, vol. 62, no. 2, 2016, pp. 209–22) estimate that the top 1 per cent held 34 per cent of all household wealth; a similar figure to that estimated by Shanahan (Martin Shanahan, ‘Personal Wealth in South Australia’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 32, no. 1, 2001, pp. 55–80) for South Australia in the early twentieth century. The 2020 estimate for US wealth inequality is from Federal Reserve (2021).

18 Stuart Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, Volume 4: 1901–1942, The Succeeding Age, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1986, pp. 145– 46.

19 The male Gini and top 1 per cent series were originally published in Anthony B. Atkinson and Andrew Leigh, ‘The Distribution of Top Incomes in Australia’, Economic Record, vol. 83, no. 262, 2007, pp. 247–61; and Andrew Leigh, ‘Deriving Long-run Inequality Series from Tax Data’, Economic Record, vol. 81, no. S1, 2005, pp. S58–S70; and updated in Andrew Leigh, Battlers and Billionaires: The story of inequality in Australia, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2013). Top 1 per cent estimates for the most recent years are calculated by Roger Wilkins, based on Richard V. Burkhauser, Markus H. Hahn and Roger Wilkins, ‘Measuring Top Incomes Using Tax Record Data: A cautionary tale from Australia’, Journal of Economic Inequality, vol. 13, no. 2, 2015, pp. 181–205. I use Wilkins’ series excluding capital gains, which Wilkins argues is most consistent over time.

20 The Gini coefficient can be interpreted as half the mean difference between two randomly selected individuals, expressed as a fraction of the average. For example, a Gini of 0.3 means that the average gap between two people is 60 per cent of the average income.

21 Leigh, Battlers and Billionaires, p. 41.

22 William D Rubinstein, The All Time Australian 200 Rich List, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2004.

23 Walter Scheidel, The Great Leveler: Violence and the history of inequality from the Stone Age to the twenty-first century, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2018, p. 444.

24 Jeff Borland and Michael Bernard Coelli argue that employment outcomes for the young deteriorated substantially from 2008 to 2019, and that the main explanation is increased labour market competition. Borland and Coelli, ‘Is It “Dog Days” for the Young in the Australian Labour Market?’, Australian Economic Review, vol. 54, no. 4, 2021, pp. 421–44.

25 Andrew Markus, Mapping Social Cohesion: The Scanlon Foundation Surveys 2020, Monash University, Melbourne, 2021, p. 9.

26 See Andrew Leigh, ‘Finding Common Ground on China’, in Genevieve Feely and Peter Jennings (eds), After COVID-19, vol. 3. Voices from Federal Parliament, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, Canberra, 2020, pp. 35–38.

27 For example, three out of five Australians would like to know their neighbours better, while four out of five people say that the decline of membership in organisations is not a positive development: Andrew Leigh and Nick Terrell, Reconnected: A community builder’s handbook, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2020, pp. 18, 38.

28 Leigh and Terrell, Reconnected.

11Electricity problems? Call a historian. Learning from the history of electricity reform in Australia

1 Climate Change Authority, Australia’s Climate Change Policies at the Australian and State and Territory Government Levels: A stocktake, Australian Government, Canberra, 2019.

2 Martin Parkinson, A Decade of Drift, Monash University Publishing, Melbourne, 2021.

3 National Electricity (South Australia) Act 1996, Pt1, s.7.

4 Roger Morse, ‘Energy’, in Technology in Australia 1788–1988, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Melbourne, 1988, p. 780.

5 See Ernst Boehm, ‘Ownership and Control of the Electricity Supply Industry in Australia’, Economic Record, vol. 32, no. 2, 1956, pp. 257–72; Guy Allbut, A Brief History of Some of the Features of Public Electricity Supply in Australia, Electricity Supply Association of Melbourne, Melbourne, 1958; Rob Linn, ETSA: The story of electricity in South Australia, ETSA Corporation, Adelaide, 1996; and Malcolm Thomis, A History of the Electricity Supply Industry in Queensland, vol. 1, 1888– 1938, Boolarong Publications, Brisbane, 1987.

6 Cecil Edwards, Brown Power: A jubilee history of the State Electricity Commission of Victoria, State Electricity Commission of Victoria, Melbourne 1969, p. 14.

7 Thomis, A History of the Electricity Supply Industry in Queensland, vol. 1, p. 93.

8 Edwards, Brown Power, 1969, p. 78.

9 Allbut, A Brief History, p. 45.

10 Allbut, A Brief History, p. 45.

11 Linn, ETSA, chapter 2.

12 Allbut, A Brief History.

13 Edwards, Brown Power, 1969, p. 234.

14 G.J. McDonnell, Reports of the Commission of Enquiry into Electricity Generation and Planning in NSW, vol. 1, NSW Government, Sydney, 1986.

15 Aynsley Kellow, Transforming Power: The politics of electricity planning, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1996, p. 155.

16 Industry Commission, Energy Generation and Distribution, vol. 1: Summary and Recommendations, AGPS, Canberra, 1991.

17 Industry Commission, Energy Generation, p. 2.

18 Independent Committee of Inquiry into Competition Policy in Australia, National Competition Policy: Report by the Independent Committee of Inquiry into Competition Policy in Australia (Professor F. Hilmer, Chairman), AGPS, Canberra, 1993.

19 See, for example, Graeme Hodge, Valerie Sands, David Hayward and David Scott (eds), Power Progress: An audit of Australia’s electricity experiment, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, 2004; John Quiggin, ‘Electricity Reform’, in Damien Cahill and Phillip Toner (eds), Wrong Way: How privatisation and economic reform backfired, Schwartz, Melbourne, 2018.

20 John Pierce, ‘A Perspective on Australia’s Microeconomic Reform Journey’, Address to Australian Institute of Energy, Brisbane, 18 July 2019, p. 3.

21 Edwards, Brown Power, p. 206.

22 See, for example, Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, Restoring Electricity Affordability and Australia’s Competitive Advantage: Retail Electricity Pricing Inquiry – Final Report, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, June 2018.

23 Alan Finkel, Chloe Munro, Terry Effeney and Mary O’Kane, Independent Review into the Future Security of the National Electricity Market: Blueprint for the future, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 2017.

24 John Thwaites, Patricia Faulkner and Terry Mulder, Independent Review into the Electricity and Gas Retail Markets in Victoria, Victorian Government, Melbourne, 2017.

25 Australian Energy Markets Operator, Integrated System Plan, <www.aemo.com.au/en/energy-systems/major-publications/integrated-system-plan-isp>, accessed 20 September 2021.

26 See, for example, government announcements for NSW, <www.energy.nsw.gov.au/renewables/renewable-energy-zones>, accessed 20 September 2021; and for Victoria <www.lilydambrosio.com.au/media-releases/> new-projects-to-accelerate-victorias-renewable-energy-zones>, accessed 20 September 2021.

27 John Howard, Lazarus Rising: A personal and political autobiography, HarperCollins, revised ed., 2011, p. 662.

28 See Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Economic Surveys Australia, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2021, p. 62.

29 Edwards, Brown Power, pp. 15–24.

12Governing during economic crisis: The importance of memory

1 Scott Morrison, ‘Coronavirus: Time for us to summon the Anzac spirit’, Australian, 6 April 2020, <www.theaustralian.com.au/commentary/coronavirus-time-for-us-to-summon-the-anzac-spirit/news-story/f5d3a12daade1498a482ee65fb15d005>, accessed 24 January 2022.

2 This chapter draws on Joan Beaumont, Australia’s Great Depression, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2022.

3 For further detail, see C.B. Schedvin, Australia and the Great Depression, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 1973, first published 1970, pp. 76–95.

4 Paul Hasluck, The Government and the People 1939–1941, vol. 1, series 4 (Civil), Australia and the War of 1939–1945, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1952, p. 109.

5 The definitive histories, on which this account draws, are Rob Watts, The Foundation of the National Welfare State, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1987; and Stuart Macintyre, Australia’s Boldest Experiment: War and reconstruction in the 1940s, NewSouth, Sydney, 2015.

6 Quoted in National Museum of Australia, ‘Unemployment insurance’, <www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/unemployment-insurance>, accessed 24 January 2022.

7 Ian W. McLean, Why Australia Prospered: The shifting sources of economic growth, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2013, p. 191.

8 Commonwealth of Australia, Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Monetary and Banking Systems, Sydney, 1937, pp. 205–206.

9 Norman Abjorensen, ‘Chifley Versus the Banks’, Australian Society for the Study of Labour History (originally published in Canberra Times, 6 June 2017), <www.labourhistorycanberra.org/2017/08/ben-chifleys-botched-attempt-to-nationalise-australias-banks/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

10 Clause 11, Reserve Bank Act 1959, p. 206.

11 I owe this insight to Selwyn Cornish, Australian National University.

12 In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the unemployment rate stood at 2 per cent but over the 1970s rose gradually to 6 per cent. The early 1980s saw a sharp rise in the unemployment rate to 10 per cent in 1983. This declined to 6 per cent by 1989, but a further steep rise then occurred in the early 1990s, peaking at 11 per cent in 1993: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 4102.0 – Australian Social Trends, 2001, <www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/855e6f87080d2e1aca2570ec000c8e5f!OpenDocument>, accessed 24 January 2022.

13 The notion of ‘postmemory’ is fully developed in Marianne Hirsch’s The Generation of Postmemory: Writing and visual culture after the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, New York, 2012.

14 Pierre Nora, Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French past, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992, pp. 18, 14.

15 Calla Wahlquist, ‘Melbourne Renters Struggling in Lockdown Urge Government to Bring Back Eviction Moratorium’, Guardian Australia, 4 June 2021, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jun/04/melbourne-renters-struggling-in-lockdown-urge-government-to-bring-back-eviction-moratorium>, accessed 24 January 2022.

16 Senate, 4 August 2021.

17 House of Representatives, 6 October 2020.

18 Jennifer Duke, ’From the Great Depression to Coronavirus: How Australians survive hard times’, Sydney Morning Herald, 15 April 2020, <www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/from-the-great-depression-to-coronavirus-how-australians-survive-hard-times-20200402-p54gaj.html>, accessed 24 January 2022; Amanda Horswill, ‘Australian Economy: COVID-19 vs The Great Depression’, Canstar, 23 July 2020, <www.canstar.com.au/home-loans/economy-now-vs-great-depression/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

19 James Morley and Richard Holden, ‘It’s Just Started: We’ll need war bonds, and stimulus on a scale not seen in our lifetimes’, Conversation, 29 April 2020, <www.theconversation.com/its-just-started-well-need-war-bonds-and-stimulus-on-a-scale-not-seen-in-our-lifetimes-137155>, accessed 24 January 2022.

13We need to hear the voices of refugees: Citizen engagement for reforming refugee policy

1 ‘Bring them Home’, ABC News, 9 June 2021, <www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-09/calls-intensify-for-the-release-of-biloela-family/13379904>, accessed 15 December 2021.

2 See Amnesty International, Report of an Amnesty International Mission to Sri Lanka: 31 January–9 February 1982, Amnesty International Publications, London, 1983, p. 19, <www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/200000/asa370011983en.pdf>, accessed 14 August 2018.

3 Judith Betts and Claire Higgins, ‘The Sri Lankan Civil war and Australia’s Migration Policy Response: A historical case study with contemporary implications’, Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, 2017, p. 281.

4 The Ceylon Tamil Association became the Eelam Tamil Association in the mid-to-late 1980s. For consistency, I use Ceylon Tamil Association.

5 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Hansard, no. 91, 18 September 1981, p. 817.

6 Author interview with Ceylon Tamil Association founding member, Melbourne, May 2016.

7 Alan Missen, ‘Reports by Senator Alan Missen’, Human Rights & Humanitarian Law, 1984/85, <www.tamilnation.org/humanrights/tamil/84missen.htm>, accessed 15 July 2021.

8 Missen, ‘Reports’, 1984/85.

9 Anna Arabindan-Kesson, ‘Fragments of Memory: Writing the migrant story’, in Deborah Willis, Ellyn Toscano and Kalia Brooks Nelson (eds), Women and Migration: Responses in art and history, Open Books Pub. Ltd, Cambridge, 2019, pp. 23–36.

10 Interview with Ceylon Tamil Association founding member.

11 Interview with Ceylon Tamil Association founding member.

12 Interview with Ceylon Tamil Association founding member.

13 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 3.

14 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 3.

15 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 1.

16 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 3.

17 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 1.

18 Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Annual Report 1987–88, AGPS, Canberra, 1988.

19 NAA: A1838, 1690/1/18, Part 1.

20 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Hansard, no. 136, 2 May 1984, p. 1626.

21 Interview with Ceylon Tamil Association founding member.

22 Frank Galbally, Review of Post Arrival Programs and Services for Migrants, Parliamentary Paper, no. 164, Canberra, AGPS, 1978, p. 29.

23 Author interview with Suthan, Sydney, December 2017.

14The ‘Muslim Problem’ in Australia: The role of political leadership

1 Australian Army, ‘Australian Army in Afghanistan’, Australian Army, n.d., <www.army.gov.au/our-heritage/history/history-focus/australian-army-afghanistan>, accessed 27 August 2021.

2 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Census reveals Australia’s religious diversity on World Religion Day’, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 18 January 2018, <www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/8497F7A8E7DB5BEFCA25821800203DA4?OpenDocument>, accessed 18 January 2018.

3 Shahram Akbarzadeh, ‘The Muslim Question in Australia: Islamophobia and Muslim alienation’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, vol. 36, no. 3, 2016, pp. 323–33.

4 Australian Human Rights Commission, Sharing the Stories of Australian Muslims Report 2021, Australian Human Rights Commission, Sydney, 2021, <www.apo.org.au/node/313236>, accessed 27 August 2021.

5 Jennifer E. Cheng, ‘Exclusive and Inclusive Constructions of “Australia” in the Australian Parliament’, Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis Across Disciplines, vol. 7, no. 1, 2013, pp. 51–65, <www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/journals/cadaad/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Volume-7_Cheng.pdf>, accessed 23 September 2021; Imogen Richards, ‘A Dialectical Approach to Online Propaganda: Australia’s United Patriots Front, right-wing politics, and Islamic State’, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 42, nos 1–2, 2019, pp. 43–69.

6 Scott Poynting and Linda Briskman, ‘Islamophobia in Australia: From far-right deplorables to respectable liberals’, Social Sciences, vol. 7, no. 11, article 213, 2018, pp. 1–17.

7 Poynting and Briskman, ‘Islamophobia’, p. 8.

8 Poynting and Briskman, ‘Islamophobia’, p. 2.

9 Mahsheed Ansari and Mirela Cufurovic, ‘Collective Trauma and the Muslim Women of the Christchurch Attack: An observational and media study’, in Ahmed A. Karim, Radwa Khalil and Ahmed Moustafa (eds), Female Pioneers from Ancient Egypt and the Middle East, Springer, Singapore, 2021, pp. 145–64.

10 Australian Human Rights Commission, Sharing the Stories, p. 69.

11 Melissa Davey, ‘Bourke Street Attack: Morrison accused of “scapegoating” Muslim community’, Guardian Australia, 12 November 2018, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/nov/12/bourke-street-attack-morrison-accused-of-scapegoating-muslim-community>, accessed 12 September 2021.

12 Paul Karp, ‘Morrison urges Muslim community to be more “proactive” in tackling terrorism’, Guardian Australia, 12 November 2018, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/nov/12/morrison-urges-muslim-community-to-be-more-proactive-in-tackling-terrorism>, accessed 12 September 2021.

13 Poynting and Briskman, ‘Islamophobia’, p. 6.

14 Alice Aslan, Islamophobia in Australia, Agora Press, Sydney, 2009, pp. 10–27.

15 Margaret Allen, ‘Identifying Sher Mohamad “a good citizen”’, in Ralph Crane, Anna Johnston and C. Vijayasree (eds), Empire Calling: Administering Colonial Australasia and India, Foundation Books, Bengaluru, 2013, pp. 103–19.

16 Allen, ‘Identifying Sher Mohamad’, pp. 103–19.

17 Hanifa Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King: Muslim stories from the dark days of White Australia, UWA Publishing, Perth, 2011, p. 2.

18 Paul Martin, ‘Race, Colonial History and National Identity: Resident Evil 5 as a Japanese game’, Games and Culture, vol. 13, no. 6, 2018, pp. 568–86.

19 Mark Francis, ‘Social Darwinism and the Construction of Institutionalised Racism in Australia’, Journal of Australian Studies, vol. 20, nos 50–51, 1996, pp. 90–105; Jeffrey R. Dafler, ‘Social Darwinism and the Language of Racial Oppression: Australia’s stolen generations’, ETC: A Review of General Semantics, vol. 62, no. 2, 2005, pp. 137–50.

20 Edward Said, Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York, 1979.

21 See Jeremy Martens, Empire and Asian Migration: Sovereignty, immigration restriction and protest in the British settler colonies, 1888–1907, University of Western Australia Press, Perth, 2018, pp. 109–47.

22 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns: A history of Afghan cameldrivers in Australia, Paul Fitzsimons, Alice Springs, 2002; Regina Ganter, ‘Remembering Muslim Histories of Australia’, La Trobe Journal, vol. 89, 2012, pp. 48–62.

23 Katy Nebhan, ‘Men on a Mission: Engaging with Islamophobia and radicalization in Australia 1863–1957’, in John L. Esposito and Derya Iner (eds), Islamophobia and Radicalization, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019, pp. 225–44; Katy Nebhan, ‘Revulsion and Reflection: The coloured and white Muslim in Australia’s print media from the late 19th to the early 20th century’, Australian Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 3, 2018, pp. 44–60.

24 Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King, pp. 111–28.

25 Marshall Clark and Sally K. May, ‘1. Understanding the Macassans: A regional approach’, in Clark and May (eds), Macassan History and Heritage: Journeys, encounters and influences, ANU E Press, 2013, p. 1.

26 Kama Maclean, ‘India in Australia: A recent history of a very long engagement’, in Rick Hosking and Amit Sarwal (eds), Wanderings in India: Australian perceptions, Monash University Publishing, Melbourne, 2012, pp. 20–35; Mahsheed Ansari, ‘Al-Mu’minah Down Under: The untold stories and legacies of Muslim women pioneers in Australia’, in Ghena Krayem and Susan Carland (eds), Muslim Women and Agency: An Australian context, Brill, Leiden, 2021.

27 Richard Broome, The Victorians Arriving, Fairfax Syme & Weldon, Sydney, 1984, p. 78.

28 Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King, pp. 111–28.

29 Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King.

30 National Museum of Australia, ‘End of the White Australia Policy’, National Museum of Australia, 5 July 2021, <www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/end-of-white-australia-policy>, accessed 10 September 2021.

31 Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King.

32 Australian Human Rights Commission, ‘Australia and the Universal Declaration on Human Rights’, Australian Human Rights Commission, n.d., <www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/publications/australia-and-universal-declaration-human-rights>, accessed 11 September 2021.

33 Louise C. Johnson, Tanja Luckins and David Walker, The Story of Australia: A new history of people and place, Routledge, New York, 2022, p. 159.

34 Lyndon Megarrity, ‘Regional Goodwill, Sensibly Priced: Commonwealth policies towards Colombo Plan scholars and private overseas students, 1945–72’, Australian Historical Studies, vol. 38, no. 129, 2007, pp. 100–101.

35 National Museum of Australia, ‘End of the White Australia Policy’.

36 H. Deen, ‘Muslim Journeys’, National Archives of Australia, n.d., <www.naa.gov.au/collection/snapshots/uncommon-lives/muslim-journeys/arrivals.aspx>, accessed 18 January 2019.

37 Megarrity, ‘Regional Goodwill, Sensibly Priced’, pp. 88–105.

38 Mahsheed Ansari, ‘The Muslim Student Associations (MSAS) and the Formation of the Australian Ummah’, Australian Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 3, 2018, pp. 99–116.

39 Ansari, ‘The Muslim Student Associations (MSAS)’, p. 112.

40 Deen, ‘Muslim Journeys’.

41 Megarrity, ‘Regional Goodwill’.

42 Nahid Kabir, Muslims in Australia: Immigration, race relations and cultural history, Routledge, New York, 2005, p. 42.

43 Kabir, Muslims in Australia, p. 17.

44 Kabir, Muslims in Australia, p. 17.

45 Kabir, Muslims in Australia, p. 17. See also Kevin Dunn, ‘Islam in Sydney: Contesting the discourse of absence’, Australian Geographer, vol. 35, no. 3, 2004, pp. 333–53.

46 Dzavid Haveric, ‘Muslim Memories in Victoria’, Australian Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, 2017, pp. 20–39.

47 Ganter, ‘Remembering Muslim Histories of Australia’.

48 Deen, Ali Abdul v. the King.

15Why soldiers commit war crimes – and what we can do about it

1 Neil James, ‘Special Forces Issues Have Deep Historical Roots’, Strategist, 22 October 2019; Chris Masters and Nick McKenzie, ‘Special Forces Chief Acknowledges War Crimes, Blames “Poor Moral Leadership”’, Sydney Morning Herald, 28 June 2020; Paul Brereton, Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report: Questions of Unlawful Conduct Concerning the Special Operations Task Group in Afghanistan (hereafter IGADF Report), Australian Department of Defence, 2020, p. 325.

2 IGADF Report, p. 507.

3 Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-face killing in twentieth-century warfare, Granta Books, London, 1999, pp. 182–92.

4 Bourke, Intimate History of Killing, pp. 79, 99.

5 Tony ‘Bomber’ Bower-Miles and Mark Whittacker, Bomber: From Vietnam to hell and back, Macmillan, Sydney, 2009, pp. 85–86; Suel D. Jones, Meeting the Enemy: A marine goes home, self-published, 2008, p. 140.

6 Massilia Ali, ‘Eighty Percent of Muslims in Australia Say They Have Experienced Discrimination’, SBS News, 19 July 2021.

7 IGADF Report, pp. 334, 30–34.

8 Ben Wadham, ‘The Dark Side of Defence: Masculinities and violence in the military’, in Ross McGarry and Sandra Walklate (eds), Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and War, Palgrave, London, 2016, pp. 269–87.

9 Christian Appy, Working-Class War: American combat soldiers and Vietnam, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2000, p. 102.

10 John Akins, Drowning Out the Drums: A marine comes home, self-published, 2014, p. 166.

11 Nick Turse, Kill Anything That Moves: The real American war in Vietnam, Metropolitan Books, New York, 2013, p. 170, Gina Marie Weaver, Ideologies of Forgetting: Rape in the Vietnam War, State University of New York Press, New York, 2012, p. 35; Mark Baker, Nam: the Vietnam War in the words of the men and women who fought there, Berkley Books, New York, 1983, pp. 186, 321.

12 Geoff Dean, ‘Right-Wing Extremism in Australia: The rise of the new radical right’, Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism, vol. 11, no. 2, 2016, pp. 121–42.

13 Edward Said, ‘The Clash of Ignorance’, The Nation, 4 October 2001; Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power movement and paramilitary America, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2018; Cynthia Miller-Idriss, ‘From 9/11 to 1/6’, Foreign Affairs, September/October 2021.

14 Ben Wadham and Jason Pudsey, ‘(Un)masking Hegemony: Militarism, white masculinity and the logic of contemporary empire’, International Journal of Critical Psychology, vol. 16, 2005, p. 147; Nick McKenzie, ‘Fear of Neo-Nazis in Military Ranks after Ex-Soldier’s Passport Cancelled’, Age, 22 August 2021; Mark Willacy and Alexandra Blucher, ‘Australian Special Forces Shown Posing with “Southern Pride” Confederate flag in Afghanistan’, ABC News, 22 July 2020; ‘“Morally wrong”: Official photo of Ben Roberts-Smith was altered to hide Crusader’s Cross’, Age, 26 July 2021.

15 Derek Gregory, The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, Iraq, Wiley, Hoboken, 2004, pp. 10–11.

16 Laleh Khalili, ‘Gendered Practices of Counterinsurgency’, Review of International Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, 2011, p. 1481.

17 Turse, Kill Anything That Moves, p. 161; David Kushner, ‘Casualty of Porn’, Rolling Stone, 5 December 2005.

18 Small excerpts of interview data and analysis that appear in this section were adapted from the author’s book, Mia Martin Hobbs, Return to Vietnam: An Oral History of American and Australian Veterans’ Journeys, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021.

19 Bower-Miles and Whittacker, Bomber, p. 104.

20 Terry Burstall, ‘Policy Contradictions of the Australian Task Force Vietnam, 1966’, Vietnam Generation, vol. 3, no. 2, 1991, p. 44.

21 Dan Oakes and Sam Clark, ‘“What the f*** are you doing”: Chaos over severed hands’, ABC News, 11 July 2017.

22 Author’s interview with Robert, Coburg, 1 July 2016.

23 Article 49, 33, 53, 68 respectively of Convention IV, Geneva Conventions, 12 August 1949. Civilians may only be temporarily displaced, under ‘imperative’ circumstances.

24 Author’s interview with Mark, Da Nang, 14 April 2016.

25 IGADF Report, p. 41.

26 Heonik Kwon, After the Massacre: Commemoration and Consolation at My Lai, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2006, pp. 30–32.

27 Author’s interview with James, Hanoi, 23 April 2016.

28 IGADF Report, p. 331.

29 Samantha Crompvoets, Special Operations Command (SOCOMD) Culture and Interactions: Insights and reflections, Rapid Context, Canberra, January 2016, pp. 4, 5.

30 Seymour Hersh, ‘The Massacre at My Lai’, New Yorker, 14 January 1972.

31 IGADF Report, pp. 29–31.

32 Mark Willacy, ‘Australian SAS veteran says radios were planted on dead bodies to cover up unlawful killings’, ABC News, 17 March 2020.

33 Crompvoets, SOCOMD Culture and Interactions, p. 4.

34 Darius Rejali, Torture and Democracy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2009, pp. 503–12.

35 Dan Taberski, ‘The Hardest Thing’, The Line, 4 May 2021.

36 Bob Buick and Gary McKay, All Guts and No Glory: The story of a Long Tan warrior, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2000, p. 113; ‘Hero of Long Tan’s “mercy killing” upsets comrades’, 7.30 Report, 17 August 2000.

37 Taberski, ‘The Hardest Thing’.

38 Mark Nicol, ‘Mercy Killing is “Part of the Job”’, Daily Mail, 23 October 2016.

39 The literature on this stems from S.L.A. Marshall’s Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command, Peter Smith, Gloucester, 1947, but the original study is strongly disputed. Frederic Smoler, ‘The Secret of the Soldiers Who Didn’t Shoot’, American Heritage, vol. 40, no. 2, 1989.

40 Bourke, Intimate History of Killing, pp. 192–93; Nick McKenzie, ‘“I Want to Say Sorry. And to tell them I should have done more”: An Australian soldier and the Afghan man he couldn’t forget’, Sydney Morning Herald, 29 June 2020.

41 Alan Jones, ‘“War is a Messy Business”: Brendan Nelson backs under fire war hero’, 2GB radio, 15 August 2018; ‘Stop the Witch Hunt. Support the SAS and Ben Roberts-Smith’ online petition, <www.change.org/p/scott-morrison-stop-the-witch-hunt-support-the-sasr-and-ben-roberts-smith>, accessed 24 January 2022.

42 Dan Oakes and Jeremy Carter, ‘“Make Diggers Violent Again”: Special Forces Instagram account makes light of killings’, ABC News, 2 September 2020.

43 IGADF Report, p. 34.

44 David Chen, ‘Chief of Army Bans Soldiers from Wearing “Arrogant” Death Symbols’, ABC News, 19 April 2018.

45 McKenzie, ‘An Australian Soldier and the Afghan Man He Couldn’t Forget’; Turse, Kill Anything That Moves, pp. 161–62; Rory Callahan, ‘Photo Reveals Australian Soldier Drinking Beer Out of Dead Taliban Fighter’s Prosthetic Leg’, Guardian Australia, 1 December 2020; IGADF Report, p. 29.

46 Crompvoets, SOCOMD Culture and Interactions, p. 4.

47 Ben Doherty, ‘How the “Good” War Went Bad: Elite soldiers from Australia, UK and US face a reckoning’, Guardian Australia, 1 June 2021.

48 Joan Beaumont (ed.), Australia’s War, 1914–18, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1995, chapter 6.

49 McKenzie, ‘An Australian Soldier’.

50 Anthony Bubalo and Susan Schmeidl, ‘One Reason You Shouldn’t Go to Afghanistan with a Beard’, Foreign Policy, 3 November 2009. Regular army soldiers are not allowed to wear facial hair.

51 Crompvoets, SOCOMD Culture and Interactions, p. 3.

52 Charles Miller, ‘ADF Views on Islam: Does cultural sensitivity training matter?’, Australian Army Journal, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 35–50, 1 June 2016.

53 IGADF Report, p. 31.

54 IGADF Report, p. 334.

55 ‘Taliban Captures Half of Afghanistan’s Provincial Capitals as Insurgents Near the Capital Kabul’, ABC News, 14 August 2021.

56 IGADF Report, p. 173.

16How can we fight the far right?

1 For a discussion on the use of the term ‘far right’ as an umbrella term, see David Renton, The New Authoritarians: Convergence on the Right, Pluto Press, London, 2019, pp. 12–22; Aurelien Mondon and Aaron Winter, Reactionary Democracy: How racism and the populist far right became mainstream, Verso, London, 2020, pp. 18–19.

2 Nick McKenzie and Joel Tozer, ‘Inside Racism HQ: How home-grown neo-Nazis are plotting a white revolution’, Age, 16 August 2021, <www.theage.com.au/national/inside-racism-hq-how-home-grown-neo-nazis-are-plotting-a-white-revolution-20210812-p58i3x.html>, accessed 28 August 2021; ‘Australian Neo-Nazi Leader Thomas Sewell Charged Over Alleged Armed Robbery’, ABC News, 14 May 2021, <www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-14/neo-nazi-thomas-sewell-arrested-melbourne/100140902>, accessed 28 August 2021.

3 Michael McGowan, ‘Alleged Neo-Nazi Teenager Charged with Encouraging a “Mass Casualty” Terror Attack’, Guardian Australia, 10 December 2020, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/dec/09/alleged-neo-nazi-teenager-arrested-in-nsw-to-face-terror-charges>, accessed 28 August 2021.

4 Tom Lowrey and David Lipson, ‘Neo-Nazi Sonnenkrieg Division to Become First Right-Wing Terrorist Organisation Listed in Australia’, ABC News, 2 March 2021, <www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-02/sonnenkrieg-division-first-right-wing-terror-group-listed/13206756>, accessed 28 August 2021.

5 ‘[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation] Director-General’s Annual Threat Assessment’, 17 March 2021, ASIO website, <www.asio.gov.au/publications/speeches-and-statements/director-generals-annual-threat-assessment-2021.html>, accessed 28 August 2021.

6 Nick McKenzie, Jason Wilson, Joel Tozer and Heather McNeill, ‘US Neo-Nazi Group Recruits Young Australians, Secret Recordings Reveal’, Sydney Morning Herald, 26 March 2021, <www.smh.com.au/national/us-neo-nazi-group-recruits-young-australians-secret-recordings-reveal-20210324-p57dqh.html>, accessed 22 September 2021.

7 Miki Perkins, ‘Anti-Lockdown Protests a Coalition of the Alienated and the Far-Right’, Sydney Morning Herald, 25 July 2021, <www.smh.com.au/national/anti-lockdown-protests-a-coalition-of-the-alienated-and-the-far-right-20210725-p58cqv.html>, accessed 28 August 2021.

8 Michael McGowan, ‘Workers’ Rights or the Far Right: Who was behind Melbourne’s pandemic protests?’, Guardian Australia, 25 September 2021, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/sep/25/workers-rights-or-the-far-right-who-was-behind-melbournes-pandemic-protests>, accessed 25 February 2022; Josh Roose, ‘How “Freedom Rally” Protestors and Populist Right-Wing Politics May Play A Role in the Federal Election’, Conversation, 15 February 2022, <www.theconversation.com/how-freedom-rally-protesters-and-populist-right-wing-politics-may-play-a-role-in-the-federal-election-176533>, accessed 25 February 2022.

9 Kristina Keneally, ‘Canberra Must Crack Down on Right-Wing Terror’, Sydney Morning Herald, 17 August 2021, <www.smh.com.au/national/canberra-must-crack-down-on-right-wing-terror-20210817-p58jg3.html>, accessed 28 August 2021.

10 Keneally, ‘Canberra Must Crack Down’.

11 Katharine Murphy and Amy Remeikis, ‘Dutton Says “Leftwing Lunatics” Must Be Dealt With As Asio Warns of Far-Right Threat’, Guardian Australia, 25 February 2020, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/feb/25/dutton-says-leftwing-lunatics-must-be-dealt-with-as-asio-warns-of-far-right-threat>, accessed 28 August 2021; Christopher Knaus, ‘Liberal Senator Tells Asio Chief His Use of Term “Rightwing” Can Offend Conservatives’, Guardian Australia, 2 March 2020, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/mar/02/liberal-senator-tells-asio-chief-his-use-of-term-rightwing-can-offend-conservatives>, accessed 28 August 2021.

12 Daniel Hurst, ‘Australia’s Acting PM Says Capitol Attack “unfortunate” and Condemns Twitter “censorship” of Trump’, Guardian Australia, 11 January 2021, <www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jan/11/australias-acting-pm-says-capitol-attack-unfortunate-and-condemns-twitter-censorship-of-trump>, accessed 28 August 2021.

13 Andrew Zammit, ‘Banning Extreme-Right Terrorism Organisations: The issues at stake’, Avert Research Network, 10 April 2021, <www.avert.net.au/blog//banning-extreme-right-terrorist-organisations-the-issues-at-stake>, accessed 28 August 2021.

14 Osman Faruqi, ‘Victoria Police and Extremism’, Saturday Paper, 6–12 March 2021, <www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/politics/2021/03/06/victoria-police-and-extremism/161494920011218>, accessed 16 September 2021.

15 For example, see discussion of the Christchurch shooter and Australia’s settler colonial framework in Stuart Ward, ‘“Regular White Man”: Reveries of reverse colonization’, in Daniel Geary, Camilla Schofield and Jennifer Sutton (eds), Global White Nationalism: From Apartheid to Trump, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2020, pp. 53–70.

16 Keith Amos, The New Guard Movement, 1931–1935, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1976, pp. 23–34.

17 Amos, The New Guard, pp. 37–38.

18 Andrew Moore, ‘The New Guard and the Labour Movement, 1931–35’, Labour History, no. 89, 2005, p. 60.

19 Moore, ‘The New Guard’, p. 60. For further discussion of this transition, see Phoebe Kelloway, ‘Labour “Armies” in the 1930s Depression: From industrial disputes to anti-fascism’, in Evan Smith, Jayne Persian and Vashti Jane Fox (eds), Histories of Fascism and Anti-Fascism in Australia, Routledge, London (forthcoming).

20 Moore, ‘The New Guard’, p. 61.

21 Stuart Macintyre, The Reds: The Communist Party of Australia from origins to illegality, Allen & Unwin Sydney, 1998, pp. 211–14; Moore, ‘The New Guard’, pp. 62–65.

22 Philip Mendes, ‘From Protest to Acquiescence: Political movements of the unemployed’, Social Alternatives, vol. 18, no. 4, 1999, p. 45.

23 For a discussion of the UWM’s activism in Sydney in the early 1930s, see Drew Cottle and Angela Keys, ‘Anatomy of an “Eviction Riot” in Sydney during the Great Depression’, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, vol. 94, no. 2, 2008, pp. 186–200.

24 Alex North, ‘When Fascism Almost Came to Australia’, Jacobin, 23 August 2020, <www.jacobinmag.com/2020/08/fascism-australia-old-guard-anticommunism>, accessed 9 September 2021.

25 David Rose, ‘The Movement against War and Fascism, 1933–1939’, Labour History, no. 38, 1980, p. 85.

26 See Robert Bozinovski, ‘The Communist Party of Australia and Proletarian Internationalism, 1928–1945’, unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria University, 2008.

27 Padraic Gibson, ‘“Stop the War on Aborigines”: The Communist Party of Australia and the fight for Aboriginal rights, 1920–1934’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Newcastle, 2020.

28 Gianfranco Cresciani, Fascism, Anti-Fascism and Italians in Australia, ANU Press, Canberra, 1980; Gianfranco Cresciani, ‘The Proletarian Migrants: Fascism and Italian anarchists in Australia’, Australian Quarterly, March 1979, pp. 4–19; David Faber, ‘The Italian Anarchist Press in Australia between the Wars’, Italian Historical Society Journal, vol. 17, 2009, pp. 5–11.

29 Diane Menghetti, The Red North: The Popular Front in North Queensland, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, 1981.

30 Menghetti, The Red North, pp. 84–88.

31 Menghetti, The Red North.

32 See Philip Mendes, ‘The Cold War, McCarthyism, the Melbourne Jewish Council to Combat Fascism and Anti-Semitism, and Australian Jewry, 1948–1953’, Journal of Australian Studies, vol. 24, no. 64, 2000, pp. 196–206; Max Kaiser, ‘“Jewish Culture is Inseparable from the Struggle against Reaction”: Forging an Australian Jewish antifascist culture in the 1940s’, Fascism, vol. 9, nos 1–2, 2020, pp. 34–55; Evan Smith, ‘Keeping the Nazi Menace Out: George Lincoln Rockwell and the border control system in Australia and Britain in the early 1960s’, Social Sciences, vol. 9, no. 158, 2020, pp. 1–13.

33 David Harcourt, Everyone Wants to be Fuehrer: National Socialism in Australia and New Zealand, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1972, p. 42.

34 Barry York, ‘Police, Students and Dissent: Melbourne, 1966–1972’, Journal of Australian Studies, vol. 8, no. 14, 1984, pp. 58–77.

35 Harcourt, Everyone Wants to be Fuehrer, pp. 42–43; Philip Mendes, The New Left, the Jews and the Vietnam War, 1965–1972, Lazare Press, Melbourne, 1993, pp. 127–29.

36 Harcourt, Everyone Wants to be Fuehrer, pp. 46–50.

37 Harcourt, Everyone Wants to be Fuehrer, pp. 52–53

38 Mendes, The New Left, the Jews and the Vietnam War, p. 121.

39 Cited in Mika Benesh, ‘Peeling Back the Mythology of the Australian Jewish Left’, New Voices, 25 May 2021, <https://newvoices.org/2021/05/25/peeling-back-the-mythology-of-the-australian-jewish-left/>, accessed 12 September 2021.

40 Evan Smith, ‘Exporting Fascism across the British Commonwealth: The case of the National Front of Australia’, in Nigel Copsey and Matthew Worley (eds), Tomorrow Belongs to Us: British Fascism since 1967, London, Routledge, 2018, pp. 69–89.

41 Cabinet minute, ‘Changed Pattern of Violence by Racist Croups in Australia’, Memorandum 6766, 27 November 1989, A14039 6766, NAA.

42 Kristy Campion, ‘A “Lunatic Fringe”? The persistence of right wing extremism in Australia’, Perspectives on Terrorism, vol. 13, no. 2, 2019, pp. 8–10.

43 See Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC), Racist Violence: Report of National Inquiry into Racist Violence in Australia, HREOC, Canberra, 1991, pp. 181–94.

44 Ghassan Hage, White Nation: Fantasies of white supremacy in a multicultural society, Pluto Press Australia, Sydney, 1998, p. 77.

45 See, for example, Nigel Copsey and Andrzej Olechnowicz (eds), Varieties of Anti-Fascism: Britain in the inter-war period, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, 2010; Nigel Copsey, Anti-Fascism in Britain, Routledge, London, 2016; Anthony Ince, ‘Anti-Fascist Action and the Transversal Territorialities of Militant Anti-Fascism in 1990s Britain’, Antipode, August 2021, pp. 1–21.

46 HREOC, Racist Violence, p. 388.

47 Luke McNamara and Tamsin Solomon, ‘The Commonwealth Racial Hatred Act 1995: Achievement or disappointment?’, Adelaide Law Review, vol. 18, no. 2, 1996, pp. 259–88.

48 Vashti Jane Kenway, ‘“Never Again”: Fascism and anti-fascism in Melbourne in the 1990s’, Labour History, no. 116, 2019, pp. 227–29.

49 Kenway, ‘“Never Again”: Fascism and anti-fascism in Melbourne’, p. 227.

50 Suvendrini Perera and Joseph Pugliese, ‘“Racial Suicide”: The re-licensing of racism in Australia’, Race & Class, vol. 39, no. 2, 1997, pp. 1–19; Sigrid Baringhorst, ‘Policies of Backlash: Recent shifts in Australian migration policy’, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, vol. 6, no. 2, 2004, pp. 131– 57.

51 Kurt Sengul, ‘“Swamped”: The populist construction of fear, crisis and dangerous others in Pauline Hanson’s Senate speeches’, Communication Research and Practice, vol. 6, no. 1, 2020, p. 21.

52 Andy Fleming and Aurelien Mondon, ‘The Radical Right in Australia’, in Jens Rydgren (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, pp. 651–66.

53 Jeff Sparrow, The Pocket Anti-Hanson, Socialist Alternative, Melbourne, 1998, p. 18.

54 Sean Scalmer, Dissent Events: Protest, the media and the political gathering in Australia, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2002, pp. 155–60.

55 Scalmer, Dissent Events, p. 168.

56 Scalmer, Dissent Events, pp. 166–68.

57 Tony Abbott, ‘The Feral Right’, in Robert Manne et al., Two Nations: The causes and effects of the rise of the One Nation Party in Australia, Bookman Press, Melbourne, 1998, pp. 10–19.

58 Rae Wear, ‘Permanent Populism: The Howard government 1996–2007’, Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 43, no. 4, 2008, pp. 617, 626–27.

17The genie is out of the bottle: Self-determination and First Nations peoples of Australia

1 Megan Davis, ‘Listening But Not Hearing’, Griffith Review, no. 51, 2016; Patrick Sullivan, Belonging Together: Dealing with the politics of disenchantment in Australian Indigenous Affairs policy, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 2011; Stuart Bradfield, ‘Separatism or Status-Quo? Indigenous Affairs from the birth of land rights to the death of ATSIC’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 52, no. 1, 2006, pp. 80–97; Gary Foley, ‘The Australian Labor Party and the Native Title Act’, in Aileen Moreton-Robinson (ed.), Sovereign Subjects: Indigenous sovereignty matters, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2007, pp. 118–39; Jon Altman, ‘Self-Determination’s Land Rights: Destined to disappoint’, in Laura Rademaker and Tim Rowse, Self-Determination in Australia: Histories and historiography, ANU Press, Canberra, 2020, pp. 227–46.

2 Gary Johns, ‘The Failure of Aboriginal Separatism’, Quadrant, vol. 45, no. 5, 2001; Peter Sutton, The Politics of Suffering: Indigenous Australia and the end of the liberal consensus, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2009; Noel Pearson, Up from the Mission: Selected writings, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2009.

3 ATSIC’s leadership also faced charges in the media of nepotism, corruption and improper conduct. Ian Anderson, ‘The End of Aboriginal Self-Determination?’, Futures, vol. 39, nos 2–3, 2007, pp. 137–54.

4 Noel Pearson, ‘On the Human Right to Misery, Mass Incarceration and Early Death’, Quadrant, vol. 45, no. 12, 2001, p. 9; Noel Pearson, ‘Radical Hope: Education & equality in Australia’, Quarterly Essay 35, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2009; Sutton, The Politics of Suffering.

5 Laura Rademaker and Tim Rowse, ‘How Shall We Write the History of Self-Determination in Australia?’, in Rademaker and Rowse (eds), Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia: Histories and historiographies, ANU Press, Canberra, 2020, p. 2.

6 Rademaker and Rowse, ‘How Shall We Write the History of Self-Determination?’, p. 11.

7 Anderson, ‘The End of Aboriginal Self-Determination?’, p. 143.

8 Johanna Perheentupa, Redfern: Aboriginal Activism in the 1970s, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 2020, p. 4; Maria K. John, ‘Sovereign Bodies: Urban Indigenous health and the politics of self-determination in Seattle and Sydney, 1950–1980’, PhD thesis, Columbia University, 2017, p. 28.

9 Johanna Perheentupa, ‘Taking Control: Aboriginal organisations and self-determination in Redfern in the 1970s’, in Rademaker and Rowse (eds), Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, p. 193.

10 Perheentupa, Redfern, pp. 4–5.

11 Larissa Behrendt, foreword to Gary Foley (ed.), The Aboriginal Tent Embassy: Sovereignty, Black power, land rights and the state, Taylor & Francis, London, 2013, p. xxiii.

12 The first known example of Aboriginal demands for self-determination was Fred Maynard’s speech launching the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association in 1925. John Maynard ‘The Origins of the Embassy’, in Foley (ed.), The Aboriginal Tent Embassy, pp. 85–86.

13 Johanna Perheentupa, ‘Whitlam and Aboriginal Self-Determination in Redfern’, Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 77, no. 1, 2018, p. 14.

14 Perheentupa, ‘Taking Control’, p. 196; Perheentupa, Redfern, p. 7.

15 Perheentupa, ‘Taking Control’, p. 199; Perheentupa, ‘Whitlam and Aboriginal Self-Determination’, p. 14; Perheentupa, Redfern, 8; John, ‘Sovereign Bodies’, p. 258.

16 John, ‘Sovereign Bodies’, p. 258; Perheentupa, Redfern, p. 93.

17 Katherine Curchin and Tim Rowse, ‘“Taxpayers’ Money”? ATSIC and the Indigenous sector’, in Rademaker and Rowse (eds), Indigenous Self-Determination in Australia, p. 143.

18 John, ‘Sovereign Bodies’, p. 258.

19 Gary Foley in Olga Prokopovich, ‘Aboriginal Health in Our Hands’, Black National Times, 31 July 1975, cited in Perheentupa, Redfern, p. 93.

20 Tim Rowse, ‘Democratic Systems Are an Alien Thing to Aboriginal Culture’, in Marian Sawer and Gianni Zappala (eds), Speaking for the People: Representation in Australian politics, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001, p. 122.

21 Ian Anderson and Will Sanders, Aboriginal Health and Institutional Reform within Australian Federalism, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, Discussion Paper no. 117, ANU, Canberra, 1996, p. 6.

22 Komla Tsey et al., Improving Indigenous Community Governance through Strengthening Indigenous and Government Organisational Capacity, vol. 10, Australian Government, Canberra, 2012, p. 3.

23 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Social Justice Report 2005, Australian Human Rights Commission, Sydney, 2005.

24 First Nations National Constitutional Convention, Uluru Statement from the Heart, 26 May 2017.

25 Coalition of Peaks, Why We Formed, <www.coalitionofpeaks.org.au/why-we-formed/>, accessed 16 July 2021.

26 Coalition of Aboriginal Peak Organisations, Letter to Prime Minister, Premiers and Chief Ministers, 4 October 2018, <www.coalitionofpeaks.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/First-Ministers-from-Aboriginal-Peaks-4-October.pdf>, accessed 16 July 2021.

27 Coalition of Aboriginal Peak Organisations, Letter to Prime Minister, Premiers and Chief Ministers, 4 October 2018, <www.coalitionofpeaks.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/First-Ministers-from-Aboriginal-Peaks-4-October.pdf>, accessed 16 July 2021.

28 National Cabinet, National Agreement on Closing the Gap, Australian Government, Canberra, 2020.

29 For discussion of forms of Indigenous representation see Elizabeth Ganter, ‘Arguing about Indigenous Administrative Participation in the Whitlam Era: A representation theory analysis’, Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 77, no. S1, 2018, pp. S19–S27.

30 See Megan Davis’s critique of the Coalition of Peaks and the Agreement in Megan Davis, ‘New Agreement Won’t Deliver the Change Indigenous Australians Need’, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 July 2020, <www.smh.com.au/national/new-agreement-won-t-deliver-the-change-indigenous-australians-need-20200705-p5593d.html>, accessed 16 July 2021.

31 Megan Davis, ‘Gesture Politics’, Monthly, December 2015, <www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2015/december/1448888400/megan-davis/gesture-politics>, accessed 16 July 2021.

32 Will Sanders, Towards an Indigenous Order of Australian Government: Rethinking self-determination as Indigenous Affairs policy, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR), Australian National University, Canberra, 2018.

33 Sanders, Towards an Indigenous Order, pp. 8–9.

34 Rowse, ‘Democratic Systems are an Alien Thing’, pp. 132–33.

35 Curchin and Rowse, ‘“Taxpayers’ Money”?’, p. 148.

36 Robynne Quiggin, ‘What Does Democracy and Self-Determination Mean for Indigenous Australians?’, Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 77, no. S1, 2018, p. 56.

37 Sanders, Towards an Indigenous Order, p. 5; Tim Rowse, ‘The Political Dimensions of Community Development’, in Frances Morphy and Will Sanders (eds), The Indigenous Welfare Economy and the CDEP Scheme, ANU Press, Canberra, 2001, p. 39.

38 Anderson, ‘The End of Aboriginal Self-Determination?’, p. 149.

39 Julie Lahn, Aboriginal Professionals: Work, class and culture, CAEPR, Canberra, 2018, p. 8.

40 Phillip Falk and Gary Martin, ‘Misconstruing Indigenous Sovereignty: Maintaining the fabric of Australian law’, in Moreton-Robinson (ed.), Sovereign Subjects, p. 41.

41 Sanders, Towards an Indigenous Order, p. 11.

18Pipelines and catalysts: Lessons from the history of women in corporate leadership

1 Tony Boyd, ‘Corporate Australia Needs to Get Serious about Diversity’, Australian Financial Review, 8 September 2021, <www.afr.com/chanticleer/corporate-australia-needs-to-get-serious-about-diversity-20210907-p58pl0>, accessed 24 January 2022.

2 Georgie Dent, ‘Is there an “impenetrable” girls’ club in corporate Australia as Graeme Samuel says?’, Women’s Agenda, 27 March 2019, <www.womensagenda.com.au/latest/is-there-an-impenetrable-girls-club-in-corporate-australia/>; Patrick Durkin, ‘“Girls’ club” unleash on Graeme Samuel’, Australian Financial Review, 27 March 2019, <www.afr.com/work-and-careers/leaders/girls-club-unleash-on-graeme-samuel-20190327-p51852>, accessed 22 February 2022.

3 Anne Ross-Smith and Jane Bridge, ‘“Glacial At Best”: Women’s progress on corporate boards in Australia’, in Susan Vinnicombe et al. (eds), Women on Corporate Boards of Directors: International research and practice, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2008, pp. 67–78; Australian Institute of Company Directors (AICD), 30% by 2018: Gender diversity progress report, September–December 2018, Sydney, AICD, 2015; AICD, Board Diversity Statistics, <www.aicd.companydirectors.com.au/advocacy/board-diversity/statistics>, accessed 24 January 2022.

4 Chief Executive Women (CEW), Senior Executive Census, CEW, Sydney, 2021, <www.cew.org.au/topics/cew-senior-executive-census/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

5 Jenny Cermak et al., Women in Leadership, McKinsey and Co./Workplace Gender Equality Agency/Business Council Australia, 2018.

6 Marion Hutchinson et al., ‘Women in Leadership: An analysis of the gender pay gap in ASX-listed firms’, Accounting & Finance, vol. 57, no. 3, 2017, pp. 789–813; Alison Cook et al., ‘Gender Gaps at the Top: Does board composition affect executive compensation?’, Human Relations, vol. 72, no. 8, 2019, pp. 1292–314.

7 Claire Wright, ‘Good Wives and Corporate Leaders: Duality in women’s access to Australia’s top company boards, 1910–2018’, Business History, published online ahead of print 9 December 2021.

8 David A. Matsa and Amalia R. Miller, ‘Chipping Away at the Glass Ceiling: Gender spillovers in corporate leadership’, American Economic Review, vol. 101, no. 3, 2011, pp. 635–39.

9 Corinne Post and Kris Byron, ‘Women on Boards and Firm Financial Performance’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 58, no. 5, 2015, pp. 1546–71; Siri Terjesen et al., ‘Does the Presence of Independent and Female Directors Impact Firm Performance? A multi-country study of board diversity’, Journal of Management & Governance, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 447–83; Gennaro Bernile et al., ‘Board Diversity, Firm Risk, and Corporate Policies’, Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 127, no. 3, 2018, pp. 588–612.

10 Jean Du Plessis et al., ‘Multiple Layers of Gender Diversity on Corporate Boards: To force or not to force’, Deakin Law Review, vol. 19, no. 1, 2014, pp. 1–50; Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Gender Balance on Australian Government Boards Report 2017–18, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 2018.

11 Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Harriman House Limited, London, 1776, pp. 264–65; Josh Bendickson et al., ‘Agency Theory: Background and epistemology’, Journal of Management History, vol. 22, no. 4, 2016, pp. 437–49.

12 Amy J. Hillman et al., ‘Resource Dependence Theory: A review’, Journal of Management, vol. 35, no. 6, 2009, pp. 1404–27.

13 Post and Byron, ‘Women on Boards’, pp. 1546–71; D.J. Brass, ‘A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources Management’, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, vol. 13, no. 1, 1995, pp. 39–79.

14 Claire Wright and Hannah Forsyth, ‘Managerial Capitalism and White-Collar Professions: Social mobility in Australia’s corporate elite’, Labour History, vol. 121, no. 1, 2021, pp. 99–127.

15 Wright and Forsyth, ‘Managerial Capitalism’.

16 Grant Fleming et al., The Big End of Town: Big business and corporate leadership in twentieth century Australia, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 2004; F.L. Clarke et al., Corporate Collapse: Regulatory, accounting and ethical failure, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997.

17 Wright and Forsyth, ‘Managerial Capitalism’.

18 Janet McCalman, Journeyings: The biography of a middle-class generation 1920–1990, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1993; Anne Summers, Damned Whores and God’s Police, NewSouth, Sydney, 2016 [first ed. 1975].

19 Anne Summers, The Misogyny Factor, NewSouth, Sydney, 2013; Hannah Forsyth, ‘Reconsidering Women’s Role in the Professionalisation of the Economy: Evidence from the Australian census 1881–1947’, Australian Economic History Review, vol. 59, no. 1, 2019, pp. 55–79.

20 Wright, ‘Good Wives’.

21 Ross-Smith and Bridge, ‘“Glacial At Best”’; AICD, 30%; Wright, ‘Good Wives’.

22 Wright, ‘Good Wives’.

23 Lucy Taksa and Dimitria Groutsis, ‘Swings and Roundabouts: Reconsidering equal employment opportunity, affirmative action and diversity management in Australia from a historical perspective’, in J.F. Chanlat and M. Ozbligin (eds), Management and Diversity, Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, 2017; Du Plessis et al., ‘Multiple Layers’; Ross-Smith and Bridge, ‘“Glacial At Best”’; Summers, The Misogyny Factor.

24 Stephen Mayne, ‘Meet Ilana Atlas: The People Person Lawyer Who Diverted to Banking, Then Boardrooms’, Eureka Report, 4 June 2018, <www.eurekareport.com.au/investment-news/meet-ilana-atlas-the-people-person-lawyer-who-diverted-to-banking-then-boardroo/145557>, accessed 24 January 2022.

25 Catherine Fox, ‘Sam Mostyn on Opening Doors to Women on Boards’, Board Level, 3 December 2020, <www.aicd.companydirectors.com.au/membership/membership-update/sam-mostyn-on-opening-doors-to-women-on-boards>, accessed 24 January 2022.

26 Du Plessis et al., ‘Multiple Layers’; Summers, The Misogyny Factor.

27 Du Plessis et al., ‘Multiple Layers’; Karen Handley et al., ‘The Same or Different: How women have become included in corporate leadership in Australia’, in Sujana Adapa and Alison Sheridan (eds), Inclusive Leadership: Negotiating gendered spaces, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2018, pp. 93–124.

28 AICD 2015.

29 AICD, ‘ASX 200 hits 30% women on boards’, AICD media, 19 December 2019, <www.aicd.companydirectors.com.au/media/media-releases/asx-200-hits-30-per-cent-women-on-boards>, accessed 24 January 2022.

30 Du Plessis et al., ‘Multiple Layers’; Alison Sheridan et al., ‘Institutional Influences on Women’s Representation on Corporate Boards’, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, vol. 33, no. 2, 2014, pp. 140–59.

31 Summers, The Misogyny Factor; Sujana Adapa et al., ‘“Doing Gender” in a Regional Context: Explaining women’s absence from senior roles in regional accounting firms in Australia’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, vol. 35, no. 1, 2016, pp. 100–10; Kieran Pender, ‘Salary Transparency and Quotas: Will they solve law’s gender inequality woes?’, LSJ Online, 3 May 2021, <www.lsj.com.au/articles/an-act-of-parity-are-quotas-and-salary-transparency-the-solution-to-laws-gender-inequality-woes/>, accessed 24 January 2022; John Buckley, ‘Male Accountants Paid Up to 50% More than Women: CA ANZ’, Accountants Daily, 2 June 2021, <www.accountantsdaily.com.au/business/15760-male-accountants-paid-up-to-50-more-than-women-ca-anz>, accessed 24 January 2022.

32 Christopher Niesche, ‘Nicola Wakefield Evans appointed to AICD board’, Company Director, July 2016, <www.aicd.companydirectors.com.au/membership/company-director-magazine/2016-back-editions/july/time-for-change>, accessed 24 January 2022.

33 Smith-Gander cited in Anne Davies, ‘Smith-Gander reveals how to conquer the boys club’, Sydney Morning Herald, 19 February 2015, <www.smh.com.au/national/smithgander-reveals-how-to-conquer-the-boys-club-20150218-13ikgw.html>, accessed 24 January 2022.

34 Aileen Moreton-Robinson, Talkin’ Up to the White Woman: Aboriginal women and feminism, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 2000.

35 Davies, ‘Smith-Gander’.

36 Patrick Durkin, ‘David Gonski, Master Mentor to Senior Corporate Women’, Australian Financial Review, 13 February 2015, <www.afr.com/work-and-careers/management/david-gonski-master-mentor-to-senior-corporate-women-20150119-12tcu4>, accessed 24 January 2022.

19Beyond productivity: Working mothers and childcare policy

This chapter draws upon research into the history of Australian mothering (1945–2020) funded by the Australian Research Council DE160100817.

1 Kristen interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 4 April 2017. All interviewees are referred to by pseudonyms. All interviews are in the possession of the author. Where agreed by the interviewee, interview material has been preserved in Museum Victoria’s collections.

2 Catherine Kevin, ‘Maternity and Freedom: Australian feminist encounters with the reproductive body’, Australian Feminist Studies, vol. 20, no. 46, 2005, pp. 3–15.

3 Petra Bueskens, ‘From Containing to Creating: Maternal subjectivity’, in Camilla Nelson and Rachel Robertson (eds), Dangerous Ideas about Mothers, University of Western Australia Publishing, Perth, 2018, pp. 197–210.

4 For reasons of space the experiences of heterosexual women are the focus of this chapter, but interviews with lesbian mothers suggest they also often fall into breadwinner/homemaker patterns after having a child. Fathers and transgender parents have distinctive experiences which are adjacent to, but slightly outside, the scope of this chapter.

5 Deborah Brennan, The Politics of Australian Child Care: From philanthropy to feminism, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1994; Carla Pascoe Leahy, ‘From the Little Wife to the Supermom? Maternographies of feminism and mothering in Australia since 1945’, Feminist Studies, vol. 45, no. 1, 2019, pp. 100–28.

6 John Murphy and Belinda Probert, ‘Never Done: The working mothers of the 1950s’, in Patricia Grimshaw, John Murphy and Belinda Probert (eds), Double Shift: Working mothers and social change in Australia, Melbourne Publishing Group/Circa, Melbourne, 2005, pp. 133–52.

7 Deborah Brennan, ‘The Good Mother in Australian Child Care Policy’, in Carla Pascoe Leahy and Petra Bueskens (eds), Australian Mothering: Historical and sociological perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019, pp. 339–58.

8 Sally interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 8 March 2014.

9 Miroslava interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 27 March 2017.

10 Sybil interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 6 April 2017.

11 Brennan, The Politics of Australian Child Care, pp. 174–77.

12 Jan Harper and Lyn Richards, Mothers and Working Mothers, 2nd ed., Penguin, Melbourne, 1986, p. ix.

13 Hazel interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 8 April 2017.

14 Genevieve interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 17 July 2017.

15 Carol interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 29 November 2016.

16 House of Representatives Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs and Michael Lavarch, Half Way to Equal: Report of the Inquiry into Equal Opportunity and Equal Status for Women in Australia, AGPS, Canberra, 1992.

17 Belinda Probert, ‘“Grateful Slaves” or “Self-Made Women”: A matter of choice or policy?’, Australian Feminist Studies, vol. 17, no. 37, 2002, pp. 7–17.

18 Caitlyn interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 5 December 2016.

19 Katherine interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 30 November 2016.

20 Deborah Brennan, ‘Babies, Budgets, and Birthrates: Work/family policy in Australia 1996–2006’, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, vol. 14, no. 1, 2007, p. 32.

21 Brennan, ‘The Good Mother in Australian Child Care Policy’, p. 352.

22 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC), It’s About Time: Women, men, work and family (Final Paper, 2007), HREOC, Sydney, 2007, p. 153.

23 Patricia Grimshaw, ‘Mothers and Waged Work following Equal Opportunity Legislation in Australia, 1986–2006’, in Pascoe Leahy and Bueskens (eds), Australian Mothering, pp. 359–80.

24 Lyn Craig, Contemporary Motherhood: The impact of children on adult time, Routledge, London and New York, 2007.

25 Kristen interview.

26 Brennan, ‘The Good Mother in Australian Child Care Policy’, p. 356.

27 Rowena interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 3 April 2017.

28 Ariana interviewed by Carla Pascoe Leahy, 5 April 2017.

29 Ariana interview.

30 Lyn Craig, ‘Coronavirus, Domestic Labour and Care: Gendered roles locked down’, Journal of Sociology, vol. 56, no. 4, 2020, pp. 1–9; Lyn Craig, and Brendan Churchill, ‘Dual-Earner Parent Couples’ Work and Care during COVID-19’, Gender Work & Organization, vol. 28, no. S1, 2021, pp. 1–14.

31 Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Second Shift: Working parents and the revolution at home, Viking Penguin, New York, 1989. Sara Joiko referred to it as a ‘third shift’ in her research into how mothers in England and Chile have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic: Sara Joiko, ‘Schooling, Work and House Life: Women’s triple shifts in times of a global health crisis’, Families, Relationships, Societies, available online 25 September 2020, DOI: 10.1332/204674320X15990673690322.

32 Across several decades, feminist economist Marilyn Waring has persuasively analysed the ways in which women’s work ‘counts for nothing’ in traditional economic theory: Marilyn Waring, Still Counting: Wellbeing, women’s work and policy-making, Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 2019.

33 Alistair Thomson, ‘New Wave Fathers? Oral histories with Australian fathers from the 1970s to the 1990s’, in Pascoe Leahy and Bueskens (eds), Australian Mothering, pp. 219–35.

34 Such views arose consistently in interviews conducted for this research and are discussed in my forthcoming book Becoming a Mother: An Australian History 1945–2020, Manchester University Press, Manchester.

35 Lyndall Strazdins, Jennifer Baxter and Jianghong Li, ‘Long Hours and Longings: Australian children’s views of fathers’ work and family time’, Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 79, no. 4, 2017, pp. 965–82.

36 Bettina Cass, ‘Citizenship, Work and Welfare: The dilemma for Australian women’, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, vol. 1, no. 1, 1994, pp. 106–24.

37 Andrew Scott, Northern Lights: The positive policy example of Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Norway, Monash University Publishing, Melbourne, 2014, pp. 63–97; Andrew Scott and Rod Campbell (eds), The Nordic Edge: Policy possibilities for Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2021, pp. 124–46.

20Too much talk, not enough action? Federal government responses to domestic violence

1 Anne Summers, ‘International Women’s Day keynote’, online, 9 March 2021, <www.uts.edu.au/partners-and-community/initiatives/social-justice-uts/news/international-womens-day-2021-anne-summers-keynote>, accessed 24 January 2022.

2 Phoebe Hosier, ‘Advocates say National Women’s Safety Summit will be a “talkfest” unless it speaks to survivors of domestic violence’, ABC News online, 8 April 2021, <www.abc.net.au/news/2021-04-08/domestic-violence-womens-safety-summit-qld/100053778>, accessed 24 January 2022.

3 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Family, Domestic, and Sexual Violence in Australia: Continuing the National Story 2019, AIHW, Canberra, 2019, p. ix.

4 Prime Minister, ‘Address, Women’s Safety Summit’, 6 September 2021, <www.pm.gov.au/media/address-womens-safety-summit>, accessed 24 January 2022.

5 Delia Donovan, ‘Women’s Safety Summit missed the opportunity to really tackle domestic violence’, news.com.au, 9 September 2021, <www.news.com.au/lifestyle/health/health-problems/womens-safety-summit-missed-the-opportunity-to-really-tackle-domestic-violence/news-story/48cbac8315637b90689f07a1b0fae40e>, accessed 24 January 2022.

6 Suellen Murray and Anastasia Powell, Domestic Violence: Australian public policy, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, 2011, p. 23.

7 Suzanne E. Hatty, National Conference on Domestic Violence, Volume 1, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1986, p. 4.

8 Lionel Bowen, National Conference on Domestic Violence, pp. 7–11.

9 Dawn Rowan, ‘The Syndrome of Battered Women’, National Conference on Domestic Violence, pp. 25–30.

10 Vivien Johnson, ‘Love Will Tear Us Apart: Domestic violence and sexuality’, National Conference on Domestic Violence, pp. 85–103.

11 Judith Allen, ‘Desperately Seeking Solutions: Changing battered women’s options since 1880’, National Conference on Domestic Violence, pp. 119–36.

12 Phyllis Daylight and Mary Johnstone, ‘Women’s Business’: Report of the Aboriginal Women’s Task Force for the Office of the Status of Women in the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, AGPS, Canberra, 1986, pp. 56–57.

13 Wendy Weeks and Kate Gilmore, ‘How Violence Against Women Became an Issue on the National Policy Agenda’, in Tony Dalton et al. (eds), Making Social Policy in Australia: An introduction, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1996, p. 146.

14 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, p. 23.

15 Duncan Chappell, Peter Grabosky and Heather Strang (eds), Australian Violence: Contemporary perspectives, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1991; Duncan Chappell and Sandra Egger (eds), Australian Violence: Contemporary perspectives II, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1995.

16 Sandra Egger, ‘Preface’, Australian Violence: Contemporary Perspectives II, pp. xxxix–xl.

17 Maryanne Sam, Through Black Eyes: A handbook of family violence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care Agencies, Canberra, 1992, p. ix.

18 National Committee on Violence, Violence: Directions for Australia, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1990, p. xvii.

19 Jacqui Theobald and Suellen Murray, From the Margins to the Mainstream: The domestic violence services movement in Victoria, Australia, 1974–2016, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2017, p. 83; Weeks and Gilmore, ‘How Violence Against Women Became an Issue’, pp. 149–50.

20 Anne Summers, Unfettered and Alive: A memoir, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2018, p. 297.

21 Heather Nancarrow and Karen Struthers, ‘The Growth of Domestic Violence Responses in Australia: A “flash in the pan” or a sustainable program for change?’, Social Alternatives, vol. 14, no. 1, 1995, p. 45.

22 National Committee on Violence Against Women, National Strategy on Violence Against Women, Office for the Status of Women, AGPS, Canberra, 1992, p. 4; Theobald and Murray, From the Margins to the Mainstream, p. 83.

23 Summers, Unfettered and Alive, p. 308.

24 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, pp. 25–26.

25 Louise Chappell, ‘Federalism and Social Policy: The case of domestic violence’, Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 60, no. 1, 2001, p. 64; Nancarrow and Struthers, ‘The Growth of Domestic Violence Responses in Australia’, p. 45.

26 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Women’s Safety Survey, 1996.

27 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, p. 44.

28 Weeks and Gilmore, ‘How Violence Against Women’, p. 153; Chappell ‘Federalism and Social Policy’, p. 62. Theobald and Murray, From the Margins to the Mainstream, p. 114.

29 Chappell, ‘Federalism and Social Policy’, p. 62.

30 Chappell, ‘Federalism and Social Policy’, pp. 62–63.

31 Amy Webster, ‘The Re-Conceptualism of Domestic Violence under the Howard Government since 1996’, Lilith, vol. 16, 2007, pp. 57–68.

32 Chappell, ‘Federalism and Social Policy’, p. 65.

33 John Howard, ‘Partnerships Against Domestic Violence’, PM Transcripts, <www.pmtranscripts.pmc.gov.au/release/transcript-10605>, accessed 24 January 2022.

34 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, p. 27; Partnerships Against Domestic Violence: Second Annual Report of the Taskforce, 1999–2000, 2000, Commonwealth of Australia, 2000, p. 1; Suellen Murray, ‘An Impossibly Ambitious Plan? Australian policy and the elimination of domestic violence’, Just Policy, no. 38, 2005, p. 30.

35 Chappell, ‘Federalism and Social Policy’, p. 66.

36 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, p. 28.

37 Kevin Rudd, ‘White Ribbon Foundation Address: Respecting women and leading men’, 17 September 2008.

38 Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, pp. 30–31.

39 The National Council to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, Time for Action: The National Council’s plan for Australia to reduce violence against women and their children, 2009–2021: A snapshot, Australian Government, Canberra, March 2009; National Council, Time for Action: National plan to reduce violence against women and their children 2010–2022, Australian Government, Canberra, February 2011.

40 Kate Ellis, ‘Remarks at the launch of the National Plan to reduce Violence Against Women and Children’, 15 February 2011, <www.formerministers.dss.gov.au/1118/remarks-at-the-launch-of-the-national-plan-to-reduce-violence-against-women-and-children/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

41 Judith Ireland (with Jane Lee), ‘Malcolm Turnbull’s Scathing Attack on Men who Commit Domestic Violence’, Sydney Morning Herald, 24 September 2015.

42 Amy Greenbank and Jane Norman, ‘Prime Minister Scott Morrison pledges $328 million to Combat Domestic Violence’, ABC News online, 5 March 2019, <www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-05/prime-minister-scott-morrison-to-pledge-328-million-to-combat-dv/10869862>, accessed 24 January 2022.

43 Jess Hill, See What You Made Me Do: Power, control, and domestic abuse, Black Inc., Melbourne, 2019; Murray and Powell, Domestic Violence, p. 29.

44 National Summit on Women’s Safety 2021, ‘Statement from Delegates’, <www.regonsite.eventsair.com/national-summit-on-womens-safety/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

21The neglected north: Developing Northern Australia from the south since 1901

1 Mabel Forrest, ‘Australia Undefended’ (1909), cited in Patrick Buckridge, ‘Roles for Writers: Brisbane and literature, 1859–1975’, in Patrick Buckridge and Belinda McKay (eds), By the Book: A literary history of Queensland, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane, 2007, p. 39.

2 Much of the historical information in this chapter is drawn from Lyndon Megarrity, Northern Dreams: The politics of northern development in Australia, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne, 2018.

3 Russell McGregor, Environment, Race, and Nationhood in Australia: Revisiting the Empty North, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2016, p. 15. I rely on McGregor’s population estimates for this section. See McGregor, Environment, Race and Nationhood, pp. 14–15.

4 W.H. Spooner, foreword, in W. Diesendorf (ed.), The Snowy Mountains Scheme, Horwitz Publications, Sydney, 1961, p. viii.

5 N.B. The National Party of Australia (also known as The Nationals) is the successor to the Country Party and largely retains its rural focus.

6 Liberal-National Coalition, The Coalition’s 2030 Vision for Developing Northern Australia, Liberal-National Coalition, Canberra, 2013, p. 2.

7 Senator Murray Watt (Chair), Select Committee on the Effectiveness of the Australian Government’s Northern Australia Agenda: Final Report, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, April 2021, pp. 24–25.

8 Catherine King (ALP, Ballarat), House of Representatives, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, 25 March 2021, p. 22.

9 Keith Pitt, Minister for Resources, Water and Northern Australia, Joint Media Release with Assistant Minister for Northern Australia Michelle Landry, 13 May 2021.

10 This section draws on Lyndon Megarrity, Northern Australia and Foreign Investment: Challenges and opportunities, Australian Policy and History website [Deakin University], online publication posted 16 October 2018: <www.aph.org.au/northern-australia-and-foreign-investment-challenges-and-opportunities/>, accessed 24 January 2022.

11 Andrew White and Amos Aikman, ‘Chinese Outbid Funds to Buy Port of Darwin’, Australian, 14 October 2015, p. 19.

12 Department of Defence, 2013 Defence White Paper, May 2013, cited in Nathan Church, The Australian Defence Force in Northern Australia, Parliamentary Library, Canberra, 2015, p. 4.

13 See, for example, Mark Beeson, ‘Issues in Australian Foreign Policy: July to December 2013’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 60, no. 2, 2014, p. 271; Merriden Varrall, ‘Australia’s Response to China in the Pacific: From alert to alarmed’, in Graeme Smith and Terence Wesley-Smith (eds), The China Alternative: Changing regional order in the Pacific Islands, ANU Press, Canberra, 2021, pp. 107–41.

14 Rolf Gerritsen, ‘Pulse and Pause: Researching the economic future of Northern and remote Australia’, in Ruth Wallace et al. (eds), Leading from the North: Rethinking Northern Australia development, ANU Press, Canberra, 2021, p. 118.

22How to fix our federation

This chapter is based on research funded by the Australian Research Council (ARC DE190100677).

1 Anna Clark, History’s Children: History wars in the classroom, NewSouth, Sydney, 2008.

2 Research conducted for the Council for the Centenary of Federation found that 43 per cent of Australians were unable to explain what a federation meant, see Clark, History’s Children, p. 23. Recent research suggests young Australians lack sufficient civic knowledge: see National Assessment Program – Civics and Citizenship 2019, Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, Sydney, 2020.

3 Chelsea Jones, ‘Mark McGowan (Official Music Video)’, <www.you tube.com/watch?v=-INs8dNK9cU&ab_channel=ChelsSingsThings>, accessed 6 September 2021.

4 Gladys Berejiklian, quoted in George Williams, ‘We desperately need a genuine plan for federal reform’, Sydney Morning Herald, 19 May 2017, <www.smh.com.au/opinion/we-desperately-need-a-genuine-plan-for-federal-reform-20170519-gw8pfe.html>, accessed 2 September 2021; Alan Fenna, ‘Ideas for Australia: To really reform the federation, you must build strong bipartisan support’, Conversation, 26 April 2016, <www.theconversation.com/ideas-for-australia-to-really-reform-the-federation-you-must-build-strong-bipartisan-support-56081>, accessed 8 September 2021.

5 Anne Twomey, ‘Reforming Australia’s Federal System’, Federal Law Review, vol. 36, no. 1, 2008, n.p.

6 (Melbourne) Herald, 5 September 1900, p. 4.

7 South Australian Register, 19 July 1900, p. 4; (Sydney) Daily Telegraph, 18 September 1900, p. 4.

8 (Sydney) Daily Telegraph, 18 September 1900, p. 4.

9 Coolgardie Miner, 8 September 1900, p. 4; (Coolgardie) Herald, 10 September 1900, p. 3; (Sydney) Daily Telegraph, 18 September 1900, p. 4.

10 Age, 1 July 1901, p. 5.

11 (Launceston) Daily Telegraph, 24 December 1901, p. 3.

12 Evening News, 26 December 1901, p. 4.

13 (Sydney) Daily Telegraph, 2 January 1902, p. 3.

14 Australian Star, 1 January 1902, p. 5.

15 Australian Star, 1 January 1902, p. 5.

16 Evening News, 26 December 1901, p. 4; Sydney Morning Herald, 28 January 1902, p. 2.

17 Hansard, House of Representatives, 2 July 1901, p. 1831.

18 Hansard, Senate, 29 January 1902, p. 9323.

19 Hansard, Senate, 29 January 1902, p. 9323.

20 Hansard, Senate, 29 January 1902, p. 9323.

21 Hansard, Senate, 29 January 1902, p. 9323.

22 Hansard, House of Representatives, 29 May 1902, p. 1.

23 Hansard, House of Representatives, 29 May 1902, p. 1.

24 Age, 14 November 1902, p. 4.

25 Sydney Morning Herald, 19 December 1902, p. 5.

26 Age, 2 January 1903, p. 5.

27 (Adelaide) Observer, 10 January 1903, p. 38.

28 Observer, 10 January 1903, p. 38.

29 Numurkah Leader, 9 January 1903, p. 2.

30 (Launceston) Examiner, 1 January 1903, p. 4.

31 Examiner, 1 January 1903, p. 4.

32 Hansard, House of Representatives, 26 October 1910, p. 5185.

33 Hansard, House of Representatives, 25 November 1910, p. 6848.

34 John Hirst, Australia’s Democracy: A short history, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2000, p. 329.

35 For a history of Anzac commemoration, see Carolyn Holbrook, Anzac: The unauthorised biography, NewSouth, Sydney, 2014.

36 See Carolyn Holbrook, ‘“Commemorator-in-chief “: Australian politicians and the Anzac legend’, in Tom Frame (ed.), Anzac Day: Then and now, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2016, pp. 214–31.

37 David Stephens, ‘Why is Australia Spending So Much More on the Great War Centenary Than Any Other Country?’, Pearls and Irritations, 20 June 2015, <www.johnmenadue.com/david-stephens-why-is-australia-spending-so-much-more-on-the-great-war-centenary-than-any-other-country/>, accessed 10 September 2021.

38 Carolyn Holbrook, ‘Making Sense of the Great War Centenary’, in Carolyn Holbrook and Keir Reeves (eds), The Great War: Aftermath and commemoration, NewSouth, Sydney, 2019, pp. 252–53.

39 Clark, History’s Children, pp. 20–63.

40 Zareh Ghazarian, Jacqueline Laughland-Booy, Chiara De Lazzari and Zlatko Skrbis, ‘How Are Young Australians Learning about Politics at School? The student perspective’, Journal of Applied Youth Studies, no. 3, 2020, pp. 193–208.

41 David Donaldson, ‘Cheryl Saunders: Ten principles for reforming the federation’, The Mandarin, 15 July 2015, <www.themandarin.com.au/44286-ten-principles-reform-federation/>, accessed 15 July 2019.

Conclusion: The history of the future

1 Alix R. Green, History, Policy and Public Purpose: Histories and historical thinking in government, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2016.