Introduction
1. “Freddie Gray Death Sparks Huge Protest in Baltimore,” CBS Evening News, posted April 25, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Zjbour3dIw.
2. “Tawanda Jones Wages Long Fight for Justice in Baltimore,” CBS Baltimore, November 14, 2015, https://baltimore.cbslocal.com/2015/11/14/tawanda-jones-wages-long-fight-for-justice-in-baltimore/.
3. Jon Swaine, “Freddie Gray Funeral: ‘Most of Us Knew a Lot of Freddie Grays. Too Many,’” Guardian, April 27, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/apr/27/freddie-gray-funeral-most-of-us-knew-a-lot-of-freddie-grays-too-many.
4. Swaine, “Freddie Gray Funeral.”
5. Lawrence Brown, “Two Baltimores: The White L vs. the Black Butterfly,” Baltimore Sun (hereafter Sun), June 28, 2016, https://www.baltimoresun.com/citypaper/bcpnews-two-baltimores-the-white-l-vs-the-black-butterfly-20160628-htmlstory.html.
6. Elizabeth Ponsot and Daniel Costa-Roberts, “Life in Freddie Gray’s Neighborhood by the Numbers,” PBS News Hour, aired May 2, 2015, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/learn-statistics-life-freddie-grays-baltimore-neighborhood; and Yvonne Wenger, “Incomplete Healing,” Sun, May 10, 2015, 1, 24.
7. Baltimore Community Relations Commission (hereafter CRC), “Survey of Employment in City Government—1977” (Baltimore: CRC, 1977).
8. Lane Windham, Knocking on Labor’s Door: Union Organizing in the 1970s and the Roots of the New Economic Divide (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).
9. Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2012).
10. Bart Landry, The New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
11. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Vintage, 1996); and Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
12. Michael Katz, Mark Stern, and Jamie Fader, “The New African American Inequality,” Journal of American History 92, no. 1 (June 2005): 75–108.
13. Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
14. Jon Shelton, Teacher Strike! Public Education and the Making of a New American Political Order (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2017); and Nelson Lichtenstein and Elizabeth Shermer, The Right and Labor in America: Politics, Ideology and Imagination (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
15. Ralph de Toledano, Let Our Cities Burn (New York: Arlington House, 1975).
16. Elizabeth Hinton, From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime:The Making of Mass Incarceration in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 19; and Marisa Chappell, The War on Welfare: Family, Poverty, and Politics in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012).
17. Judith Stein, Pivotal Decade: How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the Seventies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011).
18. Timothy Conlan, From New Federalism to Devolution: Twenty Five Years of Intergovernmental Reform (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998); Dennis Judd and Todd Swanstrom, City Politics: Private Power and Public Money (New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1994); Robert Thomas, “National-Local Relations and the City’s Dilemma,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509, no. 1 (May 1990): 115; and Deil Wright, “Policy Shifts in the Politics and Administration of Intergovernmental Relations, 1930s–1990s,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509, no. 1 (May 1990): 60–72.
19. Joseph McCartin, “’Fire the Hell out of Them’: Sanitation Workers’ Struggles and the Normalization of the Striker Replacement Strategy in the 1970s,” Labor 2 (2005): 67–92; and Shelton, Teacher Strike!
20. Fred Barbash, “Analysis: Welfare Mess Lies in Faulty Paper-Pushings, Miscast Workers,” Sun, November 12, 1971, C9.
21. David Harvey, “From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism,” Geografiska Annaler 71, no. 1 (1989): 3–17.
22. “Baltimore: New Breed of City,” Forbes, September 16, 1976, advertisement, p. 8.
23. C. Fraser Smith, “Some Council Members Shocked,” Sun, April 21, 1980, A1; and Smith, “Two Trustees and a $100 Million Bank Skirt the Restrictions of City Government,” Sun, April 13, 1980, A1.
24. Madeline Murphy, “Rumpelstiltskin, What’s Next,” Baltimore Afro-American (hereafter Afro), May 3, 1980, 4; and Richard Hula, “The Two Baltimores,” in Leadership and Urban Regeneration: Cities in North America and Europe, ed. Dennis Judd and Michael Parkinson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990).
25. Marc Levine, “A Nation of Hamburger Flippers,” Sun, July 31, 1994, E1, E4.
26. Vernon Jordan Jr., “The New Regionalism,” To Be Equal (January 21, 1981), Folder “(A-Z) Reagan, Ronald (President Elect),” box 423, Schaefer Papers (hereafter SP), Baltimore Records Group 9 (hereafter 9), Baltimore City Archive (hereafter BCA).
27. Coalition on Women and the Budget, “Inequality of Sacrifice: The Impact of the Reagan Budget on Women” (Washington, DC: Coalition on Women and the Budget, 1984).
28. “Proposition 13: Threat to All Public Employees, Threat to All Public Services,” Public Employee (July 1978): 1.
29. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
30. Michael Katz, The Price of Citizenship (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).
Chapter 1
1. James P. Connolly, “Baltimore Area Looks to Boom Times in ’51: Surplus Labor Already Sought Outside State,” New York Times, January 2, 1951, 66.
2. Bertha Brown and Gina Butler [pseudonyms], interview with Jane Berger, Baltimore, December 17, 2005.
3. Apral Smith, “Love and Sacrifice for the Sake of the Family,” undergraduate student video project, n.d., Coppin State University, Baltimore. At the start of the 1950s, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics declared $3,800 the necessary minimum income needed to sustain an urban family. Two years later, the median nonwhite income in Baltimore was $2,600, indicating that well over half the Black population was significantly below the necessary minimum. Maryland Commission on Interracial Problems and Relations (hereafter MCIPR), An American City in Transition: The Baltimore Community Self-Survey of Inter-Group Relations ([Baltimore]: MCIPR, 1955), 30, 32.
4. C. Fraser Smith, Here Lies Jim Crow: Civil Rights in Maryland (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).
5. David Terry, “‘Tramping for Justice’: The Dismantling of Jim Crow in Baltimore, 1942–1954” (PhD dissertation, Howard University, 2002), 20.
6. Sherry H. Olson, Baltimore: The Building of an American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 239–240; and Carroll Williams, “Bethlehem Plant Here Tops World,” Sun, February 26, 1958, 26.
7. Quoted in Ira De A. Reid, The Negro Community of Baltimore: A Social Survey (Baltimore: National Urban League, 1934), 38.
8. Jo Ann Argersinger, Toward a New Deal in Baltimore (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); and Roderick Ryon, “Ambiguous Legacy: Baltimore Blacks and the CIO, 1936–1941,” Journal of Negro History 65, no. 1 (Winter 1980): 18–33.
9. U.S. Department of Census, 1940 Census of Population, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1943), 577; and U.S. Department of Census, United States Census of Population—1950, Census Tract Statistics: Baltimore, Maryland and Adjacent Area (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952).
10. Letter to Mayor Theodore R. McKeldin from Thomas J. S. Waxter, November 10, 1944, folder T10, box 259, 22 McKeldin Papers, 9, BCA.
11. Argersinger, New Deal, 12; David Milobsky, “Power from the Pulpit: Baltimore’s African-American Clergy, 1950–1970,” Maryland Historical Magazine 89, no. 3 (Fall 1994): 275–289; and Harold McDougall, Black Baltimore: A New Theory of Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).
12. Hayward Farrar, The Baltimore Afro-American, 1892–1950 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1998).
13. Sandy Shoemaker, “‘We Shall Overcome, Someday’: The Equal Rights Movement in Baltimore, 1935–1942,” Maryland Historical Magazine 89 (Fall 1994): 261–273.
14. “Dr. Lillie M. Jackson—Great American,” Baltimore CRC Newsletter, October–November 1969, folder CRC, box 550, 26, 9, BCA.
15. John Salmund, “My Mind Set on Freedom”: A History of the Civil Rights Movement (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1998), 88.
16. Enolia McMillan, interviewed by Richard Richardson, April 6, 1976, Governor Theodore McKeldin–Dr. Lillie May Jackson Project (hereafter McKeldin-Jackson Project), Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore (hereafter MHS).
17. Clarence M. Mitchell Jr., interviewed by Leroy Graham, July 29 and August 3, 1976, McKeldin-Jackson Project, MHS. See also Lillie M. Jackson to John Morsell, June 22, 1959, and “Biographical Sketch of Dr. Lillie M. Jackson,” folder “Baltimore, Maryland, July–Dec. 1959,” NAACP Branch Files, 1940–1955, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (hereafter LOC).
18. “Biographical Record: Juanita Jackson Mitchell,” n.d., folder 1, box, 2, collection 7, National Council of Negro Women Archive, Washington, DC; Juanita Jackson Mitchell, interviewed by Leroy Graham, July 29, 1976, and August 3, 1976, McKeldin-Jackson Project, MHS; and Denton Watson, Lion in the Lobby: Clarence Mitchell, Jr.’s Struggle for the Passage of Civil Rights Laws (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2002).
19. “Juanita Jackson Mitchell,” Sun, February 5, 2007, http://www.baltimoresun.com/features/bal-blackhistory-juanita-story.html.
20. Quoted in Olson, Baltimore, 368–369.
21. Evelyn T. Burrell, interviewed by Susan Conwell, June 25, 1976, McKeldin-Jackson Project, MHS; Editorial, “Let Freedom Ring,” Afro, May 2, 1942, 4; B. M. Phillips, “2,000 Join in March on Md. Capitol,” Afro, May 2, 1942, 1–2; “C-P, Transit Co. Officials Rebuff TWE Committee,” Afro, March 13, 1944, 1; “Transit Co. Hit at NAACP Meeting,” Afro, June 19, 1945, 1; “Pratt Library Case Won: Supreme Court Refuses Review,” Afro, October 9, 1945, 1; “Some of the Accomplishments of the Baltimore Branch of the NAACP,” multiple years, folder “Baltimore, Maryland, 1945,”NAACP Branch Files, 1940–1955, LOC; Editorial, “Police School a Help,” Afro, January 1, 1944, 4; and Smith, Here Lies Jim Crow.
22. Fred Rasmussen and Dewitt Bliss, “Troy Brailey, Champion for Civil Rights, Dies at 78,” Sun, October 7, 1994, 11B.
23. Ralph Pearson, “The National Urban League Comes to Baltimore,” Maryland Historical Magazine 70 (Winter 1977): 530–538; Nancy Weiss, The National Urban League, 1910–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 67–68; Amy Bentley, “Wages of War: The Shifting Landscape of Race and Gender in World War II Baltimore,” Maryland Historical Magazine 88 (Winter 1993): 423.
24. “Leader Dies While Honors Being Set,” Afro, February 14, 1970, 1.
25. Smith, Here Lies Jim Crow.
26. James Patterson, Grand Expectations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 58; and Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy and the Decline of Liberalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
27. Desmond King, Actively Seeking Work? The Politics of Unemployment and Welfare Policy in the United States and Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Robert Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005); and Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
28. “NAACP Wires President, Urging Permanent FEPC,” Afro, November 21, 1944; “NAACP Carries FEPC Fight to Washington,” and “6 Maryland Congressmen Seen by Associated Groups on FEPC,” newspaper articles, n.d., folder “Baltimore, Maryland, 1946,” NAACP Branch Files, 1940–1955, LOC; “Plea Made for Crusade for FEPC Legislation,” Afro, January 19, 1946, 1–2; and Dona Cooper Hamilton and Charles V. Hamilton, The Dual Agenda: Race and Social Welfare Policies of Civil Right Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 54–55.
29. Editorial, “Full Employment Possible,” Afro, August 21, 1945, 4.
30. “Report of NAACP Labor Department at the 38th Annual Conference in Washington, D.C.,” June 26, 1947, folder “Baltimore, Maryland, 1947,” NAACP Branch Files, 1940–1955, NAACP Papers, LOC; Watson, Lion in the Lobby, 152–156.
31. Warren M. Banner, A Review of the Program and Activities of the Baltimore Urban League and a Brief Analysis of Conditions in the Community Which It Serves (New York: National Urban League, October–November 1949), 45, 150.
32. Banner, Review, 45, 150. The Baltimore Urban League noted that African Americans were concentrated in the lowest four pay grades.
33. “Baltimore Steelworkers Remember,” in The Baltimore Book: New Views of Local History, ed. Elizabeth Fee, Linda Shopes, and Linda Zeidman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 178.
34. Mark Reutter, Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2005); and Karen Olson, Wives of Steel: Voices of Women from Sparrows Point Steelworking Communities (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2012).
35. Banner, Review, 16–17.
36. “Annual Report of Branch Activities—1951,” [1952], and “Annual Report of Branch Activities—1952,” [1953], folder “Baltimore, Maryland, 1953,” NAACP Branch Files, 1940–1955, Baltimore, LOC.
37. Margaret L. Callcott, The Negro in Maryland Politics, 1870–1912 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 101–138; and Argersinger, New Deal, 13–16.
38. “FEPC for Baltimore,” Afro, March 13, 1954, 17.
39. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
40. Shirley Kyle, “FEPC Hearings Set for Tuesday, 1 p.m.,” Afro, April 24, 1954, 1, 7; and “Council Chambers Packed at FEPC Hearings,” Afro, May 1, 1954, 28.
41. Shirley Kyle, “Tidbits,” Afro, June 19, 1954, 17.
42. Verda Welcome, as told to James M. Abraham, Verda Welcome: My Life and Times (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Henry House, 1991), 42.
43. Editorial, “Another Step Forward,” Afro, April 7, 1956, 4.
44. Editorial, “Time for Action,” Afro, May 18, 1957, 4.
45. Quoted in Olson, Wives of Steel, 105. See also MCIPR, American City in Transition, 72.
46. Quoted in Olson, Wives of Steel, 73.
47. MCIPR, American City in Transition, 61, 68; and Kenneth Durr, Behind the Backlash: White Working-Class Politics in Baltimore, 1940–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 80.
48. MCIPR, American City in Transition, 72.
49. Toward Equality: Baltimore’s Progress Report (Baltimore: Sidney Hollander Foundation, 1960), 63–64.
50. MCIPR, American City in Transition, 30–33, 67–68, 72, 76.
51. John C. Schmidt, “Negro Unemployment—What City Businessmen Are Doing About It,” Sun, September 27, 1964, D1. See also Hammer and Company Associates, “Economic Report on the Baltimore Region,” October 1964, 4–11, Department of Legislative Reference, City Hall, Baltimore; and Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
52. Hammer and Company, “Economic Report,” 5.
53. Callcott, Negro in Maryland Politics, 82–83; Durr, Behind the Backlash, 58; and Hammer and Company, “Economic Report,” 4–7, 81.
54. Kweisi Mfume, with Ron Stodghill II, No Free Ride: From the Mean Streets to the Mainstream (New York: Ballantine, 1996), 19.
55. Quoted in Stephen Tuck, We Ain’t What We Ought to Be (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 184; and “Houston Calls Wagner-Lewis Bill a ‘Sieve’: Workers Would Drop Through Its Holes, Says NAACP Man,” Afro, February 16, 1935, 6.
56. Welcome, Verda Welcome, 28.
57. Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: W. Morrow, 1984); Darlene Clarke Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible: A Reader in Black Women’s History (New York: New York University Press, 1995); and Nancy Folbre, The Invisible Heart: Economics and Family Values (New York: New Press, 2001).
58. Lizbeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage, 2003); and Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro, Black Wealth/ White Wealth (New York: Routledge, 1995).
59. Banner, Review, 197–198; and MCIPR, American City in Transition, 46, 49–50.
60. “Mother Rescuers Fight for More Welfare Help,” Afro, July 2, 1966 in Rhonda Y. Williams, “We’re Tired of Being Treated Like Dogs: Poor Women and Power Politics in Black Baltimore,” Journal of Black Studies and Research 31 (2001), 31–41.
61. The Afro-American began conducting clean block campaigns in 1935. See, for example, “37 Clean Block Captains to Receive Personal Gifts,” Afro, September 18, 1945, 23. See also Daniel Wilner et al., The Housing Environment and Family Life: A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Housing on Morbidity and Mental Health (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962), 76, 88, 110, 243; and Rhonda Williams, The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women’s Struggles Against Urban Inequality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
62. “School Board Faces Court Action: Citizens Condemn Segregation Here,” Afro, June 8, 1963, 1. See also Banner, Review, 145.
63. Terry, “Tramping,” 260–267.
64. One Hundred and Thirty-Sixth Annual Report of the Department of Health, 1950 (Baltimore: City of Baltimore, 1950), 348, 350, 377–379, 384.
65. During the postwar years, Maryland was exceptional in that it was one of only two states that provided subsidized medical assistance to some of its neediest residents. Ida Merriam and Laura Rosen, “Medical Care for Needy Persons in Maryland,” Social Security Bulletin 18, no. 11 (November 1955): 10–16.
66. Callcott, Negro in Maryland Politics, 151; “Interracial Report Given,” Sun, March 26, 1954, 10; “Urge All Social Agencies to Adopt Desegregation,” Afro, March 24, 1956, 32; and “Dixon Proposes Ban on Racial, Creed Bar,” Evening Sun, October 29, 1957, 44.
67. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage, 1986).
Chapter 2
1. “Goodman Wants EEOC to Start on City Jobs: Feels Some Bypass City Merit Lists,” Afro, January 23, 1960, 32.
2. Editorial, “A Good Starting Point,” Afro, October 27, 1956, 4.
3. “City Hall Job Slip Is Showing,” Afro, February 6, 1960, 1, 5.
4. Editorial, “City Job Picture,” Afro, February 6, 1960, 4.
5. James Patterson, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America’s Struggle over Black Family Life (New York: Basic, 2012).
6. Patterson, Freedom.
7. Quoted in Watson, Lion in the Lobby, 453.
8. “Biggest Day in Baltimore!” Afro, September 24, 1960, 1.
9. “Vote Registration Drive Moves into High Gear,” Afro, August 6, 1960, 5; “Hip, Hip Hurrah!” Afro, October 1, 1960, 4; “It’s Official Now 106,306 Eligible to Vote Nov. 8,” Afro, October 22, 1960, 1; and “It’s Kennedy: AFRO’s Choice for President,” Afro, October 29, 1960, 1.
10. “166 AFRO Precincts Give Nixon 24%,” Afro, November 12, 1960, 1; and Louis Lautier, “Colored Vote Called Margin of Victory,” Afro, November 12, 1960, 8.
11. Lyndon Johnson, “Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union,” January 8, 1964, LBJ Presidential Library, Austin, TX, http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/640108.asp.
12. Lyndon Johnson, “Remarks at the University of Michigan (May 22, 1964),” in Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism, ed. Bruce Schulman (Boston: St. Martin’s, 1995), 174–176.
13. Stein, Pivotal Decade.
14. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
15. Durr, Behind the Backlash, 199; Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); and Stein, Running Steel, Running America.
16. U.S. Department of Labor, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965).
17. Patterson, Freedom.
18. Chappell, War on Welfare; and Robert Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy Since the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 2013).
19. Julie Gallagher, Black Women in New York City Politics (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2014).
20. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 123; and John Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 83.
21. Emily Lieb, “’White Man’s Lane’: Hollowing Out the Highway Ghetto in Baltimore,” in Baltimore ’68: Riots and Rebirth in an American City, ed. Jessica Elfenbien, Elizabeth Nix, and Thomas Hollowack (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 51–69; Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Merchant of Illusion: James Rouse, America’s Salesman of the Businessman’s Utopia (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2004); Marc V. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment as an Urban Growth Strategy: A Critical Appraisal of the Baltimore Renaissance,” Journal of Urban Affairs 9, no. 2 (1987): 107.
22. Health and Welfare Council of the Baltimore Area, Inc., Social Welfare Planning in Baltimore City (Baltimore: Health and Welfare Council of the Baltimore Area, 1966), 9; and Theodore McKeldin to Thomas S. Nichols, August 18, 1964, folder “316. Poverty,” box 414, 25, 9, BCA.
23. Reverend Herbert O. Edwards to Harold C. Edelston, February 1, 1964, folder “Human Renewal Program 207,” box 395, 25, 9, BCA.
24. Melvin G. Roy to Theodore McKeldin, March 12, 1964, folder “316. Poverty,” box 414, 25, 9, BCA.
25. Walter T. Dixon to Theodore McKeldin, May 21, 1964, folder “Human Renewal Program 207,” box 395, 25, 9, BCA; “Itemized Budget, a Plan for Action on the Problems of Baltimore’s Disadvantaged People,” December 1964, and Theodore McKeldin to R. Sargent Shriver, November 25, 1964, folder “107 Community Action Commission Anti-Poverty Program (4),” box 378, 25, 9, BCA.
26. “Poverty Plan for City Rapped,” Sun, December 12, 1964, 32.
27. “Anti-Poverty Plan Backed,” Sun, December 18, 1964, 31.
28. Robert E. Hinton Jr., “Negro Leadership,” Sun, December 19, 1964, 12.
29. Quadagno, Color of Welfare.
30. “Four Negros in Council,” Sun, November 7, 1967, A1; and Welcome, Verda Welcome, 110–113.
31. Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, Power and Poverty: Theory and Practice (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 183, 195; and Frank L. Stanley Jr. to Whitney M. Young Jr., March 17, 1965, folder “Admin 1965, Baltimore, Maryland, BUL,” box 62, series I, National Urban League Part II, Library of Congress.
32. Ray Abrams, “Why Anti-Poverty Fight Lags,” Afro, November 20, 1965, C2; and Ronnie Goldberg, “The Politics of Local Government in Baltimore,” in Power and Poverty, ed. Bachrach and Baratz, 119, 180.
33. “Lively Joins Local 44 Field Staff; Predicts Victory Here,” Afro, December 7, 1968: 20.
34. Quoted in Bachrach and Baratz, Power and Poverty, 175.
35. Quoted in Bachrach and Baratz, Power and Poverty, 175–176.
36. Quoted in Allan Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 246.
37. Theodore McKeldin to R. Sargent Shriver Jr., November 26, 1965, and “News Release,” November 27, 1965, folder “107. Community Action Commission Community Action Poverty Program (1),” box 377, 25, 9, BCA.
38. Frank L. Stanley Jr. to Whitney M. Young Jr., March 17, 1965, folder “Admin 1965, Baltimore, Maryland, BUL,” box 62, series I, National Urban League Part II, Library of Congress; and Bachrach and Baratz, Power and Poverty, 183, 195.
39. Community Action Commission, “Minutes of Meeting,” October 5, 1965, folder “107 Community Action Commission Anti-Poverty Program (2),” box 377, 25, 9, BCA; Michael Stetz, “War Stories: A History of the Urban Services Agency,” City Paper, August 1, 1986, folder “(Dept.) Urban Services Agency,” box 940, SP, 9, BCA; and Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 162.
40. “2nd Member Sought for Welfare Board,” Afro, May 14, 1963, 20; and “A First: Public Housing Delegates to Meet Thursday,” Afro, October 1, 1968, 14.
41. Quoted in Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 171.
42. “2nd Member,” 20; “A First,” 14; and “Model Cities Feud,” Sun, May 28, 1968, C14.
43. Kay Mills, “City Advancing Toward Community Schools,” Evening Sun, December 4, 1967, B1.
44. “Mother Rescuers Fight for More Welfare Help,” Afro, July 2, 1966.
45. “Recommendations to the Mayor—Civil Rights Coalition Boards and Commissions,” January 9, 1968, folder “348 Civil Rights,” box 495, 26 McKeldin Papers (hereafter 26), 9, BCA.
46. Charlotte Minton to Thomas D’Alesandro, September 4, 1969, folder “270. Department of Public Welfare (2),” box 486, 26, 9, BCA.
47. “Mother Rescuers.” See also Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 194.
48. Michael Katz and Mark Stern, One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008).
49. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Governments, 1962, Vol. 3, No. 2, Compendium of Public Employment (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), 222; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Governments, 1967, Vol. 3, No. 2, Compendium of Public Employment (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), 238.
50. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 116.
51. See, for example, “Rec Dept. Bypasses Employee,” Afro, March 19, 1960, 1; and “Then What Is It?” Afro, April 2, 1960, 4.
52. “Municipal Notices,” Sun, March 2, 1964, 35.
53. “City Employment Practices—Some Recommendations,” Baltimore CRC Newsletter, February–March 1967, 2, folder “McK BCRC (2),” box 363, 25, 9, BCA; and CRC, “Survey—1977,” i.
54. Alan Lupo, “‘Why Us?’ for CORE Target, Officials Ask,” Evening Sun, April 15, 1966, D20.
55. “Minutes of the Mayor’s Task Force for Equal Rights Employment Subcommittee Meeting, Programs to Achieve Equality in Employment,” September 8, 1966, folder “387 Employment Committee, Mayor’s Task Force on Equal Rights,” box 502, MP, 9, BCA.
56. “Minutes of the Task Force,” September 8, 1966, and Mayor’s Task Force for Equal Rights, “Minutes,” March 20, 1967, April 28, 1967, and June 30, 1967, folder “1963–1967 Mayor McKeldin,” box 16, 4, 7, BCA. See also “Schmidt Denies Bias on Force,” Sun, April 20, 1968, 21; and Alan Lupo, “C.O.R.E. Asks Transfer of White City Foremen,” Evening Sun, July 19, 1966, B6.
57. Adam Spiegel, “Mayor Seeing Streamlined City Charter,” Evening Sun, December 16, 1967, 18.
58. Leon Sachs to Thomas D’Alesandro III, December 26, 1967, with “Recommendations Designed to Overcome Imbalance in Negro Municipal Employment,” folder “449. Mayor’s Advisory Committee on the CSC,” box 512, 26, 9, BCA.
59. Spiegel, “Mayor,” 18.
60. “Julian Hits Dixon, Urges Heavy Vote,” Afro, September 5, 1967, 16; Baltimore City Council, Journal of Proceedings of City Council of Baltimore at the Session of 1967–1971, Second Councilmanic Year, December, 1968–December, 1969 (Baltimore: Baltimore City Council, [n.d.]), 820; and “Many City Workers Live Outside,” Sunday Sun, March 14, 1971, C4.
61. James Griffin to G. V. Walters, June 7, 1966; G. V Walters to James Griffin, June 13, 1966; and Lawrence Ageloff to Bernard Werner, July 19, 1966, all folder “369 CORE,” box 199, 26, 9, BCA; Juanita Jackson Mitchell to Theodore McKeldin, August 16, 1966, folder “329 Black and White (1),” box 492, 26, 9, BCA; Thomas J. Murphy to Norman P. Ramsey, July 1967, folder “1967 General Correspondence (2),” box 9, 6, 7, BCA; David L. Glen to F. Pierce Linaweaver, September 29, 1969, folder “362 CRC (3),” box 498, 26, 9, BCA; and CRC, “Problems, Solutions and Gains,” n.d., folder “362 CRC (2),” box 498, 26, 9, BCA.
62. CRC, “Survey—1977,” i.
63. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1970 Census of the Population, Vol. 1: Characteristics of the Population, Part 22, Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 212, 347; and CRC, “Survey—1977,” i.
64. Nancy Naples, Grassroots Warriors: Activist Mothering, Community Work and the War on Poverty (New York: Routledge, 1998).
65. Lee Lassiter, “Welfare: Reform or Revolt—‘Income, Dignity, Democracy,’” Baltimore News-American (hereafter News-American), May 1, 1969, folder “Social Welfare,” Maryland Room, Vertical Files, Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore (hereafter MR, VF, EPFL).
66. Cleveland A. Chandler and Mainstream Associates, “Study of Equal Employment Opportunity in the Baltimore Metropolitan Area, Interim Report I,” July 28, 1967, 4, folder “Baltimore Community Relations Commission (2),” box 363, 25, 9, BCA.
67. Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 164.
68. Robert Blake, “Provident Head Quits, Joins City Hospitals,” Evening Sun, March 27, 1964, B12; Chandler and Mainstream, “Study of Equal Employment,” 8; “Pinderhughes Named: 3 Appointed to School Posts,” Afro, July 23, 1968, 1; Stephen J. Lynton, “Model Cities Funds Called Insufficient by Miss Lazarus,” Sun, May 21, 1968, C9; and “Ewing Acting Head of Giant BURHA,” Afro, October 10, 1967, 1.
69. “George L. Russell, Jr.—Biography,” Maryland State Archives, Annapolis, http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc3500/sc3520/011500/011548/html/11548bio.html; and Adam Speigel, “Linaweaver Named to Works Department,” Evening Sun, December 19, 1967, B28.
70. David Ahearn, “Women Wield Little Power at City Hall,” News-American, November 11, 1969, folder “Officials and Employees-Baltimore-1960-,” MR, VF, EPFL; “BURHA Names 2 Project Managers,” Afro, May 21, 1963, 20; Corinne E. Hammett, “Community School Idea Steams Ahead,” News-American, November 24, 1968, folder “Education-Baltimore 1955–1969,” MR, VF, EPFL; Marguerite Campbell to Maurice Harmon, May 26, 1971, folder “270 Department of Welfare (1),” box 486, 26, 9, BCA; “Mrs. Ferguson Named Service Coordinator,” Afro, October 29, 1968, 7.
71. Bureau of the Census, Census of Governments, 1962, 1967, 1972, Vol. 3, No. 2, Compendium of Public Employment (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963, 1969, 1974).
72. Jerome W. Mondesire, “Rise in Black City Workers Slowed to 1.1%, Report Shows,” Sun, April 18, 1974, C2.
73. Maryland Commission on Interracial Problems and Relations, “Survey of Non-White Employees, Summary Report on a Decade in Race Relations,” [1964], Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.
74. “100 Stage March on SS Building at Woodlawn,” Afro, May 28, 1964, 1. See also “Few Top $$ for Tan PO Employees,” Afro, May 21, 1963, 1–2; Furman Templeton and Clarence Mitchell III, “An Open Letter to SSA Employees,” Afro, May 23, 1964; Dr. Lillie May Jackson to Lyndon Johnson, August 20, 1963, and Robert M. Ball to Lillie May Jackson, August 24, 1963; Ralph Matthews Jr., “Can Social Security Clean House in 90 Days?” News-American, September 1963; all folder “PE-6-3-1 1963 Vc’s,” box 292, RG 47, Social Security Papers, National Archives, College Park, MD.
75. “At Social Security: Bob Johnson Thrives on Helping People in Need,” Afro, March 18, 1969, 5.
76. Department of Commerce, 1970 Census of Population, 212, 347.
77. Lynn C. Burbridge, “The Reliance of African American Women on Government and Third Sector Employment,” American Economic Review 84, no. 2 (May 1994): 104.
Chapter 3
1. Jewell Chambers, “CAA Sets War on Poverty War Foes,” Afro, October 24, 1967, 28; and “1,000 Rally in Protest of Cuts in Poverty War Funds,” Afro, November 7, 1967, 24.
2. Stephen J. Lynton, ‘Poverty Fighters Take Off for March on Capitol,” Sun, November 13, 1967, C20, C9.
3. “Poverty Marchers Return, Assured Protest Was Noted,” Sun, November 15, 1967, C6, C24.
4. Jewell Chambers, “Poverty Marchers Protesting Cuts,” Afro, November 14, 1967, 1–2; and “Poverty Marchers Return.”
5. Any Zanoni, “‘Working on Many Levels’: A History of Second Wave Feminism in Baltimore” (unpublished MA thesis, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 2013).
6. Peter J. Koper, “Emerging Force: ‘Student Power,’” Afro, May 4, 1968, 4; and Matthew Crenson, Baltimore: A Political History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017).
7. Quoted in Stetz, “War Stories.”
8. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics.
9. Fredrick P. McGehan, “City Agency on Nutrition Is Requested,” Sun, October, 15, 1968, C7; and “City’s Public Health Plans Called Confusing, Inefficient,” Sun, December 13, 1968, C24, C12.
10. Health and Welfare Council of Baltimore Area, Social Welfare Planning in Baltimore City, 11.
11. Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940–1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 183.
12. “Poverty War’s Peril Described,” Sun, November 29, 1967, C8.
13. “Mitchell, Parren James,” History, Art, and Archives, U.S. House of Representatives, http://history.house.gov/People/Detail?id=18367.
14. Abrams, “Why Anti-Poverty,” C2.
15. “CAA Goes for Tighter Control,” Afro, November 6, 1965, 1, B6.
16. “CAA Goes for Tighter Control,” 1.
17. Michael Ollove, Jerry Bembry, Abby Karp, David Simon, and Martin C. Evans, “Black in America: Moses Allen’s Pride Inspires Progeny,” Sun, April 7, 1988, A12.
18. R. B. Jones, “Urban Services Reassigns Family Services Workers,” Afro, March 29, 1986, 2.
19. Quoted in Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 163–164.
20. CAA, “Community Action Agency of Baltimore City: Summary Program Report,” January 1968, 15, folder “355 Community Action Agency (2),” box 497, 26, 9, BCA; Virginia Lee, Celestine Johnson, and Lloyd Taylor to Director, December 2, 1965, and Sanitation Committee to Jacob Bonnett, n.d., folder “107 CAC Community Action Poverty Program,” box 377, 25, 9, BCA; and “1969 AFRO Honor Roll,” Afro, March 7, 1970, 15.
21. “Mitchell Scores Neglect of Involvement of the Poor,” Afro, May 14, 1968, 28.
22. Daniel Drosdoff, “Anti-Poverty Staff Runs Rally,” Sun, February 7, 1967, C22.
23. Max Johnson, “Self-Help Program Wins Approval After Amendments,” Afro, February 18, 1967, 14.
24. Johnson, “Self-Help Program,” 14. In a bid to win Black votes, three white political candidates advertised their previous support for Self-Help Housing in the Afro-American. “Our Fight for Civil Rights Is a Matter of Record!” Afro, August 5, 1967, 8 (emphasis in the original).
25. Stetz, “War Stories.”
26. Stephen J. Lynton, ‘Model Cities Funds Called Insufficient by Miss Lazarus,” Sun, May 21, 1968, C9; “Model Cities Feud Goes On,” Sun, May 28, 1968, C14; and Stetz, “War Stories.”
27. “‘Awards’ Meeting,” Afro, April 16, 1955, 14; and Melody Holmes, “Pearl Cole Brackett, 83, Rose Through the School System,” Sun, August 18, 2000, http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2000-08-18/news/0008180034_1_brackett-baltimore-school-baltimore-chapter.
28. Corinne E. Hammett, “Community School Idea Steams Ahead,” News-American, November 24, 1968, folder “Education-Baltimore 1955–1969,” MR, VF, EPFL.
29. Hammett, “Community School”; and James D. Dilts, “Guitar, Ping Pong, and a Dream: Baltimore’s Community Schools Are a Focal Point for a Better Life,” Sun, April 18, 1971, 6.
30. “Mrs. Ferguson Named Service Coordinator,” Afro, October 29, 1968, 7; and Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 179.
31. Fred Rasmussen, “Slain Civil Rights Activist Mourned by Civic Leaders: Marguerite Campbell Died at Her Home,” Sun, November 10, 1995, B1; and Raul Evans, “Mrs. Campbell Slated for ‘Prime Plum Post,’” Afro, November 20, 1971, 21.
32. See, for example, Thomas D’Alesandro to Marguerite Campbell, March 20, 1968; Marguerite J. Campbell to William D. Schaefer, July 3, 1968; Marguerite J. Campbell to Louis Zawatzky, November 19, 1968; Marguerite Campbell to Herbert Katzenberger, October 3, 1969; and “The Enquirer Salutes …” Maryland Enquirer, December 1969, 1, all in folder “23. Marguerite Campbell Community Relations Specialist,” box 450, 26, 9, BCA. See also Marguerite Campbell to Joseph Smith, March 31, 1970, folder “329 Black and White (3),” box 492, 26, 9, BCA.
33. Morton S. Baratz, “The Community Action Program in Baltimore City, 1965–1967,” in Bachrach and Baratz, Power and Poverty, 194–195.
34. Lee Lassiter, “Welfare: Reform or Revolt—‘Income, Dignity, Democracy,’” News-American, May 1, 1969, folder “Social Welfare,” MR, VF, EPFL.
35. “Mothers on Welfare Tell of Their Troubles,” Afro, September 6, 1966, 1, 23.
36. “Welfare Mothers Sleep-In at DPW,” Afro, May 13, 1969, 13; and “Welfare Sit-In Protests Delays,” Sun, May 13, 1969, C13.
37. B. T. Bentley, “Parren Mitchell: ‘We Can Do More,’” Evening Sun, February 5, 1986, 15; Bradford Jacobs, “Mitchells of the Middle,” Evening Sun, September 28, 1965, A20; Stephen J. Lynton, “Mitchell Announces Resignation,” Sun, June 26, 1968, C7, C24; CAA, “Summary Program Report”; and Chambers, “Poverty Marchers Protesting Cuts.”
38. Thomas J. D’Alesandro III to James F. Garrett, January 15, 1970, and Maurice A. Harmon to Thomas D’Alesandro III, February 3, 1970, folder “270 Department of Public Welfare (2),” box 486, 26, 9, BCA; and Stephen J. Lynton, “Mandel Urged to Increase Welfare Grants,” Sun, March 11, 1969, C6.
39. Stephen J. Lynton, “Cost of War Cutting City Poverty Aid,” Sun, May 3, 1967, C28.
40. Daniel Drosdoff, “Jobs Proposal, Legal Aid Voted,” Sun, May 18, 1966, C30; and Stephen J. Lynton, “Housing Aid Urged on City,” Sun, August 15, 1967, C14.
41. Helen Henry, “Welfare Boss Leads a Crowded Life,” Sun, September 3, 1967, C1.
42. Henry, “Welfare Boss.”
43. “2 Speak Out on Welfare,” Sun, January 21, 1969, C13.
44. “Social Aides Ask 25% Raise,” Sun, December 19, 1968, A17.
45. Lassiter, “Welfare: Reform or Revolt.”
46. “Fredrick P. McGehan, “City Agency on Nutrition Is Requested,” Sun, October, 15, 1968, C7; and “City’s Public Health Plans Called Confusing, Inefficient,” Sun, December 13, 1968, C24, C12.
47. McGehan, “City Agency,” C7.
48. “W.S. Grants for Expectant Mothers,” Afro, May 9, 1964, 15.
49. Bill Sykes to William Donald Schaefer, July 23, 1974, folder “Mayor’s Office of Human Resources,” box 410, 26, 9, BCA.
50. “Work-Incentive Cut Is Criticized,” Sun, June 26, 1968, C24.
51. Harris Chaiklin, Richard Sterne, and Paul J. Ephross, “Community Organization and Services to Improve Family Living II” (Baltimore: University of Maryland School of Social Work Research Center, June 1969), frontispiece.
52. Baltimore City Department of Social Services, “An Evaluation of the Effect of Decentralization on the Delivery of Income Maintenance and Social Services,” (Baltimore: Department of Social Services, November 1974), 17; and George J. Washnis, Municipal Decentralization and Neighborhood Resources: Case Studies of Twelve Cities (New York: Praeger, 1972).
53. Stetz, “War Stories.”
54. Daniel Drosdoff, “Local Legal Aid Office Opens,” Sun, February 1, 1967, C24; and “Bar Unit Told Poor Receive Justice Without Legal Aid,” Sun, February 11, 1966, C6.
55. Drosdoff, “Local Legal Aid,” C24.
56. Stephen J. Lynton, “Legal Aid Bureau to Offer Help to Indigent Groups,” Sun, November 21, 1968, C10.
57. Helen Henry, “The Life and Times of a Welfare Worker,” Sun, February 7, 1965, FY1.
58. Quoted in Martha J. Bailey and Sheldon Danziger, “Legacies of the War on Poverty,” in Legacies of the War on Poverty, ed. Martha J. Bailey and Sheldon Danziger (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2013).
59. “Welfare Agency Lacks Medicare Staff,” Sun, June 11, 1966, B20.
60. Whitney B. Smyth, “Druid Health Center Well Received,” Sun, n.d., folder “Baltimore-Health Department-Druid Hill District,” MR, VF, EPFL.
61. “City’s Public Health Plans Called Confusing, Inefficient,” Sun, December 13, 1968, C24, C12.
62. “The Meal the Mayor Wouldn’t Eat,” July 15, 1966, folder “Poverty/Rights Action Center: The Birth of a Movement,” box 19, 27, 10, National Council of Negro Women Papers, Bethune House, Washington, DC.
63. “The Meal,” NCNW Papers; Stetz, “War Stories”; and Williams, Politics of Public Housing.
64. Health and Welfare Council of the Baltimore Area, Social Welfare Planning in Baltimore City; CAA, “Summary Program Report.”
65. James R. Conant, “Slum ‘Hangover’ Hampers Life in Housing Areas,” Evening Sun, May 26, 1962, A1, A6; “Council Speeds Bill for Riot Overtime Pay,” Sun, May 21, 1968, C8; CAA, “Summary Program Report,” 5–6; and Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 163.
66. “Poor Deplore Slum Services,” Sun, December 15, 1967, C14.
67. Community Action Agency, “Community Action Agency,” folder “355 Community Action Agency (2),” box 497, 26, 9, BCA.
68. On residents’ concerns about sanitation and housing, see Marguerite J. Campbell to William D. Schaefer, July 3, 1968, folder “23. Marguerite Campbell Community Relations Specialist,” box 450, 26, 9, BCA; “Comment: Public Relations (Social Welfare Style) Can Have Devastating By-Products,” CRC Newsletter, August–September 1969, 4, folder “362 Community Relations Commission (2),” box 498, 26, 9, BCA; and Sanitation Committee to Jacob Bonnett, n.d., folder “107 CAC Community Action Anti-Poverty Program (6),” box 377, 25, 9, BCA.
69. Annelise Orleck, Storming Caesars Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty (Boston: Beacon, 2005).
Chapter 4
1. Quoted in Michael Honey, Going Down Jericho Road (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 298.
2. “City Workers Plan to Take Strike Vote,” Sun, September 3, 1968, C18.
3. “City Workers Plan.”
4. Windham, Knocking on Labor’s Door; and Eileen Boris and Jennifer Klein, Caring for America: Home Healthcare Workers in the Shadow of the Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
5. Calvin L. Fleet to Howard W. Jackson, September 2, 1938, folder “D-1-1137 (2),” box 234, 20, 9, BCA.
6. Joseph E. Slater, Public Workers: Government Employee Unions, the Law, and the State, 1900–1962 (Ithaca, NY: IRL, 2004).
7. “Wasted Experience,” Sun, February 10, 1960, 16.
8. Bob Hastings to Tom Morgan, August 11, 1959, folder “12 Organizing by State, Maryland, August 1957–October 1961,” box 85, AFSCME President Zander Collection, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University Detroit (hereafter Reuther); Henry L. Trewhitt, “Union on Move into State Jobs,” Sun, January 17, 1961, 36; William MacNeil, “A Union’s Role in the Federal Government,” Oasis 20, no. 6, (June 1960): 12; and John Walsh, Labor Struggles in the Post Office: From Selective Lobbying to Collective Bargaining (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992).
9. “City Employees—Know Your CMEA,” Hall Light, June 1961, 1; and “Kowzan Resents ‘Outside’ Union,” Sun, January 22, 1960, 40.
10. “Wars Have Always Benefited Colored, Templeton Tells Municipal Employees,” Afro, April 25, 1942, 10; and Elizabeth Reitze to Theodore McKeldin, November 17, 1964, folder “291 Pension Study Committee,” box 409, 25, 9, BCA.
11. “Revision of CMEA By-Laws,” Hall Light (September 1954): 1–2; and “Hearing of Importance to Membership,” Hall Light, April 1960, 1.
12. “Firemen’s Union Seen as Biased,” Sun, May 31, 1960, 30; “Firemen Admitted to Union Protest Back-Dues Penalty,” Afro, July 30, 1960, 1, 3; and “Urban Unit Backs Union Bid to Negro Firefighters,” Morning Sun, August 2, 1960, 19.
13. “‘We Won’t Pay It’: Firemen Reject $25 Penalty,” Afro, August 6, 1960, 1–2; “D.C. Parley Hears Charges of Bias in City Fire Union,” Sun, February 19, 1961, 20; and Frank Somerville, “Firefighters in Agreement,” Sun, May 9, 1961, 38.
14. Raymond Clarke, interview with Jane Berger, Baltimore, April 18, 2007; “Maryland AFSCME Salute to Raymond H. Clarke,” May 25, 1976, folder “12 Maryland Council No. 67 1976,” box 129, AFSCME Collection President Wurf (hereafter Wurf); and Adam K. Jenkins, “Arena Players Score Hit in Satire/Drama,” Afro, May 9, 1962, 15.
15. “P. J. Ciampa: AFSMCE Loses a Leader,” Public Employee (October 1981): 7; Ernest Crofoot, interview with Jane Berger, Baltimore, July 8, 2006.
16. Richard Frank, “City Union Asks $4 Million in Hike, Benefits,” Evening Sun, June 22, 1960, 62; “Union Asks City Employee Plan,” Sun, December 17, 1962, 26; John Calvert (President Local 44) to Theodore McKeldin, May 9, 1963, and June 18, 1963, folder “434 Unions,” box 439, 25, 9, BCA; AFSCME, AFL-CIO Local 44, “Proposal Concerning Employee Relations in Baltimore, Md.,” September 4, 1964, folder “AFSCME,” MR, VF, EPFL; P. J. Ciampa to Theodore R. McKeldin, January 14, 1965, folder “293 Personnel Policy and Salary Advisory Committee (3),” box 409, 25, 9, BCA; “City, County Employees Eye Strikes,” News-American, May 23, 1966; “City Workers Want Pay Talks,” Sun, July 1, 1966, C15; and Letter to Theodore McKeldin from Raymond Clarke and Ernest Crofoot, September 30, 1966, folder “Unions,” box 376, 25, 9, BCA.
17. Crofoot, interview with Berger.
18. Personnel Policy and Salary Advisory Board, “News Release,” September 7, 1964, folder “293 Personnel Policy and Salary Advisory Committee,” box 409, 25, 9, BCA.
19. Joseph C. Goulden, Jerry Wurf: Labor’s Last Angry Man (New York: Atheneum, 1982); William Serrin, “A Leader for the Little Guy,” New York Times, September 12, 1982, section 7, 14; Joseph Hower, “Jerry Wurf, the Rise of AFSMCE, and the Fate of Labor Liberalism, 1947–1981” (PhD dissertation, Georgetown University, 2013); and “William Lucy,” NAACP website, http://www.naacp.org/preview/pages/board-member-william-lucy.
20. See, for example, “More Planning Needed to Restore Our Cities,” Public Employee (January 1968): 10; Tom Castor, “SCME Probes Welfare Plans,” Public Employee (November 1969): 9; and Hower, “Jerry Wurf.” See also Joseph McCartin, “Bringing the State’s Workers In: Time to Rectify an Imbalanced U.S. Labor History,” Labor History 47, no. 1 (February 2006): 73–94.
21. David C. Goeller, “School Wage Boost Urged,” Sun, July 12, 1965, S20.
22. Gerald Clark, “Teachers Militant,” Sun, June 30, 1964, 14; and Marjorie Murphy, Blackboard Unions: The AFT and the NEA, 1900–1980 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992).
23. Lowell E. Sunderland, “Teachers Offer School Program,” Sun, July 29, 1965, 46, 30.
24. Gene Oishi, “C.O.R.E., Teachers Union Opening Freedom School,” Sun, July 15, 1966, C12; Oishi, “Union to Aid in Boycott by Teachers,” Sun, January 14, 1967, B18; Rolland Dewing, “The American Federation of Teachers and Desegregation,” Journal of Negro Education 42, no. 1 (Winter 1973), 79–92; and Jon Hale, Freedom Schools: Student Activists in the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 87–88.
25. Public School Teachers Association, “Sanctions in Action,” [1966], folder “Education-Baltimore 1955–1969,” MR, VF, EPFL; and George Rodgers, “What’s Behind School Row?” Evening Sun, January 16, 1967, B28.
26. Baltimore Department of Education, “Press Release Accompanying Its Response,” November 19, 1967, folder “Education-Baltimore 1955–1969,” MR, VF, EPFL.
27. Department of Education, “Press Release.”
28. “A Community of Interests,” Oasis 25, no. 6 (June 1965): 8.
29. “Here and There,” Oasis 21, no. 3 (March 1961): 27; “Two Years Later,” Oasis 24, no. 6 (June 1964): 11–13; “Promotion Plan Agreement Signed,” Government Standard (July 31, 1964): 1; and “Postal Unions Get Formal Recognition,” Afro, April 16, 1963, 5.
30. Kenneth Rabben, “Teachers’ Union Demands Election to Choose Local 340 or NEA,” News-American, December 2, 1966, folder “Jan.–Mar. 1967,” box 139, series IV, Commission on Government Efficiency and Economy (hereafter CGEE), University of Baltimore Special Collections and Archives (hereafter UB); Gene Oishi, “Union Irked by Decision on Arrest,” Sun, May 11, 1967, 1; Kay Mills, “‘Joke of the Year,’ Unionist Says of School Agreement,” Sun, December 7, 1967, C7; and “Crosby Outlines BTU Goals,” News-American, August 25, 1968, folder “1968,” box 139, series IV, CGEE, UB.
31. “State Unionists Push Labor Law,” Sun, January 30, 1968, C6; Bentley Orrick, “Della Pushes for a Public Strike Right,” Sun, February 28, 1968, C22; and Betty Miller, “Defeat in Maryland, Prelude to Victory,” Public Employee (February 1968): 11.
32. Harold Shaw, interview with Jane Berger, Baltimore, August 9, 2006.
33. Kathy Kraus, “His Job: Grappling with City Labor Problems,” News-American, July 11, 1968, folder “1968,” box 139, IV, CGEE, UB.
34. Laurie B. Green, “Race, Gender and Labor in 1960s Memphis: ‘I AM A MAN’ and the Meaning of Freedom,” Journal of Urban History 30, no. 3 (2005): 465–489; and Laurie B. Green, Plantation Mentality (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). See also Honey, Jericho Road.
35. Honey, Jericho Road.
36. Quoted in John Nichols, “MLK: ‘Our Struggle Is for Genuine Equality, Which Means Economic Equality,” Nation, January 29, 2014, https://www.thenation.com/article/mlk-our-struggle-genuine-equality-which-means-economic-equality/.
37. Green, Plantation Mentality; and Honey, Jericho Road.
38. Peter B. Levy, “The Dream Deferred: The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Holy Week Uprisings of 1968,” in Baltimore ’68, ed. Jessica I. Elfenbein, Thomas L. Hollowak, and Elizabeth M. Nix (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 3–25; and Mayor Thomas D’Alesandro III, Fraser Smith, interviewer, May 2007, Baltimore 68: Riots and Rebirth Collection, University of Baltimore, http://archives.ubalt.edu/bsr/oral-histories/transcripts/dalesandro.pdf.
39. Quoted in Jonna McKone and Sheilah Kast, “Coretta Scott King’s Visit to Baltimore for Economic Justice,” Maryland Morning, WYPR, aired January 19, 2005, http://www.wypr.org/post/coretta-scott-kings-visit-baltimore-economic-justice.
40. “Strike Averted,” Sun, December 10, 1969, 20A; and Greg Michael, “‘Union Power, Soul Power’: Unionizing Johns Hopkins University Hospital, 1959–1974,” Labor History 5, no. 2 (1996): 28–66.
41. Kraus, “His Job.”
42. Robert A. Erlandson, “Street, Sewer Workers Join Trash Strike,” Sun, September 6, 1968, A1.
43. “Not to Be Tolerated,” Sun, September 4, 1968, A10.
44. Erlandson, “Street, Sewer Workers.”
45. Stephen J. Lynton, “Rights Heads Back Strike,” Sun, September 7, 1968, A9.
46. “Strike Settlement,” Sun, September 10, 1968, A12; “Mayor Will Sign Labor Bill Today,” Sun, September 30, 1968, C20, C10; and “Baltimore Local 44 Sweeps Four Elections for 10,000,” Public Employee (December 1968): 10.
47. “City’s Union Voting Is Led by Local 44,” Sun, November 27, 1968, C24; “Local 44 Wins Public Works,” Evening Sun, November 28, 1968, D3; John B. O’Donnell Jr., “Local 44 Picked as Agent in School Workers’ Election,” Sun, December 11, 1969, C28.
48. Windham, Knocking on Labor’s Door; Dorothy Sue Cobble, The Other Women’s Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); and Boris and Klein, Caring for America.
49. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive.
50. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
51. Velsa M. Weaver, “Frontlash: Race and the Development of Punitive Crime Policy,” Studies in American Political Development 21, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 230–265; and Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 19.
52. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 11–26; Michael Lewis, “Easy Answers to Curb Crime Rates Not Available, Officials Report,” Evening Sun, February 13, 1968, C24, C3; and Oswald Johnston, “FBI Report Show Record Rise in Crime,” Sun, March 15, 1968, A6.
53. Lewis, “Easy Answers”; and Alan Lupo, “Boston Model Cities Tests Self-Government,” Sun, December 29, 1968, K3.
54. Quoted in Weaver, “Frontlash,” 254.
55. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 63–133.
56. Durr, Behind the Backlash; and Antero Pietila, Not in My Neighborhood: How Bigotry Shaped a Great American City (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2010).
57. Harry B. How Jr. to Theodore McKeldin, July 27, 1967, folder “111 Concentrated Employment Program (2),” box 378, 25, 9, BCA.
58. Kathy Kraus, “City Payroll up 1,000 Yearly: Adding New Employees as 3,000 Move Out,” News-American, December 4, 1967, folder “Officials and Employees-Baltimore-1960-,” MR, VF, EPFL. See also Commission on Governmental Efficiency and Economy, “Municipal Payroll Growth,” June 1965, folder “Officials and Employees-Baltimore-1960-,” MR, VF, EPFL.
59. “George Mahoney, 87, Maryland Candidate,” New York Times, March 21, 1989, B8.
60. Quoted in Levy, “Dream Deferred,” 16.
61. Quoted in Alex Csicsek, “Spiro T. Agnew and the Burning of Baltimore,” in Elfenbein, Hollowak, and Nix, eds., Baltimore ’68, 73.
62. “Leaders Hit Agnew’s Nerve,” Afro, April 13, 1968, 1.
63. Quoted in Csicsek, “Spiro T. Agnew,” 76.
64. Quoted in Csicsek, “Spiro T. Agnew.” 76.
65. “Agnew Insults Leaders,” Afro, April 13, 1986, 1.
66. “All About, Ted Baby,” Afro, April 13, 1968, 4.
67. “Agnew Says Strikers Err,” Sun, September 8, 1968, 1.
68. “An Ill-Considered Strike,” News-American, September 6, 1968, folder “1968,” box 139, IV, CGEE, UB.
69. Stephen J. Lynton, “Resignation Announced by Mitchell,” Sun, June 26, 1968, C24, C7.
70. Robert A. Erlandson, “Who Was the Real Target of the Council’s Vote—the Mayor or Carter?” Sun, October 6, 1968, K1.
71. Erlandson, “Who Was the Real Target?”
72. Robert A. Erlandson, “Carter Appointment as Antipoverty Chief Rejected by Council,” Sun, October 1, 1968, C28, C11; and “Council Kills Carter Appointment to CAA Post,” Afro, October 1, 1968, 1.
73. Thomas D’Alesandro to Mrs. Mildred Dickerson, October 22, 1968, and “Statement by the Staff of the Community Action Agency on the Resignation of the Twelve (12) Members,” n.d., folder “598 Community Action Agency Resignations,” box 530, 26, 9, BCA.
74. Erlandson, “Carter Appointment.”
75. “Mayor Opens New Efforts for Carter,” Sun, October 2, 1968, C24.
76. “Mayor Opens New Efforts.”
77. “Carter Describes Council as Controlled by ‘Racists,’” Sun, October 11, 1968, C8.
78. “Mayor Opens New Efforts.”
79. “Preface,” in Elfenbein, Hollowak, and Nix, eds., Baltimore ’68, xvii; and Durr, Behind the Backlash.
Chapter 5
1. Fred Barbash, “Welfare Workers Tackle a System That Failed Them,” Sun, August 10, 1971, C16.
2. Barbash, “Welfare Workers.”
3. Quoted in Sharon Perlman Krefetz, Welfare Policy Making and City Politics (New York: Praeger, 1976), 119.
4. Barbash, “Welfare Workers.”
5. “Social Workers Union to Investigate Assaults,” Sun, September 9, 1972, B6; and “Many Children from City Expected at Welfare Protest,” Sun, March 22, 1972, A9.
6. Fred Barbash, “Analysis: Welfare Mess Lies in Faulty Paper-Pushings, Miscast Workers,” Sun, November 12, 1971, C9.
7. “City Official Lashes Job Training Freeze,” Evening Sun, January 6, 1973, 18.
8. Urban Services Agency, “Baltimore Model Cities Final Evaluation Report 1968–1974,” no folder, box 485, SP, 9, BCA; “A Mayor Looks at Model Cities,” n.d., folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA; and Stetz, “War Stories.”
9. “Model City Plan Ready for Action,” Afro, December 3, 1968, 26; Albert Williams to Mayor Schaefer et al., October 27, 1972, folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA; Charles R. Kochakian, “Model Cities Invests in Inner-City Children,” Sun, November 4, 1970, A11; Urban Services Agency, “Baltimore Model Cities Report”; and Jimmy Carter, “A Nomination of William G. Sykes to Be Peace Corps Deputy Director,” September 19, 1979, American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/peace-corps-nomination-william-g-sykes-be-deputy-director.
10. Bill Sykes to William Donald Schaefer, July 23, 1974, folder “Mayor’s Office of Human Resources,” box 410, SP, 9, BCA.
11. Isaac Rehert, “Free Care Isn’t Just for Poor,” Sun, May 11, 1976, B1.
12. Jerome W. Mondesire, “State Welfare Officials Call New Workfare Laws ‘Unworkable,’” Sun, December 28, 1972, A11.
13. Fred Barbash, “Social Work Made More Social,” Sun, March 15, 1971, C14.
14. Barbash, “Social Work.”
15. Lisa Levenstein, Movement Without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
16. Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Businessmen’s Crusade Against the New Deal (New York: Norton, 2010); Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Jonathan Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
17. Quoted in Durr, Behind the Backlash, 181. See also Shelton, Teacher Strike!
18. See, for example, Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Dan Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics, 2nd ed. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000); Thomas Edsall and Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: Norton, 1992); and Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2009).
19. Quoted in Walker Newell, “The Legacy of Nixon, Reagan and Horton: How the Tough on Crime Movement Enabled a New Regime of Race-Influenced Employment Discrimination,” Berkeley Journal of African American Law and Policy 15, no. 1 (January 2013): 15.
20. [Richard Nixon], “Richard Nixon Acceptance Speech,” aired August 8, 1968, C-SPAN, https://www.c-span.org/video/?4022-2/richard-nixon-1968-acceptance-speech.
21. CBS News, Face the Nation, aired October 27, 1968, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5CHELZAZW18.
22. Nixon, “Acceptance Speech.”
23. López, Dog Whistle Politics. See also Carter, Politics of Rage; Perlstein, Nixonland; and Alexander, New Jim Crow, 40–48.
24. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
25. C. Fraser Smith, William Donald Schaefer: A Political Biography (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Welcome, Verda Welcome; Kevin O’Keeffe, Baltimore Politics 1971–1986: The Schaefer Years and the Struggle for Succession (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1986); G. James Fleming, Baltimore’s Failure to Elect a Black Mayor in 1971 (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies, 1972).
26. Smith, William Donald Schaefer; Welcome, Verda Welcome; and Fleming, Baltimore’s Failure.
27. Fleming, Baltimore’s Failure.
28. Fleming, Baltimore’s Failure.
29. Smith, William Donald Schaefer.
30. Marion Orr, “Baltimore: The Limits of Mayoral Control,” in Mayors in the Middle: Politics, Race and Mayoral Control of Urban Schools, ed. Jeffrey R. Henig and Wilbur C. Rich (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 27–58; and Smith, William Donald Schaefer.
31. Tom Chalkley, “The City That Builds,” City Paper, November 12, 2003; and Editorial, “Sun Endorsements for Schaefer, Clarke, Douglass,” Sun, August 28, 1983, K6.
32. “Mayor Looks at Model Cities,” BCA.
33. Between 1950 and 1977, the median income of the city’s residents fell from 98 percent to 68 percent of the median suburban income. Callcott, Negro in Maryland Politics, 84; United States Commission on Civil Rights, United States Commission on Civil Rights, “Staff Report: Demographic, Economic, Social and Political Characteristics of Baltimore City and Baltimore County,” August 1970, B9, folder “348. Civil Rights,” box 495, SP, 9, BCA; and “Statement of Hon. William Donald Schaefer, Mayor of Baltimore, MD,” in Revenue Sharing: Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972), 297–300.
34. Smith, William Donald Schaefer.
35. John Ruggie, “International Regimes, Transactions and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Order,” International Organization 36, no. 2 (Spring 1982): 379–415.
36. Kevin Boyle, “The Price of Peace: Vietnam, the Pound, and the Crisis of American Empire” Diplomatic History 27, no. 1 (January 2003): 37–72; Michael Mastanduno, “System Maker and Privilege Taker: U.S. Power and the International Political Economy,” World Politics 61, no. 1 (January 2009): 121–154; Eric Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); and Joanne Gowa, Closing the Gold Window (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
37. Joseph C. Mills, “The International Monetary Crisis and Its Implications for Malawi,” Society of Malawi Journal 25, no. 1 (January 1972): 26.
38. David Calleo, The Imperious Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); and Peter Gowan, The Global Gamble: Washington’s Faustian Bid for World Dominance (London: Verso, 1999).
39. David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Ronald Cox and Daniel Skidmore-Hess, U.S. Politics and the Global Economy: Corporate Power, Conservative Shift (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999); and Robert W. Burchell et al., The New Reality of Municipal Finance: The Rise and Fall of the Intergovernmental City (New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1984), 236–239.
40. Burchell, New Reality, 236–239; John Woodruff, “Schaefer Reviews Plan to Lay Off City Employees,” Sun, December 16, 1974, C14; Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 108; and Charles Levine, Irene Rubin, and George Wolohojian, The Politics of Retrenchment: How Local Governments Manage Fiscal Stress (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981), 134.
41. Julian Brash, “Invoking Fiscal Crisis,” Social Text 21 (2003): 59–83.
42. Brash, “Invoking Fiscal Crisis”; Joshua B. Freeman, Working Class New York (New York: New Press, 2000); and Kim Phillips-Fein, Fear City: New York’s Fiscal Crisis and the Rise of Austerity Politics (New York: Metropolitan, 2017).
43. Janet Hoffman to the President and Members of the Baltimore City Council, December 9, 1975, folder “New York City Crisis,” box 283, SP, BCA; and Editorial, “One Crisis Baltimore Can Sit Out,” Sun, October 16, 1975, A18.
44. “Baltimore: New Breed of City,” Forbes, September 16, 1976, advertisement, p. 8.
45. Mollenkopf, Contested City; Katharyne Mitchell and Katherine Beckett, “Securing the Global City: Crime, Consulting, Risk, and Ratings in the Production of Urban Space,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 15, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 75–99; Timothy J. Sinclair, “Between State and Market: Hegemony and Institutions of Collective Action Under Conditions of Capital Mobility,” Policy Science 27 (1994): 447–446; and Daniel Rubinfelds, “Credit Ratings and the Market for General Obligation Municipal Bonds,” National Tax Journal 26, no. 1 (March 1973): 17–27.
46. Peter S. Fisher, “Corporate Tax Incentives: The American Version of Industrial Policy,” Journal of Economic Issues 19, no. 1 (March 1985): 1–19.
47. Fisher, “Corporate Tax Incentives”; and Robert O. Self, “Californian’s Industrial Garden: Oakland and the East Bay in the Age of Deindustrialization,” in Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of Deindustrialization, ed. Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 159–180.
Chapter 6
1. Weldon Wallace, “The Trouble with Welfare Is That There’s Perpetual Crisis,” Sun, July 29, 1974, B1.
2. “Maude Harvey, First Black Woman to Head Social Services, Dies,” Sun, July 6, 1981, A8.
3. Wallace, “Trouble with Welfare.”
4. See, for example, Maude Harvey to Richard A. Batterton, September 9, 1976, folder “Human Resources Childcare,” box 251, SP, 9, BCA; Maude Harvey to Elizabeth Hight, January 30, 1975, folder “Social Services 1973–1975,” box 160, SP, 9, BCA; and Quenton Lawson to Maude S. Harvey, March 8, 1976, folder “Social Services 1976,” box 437, SP, 9, BCA.
5. Jerome W. Mondesire, “City Welfare Critics’ Statistics Faulty,” Sun, April 5, 1974, D4.
6. “Transcript of President’s State of the Union Message to Joint Session of Congress,” New York Times, January 23, 1971, 12; and Timothy Conlan, From New Federalism to Devolution: Twenty-Five Years of Intergovernmental Reform (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1998).
7. “Transcript,” 12. Also on New Federalism, see Mark Blyth, Great Transformations: Economic Ideas and Institutional Change in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
8. “Transcript,” 12.
9. Revenue Sharing: Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972). See also Conlan, From New Federalism; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics; Patrick Larkey, Evaluating Public Programs: The Impact of General Revenue Sharing on Municipal Government (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); Bruce Wallin, From Revenue Sharing to Deficit Sharing: General Revenue Sharing and Cities (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1998); and Deil Wright, “Policy Shifts in the Politics and Administration of Intergovernmental Relations, 1930s–1990s,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509, no. 1 (May 1990): 60–72.
10. “Wilkins Speaks: Nixon’s Devastating Plan,” Afro, November 19, 1968, 4. See also Whitney Young, “To Be Equal: War on Poverty Fights for Life,” Afro, March 4, 1969, 4; Young, “‘Black Capitalism’ No Poverty Cure,” Afro, April 29, 1969, 30.
11. Hearings Before the Committee on Ways and Means House of Representatives (Washington: DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1971), 218.
12. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics.
13. “Mitchell Scores Nixon’s Plan,” Sun, February 15, 1971, C16.
14. “Statement of Jerry Wurf,” in Revenue Sharing: Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, 189–209.
15. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, Special Revenue Sharing: An Analysis of the Administration’s Grant Consolidation Proposals (Washington, DC: United States Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1971); Conlan, From New Federalism; and Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics.
16. Weaver, “Frontlash”; and Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White.
17. Donald Haider, “Intergovernmental Redirection,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 466, no. 1 (March 1983): 165–178.
18. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 271–286; Deil Wright, “Revenue Sharing and Structural Features of American Federalism, 1975,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 419 (May 1975): 100–119; Wright, “Policy Shifts,” 60–72; and Wallin, From Revenue Sharing.
19. Department of the Treasury, Revenue Sharing and Civil Rights (Washington, DC: Treasury Department, [1975]) ii.
20. Deil Wright et al., Assessing the Impacts of General Revenue Sharing in the Fifty States: A Survey of State Administrators (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1975). GRS did give agency administrators more flexibility in organizing their programming, which many viewed positively. Wright, “General Revenue Sharing and Federalism.”
21. Levine, Rubin, and Wolohojian, Politics of Retrenchment, 122.
22. “Pressman Says Ellis’s Charge ‘Fabricated,’” Sun, June 26, 1970, C2.
23. Stetz, “War Stories.”
24. Center for Governmental Studies, “Neighborhood Decentralization,” November 1973, 4–6, folder “Urban Services CAA 1972–1973,” box 131, SP, 9, BCA.
25. Center for Governmental Studies, “Neighborhood Decentralization”; and Stetz, “War Stories.”
26. Albert Williams to Mayor Schaefer et al., October 27, 1972, folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA; Urban Services Agency, “Baltimore Model Cities Final Evaluation Report 1968–1974,” no folder, box 485, SP, 9, BCA; and Stetz, “War Stories.”
27. William G. Sykes to Model Cities Project Directors, January 5, 1972, folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA.
28. William G. Sykes to All Staff Members, January 31, 1973, folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA.
29. F. Parachini Jr. to William Donald Schaefer, March 12, 1974, and Lenwood M. Ivey to William Donald Schaefer, March 20, 1974, folder “Model Cities/Community Action Agency 1974 +,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA.
30. Mark K. Joseph to William Donald Schaefer, March 9, 1973, folder “Model Cities/CAA Merger 1972–1973,” box 188, SP, 9, BCA.
31. William Donald Schaefer to Richard J. Daley, April 17, 1972; R. C. Embry Jr. to William Donald Schaefer, April 4, 1973; and Joseph to Schaefer, all folder “Model Cities Agency,” box 151, SP, 9, BCA.
32. Evelyn T. Burrell, oral history, interviewed by Susan Conwell, June 25, 1976, McKeldin–Jackson Project, MHS.
33. Baltimore City Health Department (hereafter BCHD), “Baltimore Health News,” January–February 1974, 118, available at the Baltimore Department of Legislative Reference.
34. BCHD, “Baltimore Health News,” 118.
35. BCHD, “Baltimore Health News,” 106.
36. BCHD, “Baltimore Health News,” 106.
37. BCHD, “Baltimore Health News,” 118; and Center for Governmental Studies, “Neighborhood Decentralization.”
38. Howell Baum, Brown in Baltimore: School Desegregation and the Limits of Liberalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 147; Orr, “Baltimore: Limits of Mayoral Control,” 29; Richard Benn Cramer, “Patterson’s Status Unsure Following Vote,” Sun, August 10, 1974, A1, A4; and John O’Donnell, “Patterson Fight: Who Controls the School Money?” Evening Sun, August 20, 1974, A10.
39. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 136.
40. Kenneth Wong, City Choices: Education and Housing (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 115.
41. “Welfare Proposal Evokes Criticism,” Sun, March 24, 1973, B6.
42. Ben Davis, “What’s a Social Worker to Do Now That the Money’s Gone?” Sun, March 18, 1973, K3.
43. Barbara Blum, “City Serves 68% of Maryland’s Welfare Cases,” News-American, September 2, 1970, folder “Social Welfare-Baltimore-Finance,” MR, VF, EPFL.
44. Jerome W. Mondesire, “State Welfare Officials Call New Workfare Laws ‘Unworkable,’” Sun, December 28, 1972, A11.
45. Maurice A. Harmon to Janet L. Hoffmann, October 19, 1972, folder “Mayor’s Office Liaison with General Assembly 1972–1973 Correspondence,” box 145, SP, 9, BCA.
46. Maryland Conference of Social Workers, “The Maryland Conference of Social Workers Opposes the Takeover … ,” and “The Relationship Between the Baltimore City Department of Social Services and the Maryland State Department of Employment and Social Services,” March 22, 1973, folder “Social Services Takeover—Baltimore City Department of Social Services,” box 160, SP, 9, BCA.
47. Maurice A. Harmon to William Donald Schaefer, January 31, 1973, folder “Social Services 12/71–12/73,” box 160, SP, 9, BCA.
48. Quoted in Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 138.
49. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 134–138.
50. Charles Whiteford, “Pomerleau Says Public Must Help,” Sun, May 29, 1972, C7.
51. Patrick Gilbert, “1975 Is Seen as Pivotal Year in City Use of Heroin,” Sun, May 9, 1975, C1.
52. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 159–160; “City Gets $1.8 Million in U.S. Anti-Crime Aid,” Sun, October 27, 1972, A11; David Ettling and Roger Twigg, “Pomerleau’s Proud Progress,” Sun, July 28, 1974, K1; and “Schaefer Defends Use of Federal Funds Law,” Sun, March 12, 1976, C4.
53. Paul Jablow, “Layoff Worries Union Leaders,” Sun, April 17, 1972, C18; Jeff Valentine, “Give Up Pay Hikes or Face Layoffs, City’s Labor Chief Warns Unions,” Evening Sun, May 4, 1977, A1; Douglas Watson and Curtis Riddle, “Schaefer Foresees Layoffs,” Sun, March 2, 1978, D1; and Memo to Jerry Wurf from Donald Wasserman, February 15, 1979, folder “22 Maryland General Correspondence,” box 98, Wurf, Reuther.
54. Mike Bowler, “85–90% of Teachers Join Walkout,” Sun, February 5, 1974, A1–A2.
55. Bowler, “85–90%.” See also Mike Bowler, “City Makes Plans to Keep Schools Open; Teachers Sign Up for Monday Picketing,” Sun, February 2, 1974, A1.
56. Mike Bowler, “Teachers Call Strike, Talks Continue,” Sun, February 4, 1974, A1.
57. Bowler, “Teachers Call Strike.” The new stadium was not built.
58. Bowler, “Teachers Call Strike.”
59. Bowler, “85–90%.”
60. “PSTA Declares School Strike Is Over Despite Teachers’ Rejection of Accord,” Sun, March 5, 1974, A1; and Editors, “Divided Front of City Teachers,” Sun, March 5, 1974, A14.
61. “Mayor Warns Strikers,” Sun, July 2, 1974, A1, A8.
62. Hospital workers had staged a one-day walkout the previous year. Mary Knudson, “Hospital Union Votes to Strike This Morning,” Sun, December 2, 1974, C1.
63. Jim Savarese to Jerry Wurf, July 8, 1974, folder “20 MD local 1195, 1974,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
64. Jim Savarese to John Hein, February 14, 1974, folder “14 Maryland 1974,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
65. Savarese to Wurf, Reuther.
66. Ben A. Franklin, “Baltimore Ends Its 15-Day Strike,” New York Times, July 16, 1974, 1; and “A Second Injunction Is Issued as Baltimore Strike Continues,” New York Times, July 10, 1974, 15. See also Don Wasserman to Jerry Wurf, July 10, 1974, folder “20 Maryland Local 1195, 1974,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther; and Richard Ben Cramer, “City Union Defies Mayor, Fines Threat,” Sun, July 8, 1974, A1. On the police officers’ workplace protest, see Bill Hamilton to Tom Fitzpatrick, July 25, 1974, folder “20 Maryland Local 1195, 1974,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
67. Richard Ben Cramer, “Court Action Delayed as Trash Grows,” Sun, July 6, 1974, A1, A8.
68. Tracie Rozhon, “Fresh Stench of Piled Up Garbage Stirs West Baltimore Smelly Saga,” Sun, July 10, 1974, C1–C2.
69. “‘No Protection for Little Guy,’” Sun, July 13, 1974, A1, A8.
70. “The Week That Was,” Afro, July 20, 1974, A4.
71. “The Week That Was”; and Memo to Ralph Flynn from Al Hamilton, “Preliminary Results on Baltimore Public Opinion Survey,” August 1, 1974, folder “20 Local 1195,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
72. Memo to Flynn from Hamilton, Wurf, Reuther.
73. Franklin, “Baltimore Ends 15-Day Strike”; Editorial, “Justice,” Evening Sun, November 21, 1974, A20; William Donald Schaefer to Charles Benton, Francis Kuchta, Douglas Tawney, and Robert Hillman, September 25, 1974; and Robert Enten to William Donald Schaefer, April 9, 1975, all in folder “City Employees [Termination],” box 337, SP, 9, BCA.
74. Ben A. Franklin, “Striking Baltimore Police Told Work or Lose Jobs,” New York Times, July 15, 1974, 1, 12.
75. Ben A. Franklin, “Baltimore Police Return After Ratifying New Pact,” New York Times, July 17, 1974, 43; “Baltimore Police Rebuffed on Union,” New York Times, July 18, 1974, 24; “Police in Baltimore Penalized on Strike,” New York Times, July 19, 1974, 5; Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 129; “Statement of Jerry Wurf,” News from AFSCME, July 31, 1974, 1, folder “21 Baltimore Strike,” box 137, Wurf Collection; and “Workers Vow to Continue Baltimore’s Sanitation Strike,” New York Times July 8, 1974, 14. Local AFSCME leaders were also threatened with arrest if they did not denounce the strike. Lou Senkbeil to Jerry Wurf, July 12, 1974, folder “20 Maryland Local 1195, 1974,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
76. Fred Barbash and Charles A. Krause, “Jail Employes [sic] Join Strikers in Baltimore,” St. Petersburg Times, July 9, 1974, 4A.
77. Jim Flanery, “Kamka to Probe Charges in Jail Riot,” Sun, July 15, 1974, A8.
78. Associated Press, “Police Storm Baltimore Jail, Freeing Hostages Taken During Strike by Guards,” New York Times, July 13, 1974, 1, 35.
79. James Dilts, “Ad Dubs Baltimore ‘Charm City,’” Sun, July 11, 1974, C1.
80. Dilts, “Ad Dubs.”
81. Editorial, “Baltimore’s Charms, Strikes Aside,” Sun, July 20, 1974, A18.
82. Statement by Marvin Mandel, Governor for the State of Maryland, August 1, 1974, folder “20 Maryland,” box 137, Wurf, Reuther.
83. Toledano, Let Our Cities Burn.
84. Toledano, Let Our Cities Burn. On the waning popularity of public-sector unions during the 1970s, see McCartin, “Fire the Hell out of Them.” On Wurf’s denial of having made the statement, see Goulden, Labor’s Last Angry Man.
Chapter 7
1. Editorial, “The Cold Figures,” Afro, January 1, 1977, 4.
2. “Cold Figures.”
3. Stein, Pivotal Decade.
4. Maryland Manual On-Line, “Kalman (Buzzy) Hettleman,” Department of Human Resources, maryland.gov, http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdmanual/18dhr/former/html/msa15667.html.
5. Editorial, “Buddy Buddy Job Deals,” Afro, November 6, 1976, 4.
6. Editorial, “Metro Sees the Light,” Afro, January 29, 1977, 4.
7. Tracie Rozhon, “Minority Jobs Unit Ordered,” Sun, December 31, 1976, B1; and Arthur W. Murphy, “Hilda Ford: Job Baroness,” Afro, November 12, 1977, 20–21.
8. Verda F. Welcome, “Welcome Hits Pressman,” Afro, January 29, 1977, 4.
9. Jeff Valentine, “Blacks Still Have Lower-Pay City Jobs, Despite Gains,” Evening Sun, February 27, 1976, C1; and Baltimore Community Relations Commission, “Survey of Employment in City Government—1977” (Baltimore, 1977), available at the Baltimore Department of Legislative Reference.
10. Murphy, “Hilda Ford.”
11. “Statement by Hilda E. Ford,” [August 5, 1983], folder “Women’s Issues 1983– Reports/Investigations,” box 977, SP, 9, BCA; Hilda E. Ford to William Donald Schaefer, March 5, 1979, folder “Civil Service Commission,” box 344, SP, 9, BCA; Hilda E. Ford to All Department and Agency Heads, April 12, 1979, folder “Civil Service Commission,” box 344, 16, 9, BCA; and Sandy Banisky, “City Approves New Job Classification for Civil Service; 2,400 to Get Raises,” Sun, February 12, 1981, C1.
12. “Women Seeking More Top State Jobs,” News-American, September 1, 1978, MR, VF, EPFL.
13. “AFSCME Interim Committee on Sex Discrimination Report to International Executive Board,” October 1972, folder “1 Discrimination,” box 5, AFSCME Program Development (hereafter ADP), Reuther; Minutes, Interim Committee on Sex Discrimination,” November 9–10, 1973, folder “4 Discrimination,” box 5, APD, Reuther; “Resolution, Affirmative Action,” “Resolution Sex Discrimination,” and “Resolution Child Care,” June 1974, folder “2 National Women’s Political Caucus, 1974–1975,” box 9, APD, Reuther; “Model Contract Language Prepared by AFSCME Research Department—Maternity and Childcare Leave,” July 12–13, 1975, folder “12 Maternity … 1975,” box 8, APD, Reuther; and Wendy Kahn, “Statement on OFCC Proposed Sex Discrimination Guidelines, U.S. Department of Labor,” September 9, 1974, folder 9, ADP, Reuther.
14. “AFSCME Interim Committee,” APD, Reuther; Ernest Crofoot, Raymond Clarke, Cecelia Fabula, Tom Keheller, Harold Shaw, and Nancy Speckman, interviews with Jane Berger, August 18, 2007, Baltimore County; Veneda Smith, “Helping Those Who Have Lost Their Jobs,” Public Employee (June 1983): 6; and Ernest B. Crofoot to Community Health Nurse, January 2, 1980; “City Nurses Switch Unions,” Sun, January 17, 1980, D2; and “March Is Membership Month,” News from AFSCME (all courtesy of Nancy Speckman).
15. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1970 Census of Population, Volume 1, Characteristics of the Population, Part 22 Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 212, 228, 347; and U.S. Department of Commerce, 1990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 223, 272.
16. Editorial, “The State of Black America,” New York Times, January 20, 1977, 36.
17. Moses J. Newson, “100 AFRO Precincts Report the Results,” Afro, November 6, 1976, 1; Elizabeth M. Oliver, “Thousands Turn Out for Carter in Historic General Election Vote,” Afro, November 6, 1976, 1; and “You Can Ride Free of Charge to the Polls, Call If You Need a Ride,” Afro, November 2, 1976, 1.
18. Oliver, “Thousands Turn Out.”
19. “A New Beginning: Carter Becomes 39th President,” Afro, January 22, 1977, 1.
20. Jimmy Carter, “‘Our Nation’s Past and Future’: Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in New York City,” July 15, 1976, prepared by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25953.
21. Susan Hartmann, “Feminism, Public Policy and the Carter Administration,” in The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era, ed. Gary Fink and Hugh Davis Graham (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998): 224–243.
22. “H.U.D. Plans to Aid Poorest Cities, Revising Community Aid Program,” New York Times, February 19, 1977, 28. See also Conlan, From New Federalism; Benjamin Kleinberg, Urban America in Transformation (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995); Thomas Sugrue, “Carter’s Urban Policy Crisis,” in Fink and Graham, eds., Carter Presidency, 137–157.
23. Gary Mucciaroni, The Political Failure of Employment Policy, 1945–1982 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990), 11.
24. Donald Kimelman, “City Lays Off on the One Hand, Hires on Other,” Sunday Sun, June 5, 1977, folder “Civil Service Employees,” Department of Legislative Reference, City Hall, Baltimore; and “Testimony of Marion W. Pines, Director Mayor’s Office of Manpower Resources, Tuesday, November 17, 1981, the House Ways and Means Committee,” November 17, 1981, folder 10, box 252, SP, 9, BCA.
25. Kimelman, “City Lays Off”; and “Testimony of Marion W. Pines.”
26. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive; and Stein, Pivotal Decade.
27. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive.
28. Bruce Schulman, “Slouching Toward the Supply Side: Jimmy Carter and the New American Political Economy,” in Fink and Graham, eds., Carter Presidency, 52; W. Carl Biven, Jimmy Carter’s Economy: Policy in an Age of Limits (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Calleo, Imperious Economy, 139–153; Anthony Campagna, Economic Policy in the Carter Administration (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995).
29. Timothy Barnekov et al., Privatism and Urban Policy in Britain and the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Conlan, From New Federalism; Kleinberg, Urban America; Mucciaroni, Political Failure; Sugrue, “Carter’s Urban Policy Crisis.”
30. Jimmy Carter, “Remarks and Fundraising Dinner for Harry Hughes,” October 10, 1978, prepared by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=30008.
31. Roger Wilkins, “Vernon Jordan and the Issues Vital to Blacks,” New York Times, November 22, 1977, 25.
32. Nicholas von Hoffman, “Can Volcker Stand Up to Inflation, the Fed?” New York Times, December 2, 1979, section SM, 15.
33. Iwan Morgan, “Monetary Metamorphosis: The Volcker Fed and Inflation,” Journal of Policy History 24, no. 4 (2012): 545–571; Stein, Pivotal Decade; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 320; Kleinberg, Urban America; and Mucciaroni, Political Failure.
34. Morgan, “Monetary Metamorphosis”; and Stein, Pivotal Decade.
35. William Lucy, “Report of the International Secretary Treasurer,” Public Employee (January 1980): 11.
36. Ellen James, “The Unemployment Rate for Baltimore City Blacks Among Highest in Nation,” Evening Sun, November 2, 1979, C1.
37. Editorial, “The State of Black America,” New York Times, January 20, 1977, 36.
38. Robert Reinhold, “Urban Officials Are Uneasy About Carter Aid Plan,” New York Times, December 6, 1977, 18.
39. Roger Wilkins, “The Changing Character of Black Problems,” New York Times, September 2, 1977, 35.
40. Vernon E. Jordan Jr., “Bulldozers Headed for Cities Again,” Afro, November 2, 1976, 4.
41. David E. Rosenbaum, “28 Groups Protest Welfare Fund Curb,” New York Times, July 6, 1977, 15; Philip Shabecoff, “Meany Supports Blacks’ Charges of Neglect by the Administration,” New York Times, August 31, 1977, 1; and Thomas A. Johnson, “Urban League Links Blacks’ Job Plight to Recessions,” New York Times, July 25, 1979, A10.
42. “Statement by William B. Welsh, Executive Director for Governmental Affairs, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees,” in Urban Policy in America Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Relations of the Committee on Governmental Affairs of the U.S. Senate (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), 443. On AFSCME’s efforts on behalf of countercyclical aid, see “Statement of Steven Pruitt, Assistant Director of Legislation, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, AFL-CIO” and “Statement of the Public Employees Department, AFL-CIO,” in Targeted Fiscal Assistance to State and Local Governments, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Revenue Sharing, Intergovernmental Revenue Impact, and Economic Problems of the Committee on Finance (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979), 178–183, 247–248.
43. Thomas Edsall, “Young Turk Mitchell, Old Guard Get Along Now,” Sun, November 27, 1978, C1.
44. Michael Hill, “Embry, A Man for All Causes,” Sun, February 22, 2004, C1; Robert Douglas and Mike Powell, “Mayor Schaefer’s Shadow Government,” Baltimore Magazine (April 1980): 71; R. C. Embry Jr. to William Donald Schaefer, April 4, 1973, folder “Model Cities/CAA Merger 1972–1973,” box 188, SP, 9, BCA; and Williams, Politics of Public Housing.
45. Jimmy Carter, “National Urban Policy Message to the Congress,” March 27, 1978, prepared by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=30567.
46. Robert Reinhold, “President Proposes a Broad New Policy for Urban Recovery,” New York Times, March 28, 1978, 1; and Jacques Kelly, “Officials Call Policy Major Step Forward,” News-American, March 28, 1978, folder “Urban Policy, President Carter’s,” box 464, SP, 9, BCA; Gregory Squires, ed., Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989); and Sugrue, “Carter’s Urban Policy Crisis.”
47. Thomas Johnson, “Urban League Leader Calls 1979 a ‘Year of Crisis’ for U.S. Blacks,” New York Times, January 18, 1979, A1.
48. Sugrue, “Carter’s Urban Policy Crisis.”
49. Edsall, “Young Turk Mitchell.”
50. Nathaniel Sheppard Jr., “Jordan Charges Congress Is Callous Toward Minorities,” New York Times, August 7, 1978, D10.
51. “Cold Figures.”
Chapter 8
1. Smith, William Donald Schaefer.
2. Quoted in Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 143. See also Katharine Lyall, “A Bicycle Built for Two: Public-Private Partnerships in Baltimore,” National Civic Review 72 (1983): 531–571.
3. David Harvey, “From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism,” in The City Cultures Reader, ed. Malcom Miles, Tim Hall, and Iain Borden (New York: Routledge, 2000), 51.
4. Kenneth Wong and Paul Peterson, “Urban Response to Federal Program Flexibility: Politics of Community Development Block Grant,” Urban Affairs Quarterly 21, no. 3 (March 1986): 293–311.
5. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 212.
6. Reinhold, “Urban Officials Are Uneasy”; Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 121; and Chalkley, “City That Builds.”
7. [Joint Economic Committee of Congress], “What Baltimore Loses,” Sun, August 18, 1981, A11; U.S. Department of Commerce, City Government, Tourism and Economic Development, Vol. 2 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979), 32; and U.S. Department of Housing and Community Development, Office of Evaluation Community Planning and Development, Urban Development Action Grant Program: First Annual Report and Urban Development Action Grant Program: Second Annual Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Community Development, 1979, 1980).
8. Smith, William Donald Schaefer; and Robert Douglas and Mike Powell, “Mayor Schaefer’s Shadow Government,” Baltimore Magazine (April 1980): 69–75.
9. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 203.
10. Joan Jacobson, “City Has Lost $25 Million in Bad Development Loans,” Sun, August 2, 1992, A1.
11. Madeline Murphy, “Rumpelstiltskin, What’s Next,” Afro, May 3, 1980, 4.
12. Editorial, “Tower of Benton,” Sun, April 17, 1980, A16.
13. L. H. Kohlman, letter to the editor, Sun, November 12, 1980, A20.
14. Quoted in Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 199–200.
15. Peter Jay, “The Mellowing of Wally,” Sun, February 26, 1978, K4.
16. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 78; Jeff Valentine, “Orlinsky Stirs as Council’s Cauldron Bubbles and Boils,” Sun, October 24, 1977, C1; and Mike Bowler, “Our Impotent City Council,” Evening Sun, May 1, 1980, A16.
17. Kweisi Mfume, with Ron Stodghill II, No Free Ride: From the Mean Streets to the Mainstream (New York: Ballantine, 1996), 195.
18. Mfume, No Free Ride, 189.
19. Mfume, No Free Ride, 195.
20. Mfume, No Free Ride, 215–222; and History Art and Archives: The United States House of Representatives, “Kweisi Mfume,” history.house.gov, http://history.house.gov/People/Detail/18186.
21. Bowler, “Our Impotent City Council,” A16.
22. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 78; and Valentine, “Orlinsky.”
23. C. Fraser Smith, “Some Council Members Shocked,” Sun, April 21, 1980, A1
24. “Schaefer Defends Use of the Trustee System,” Sun, April 20, 1980, A1.
25. John Micklos, letter to the editor, Chronicle, May 14, 1980, folder “Shadow Government, box 340, SP, 9, BCA.
26. James A. Ulmer III, letter to the editor, Sun, April 30, 1980, A18.
27. Quoted in Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 107.
28. U.S Conference of Mayors, “The Baltimore City Loan and Guarantee Program: A Trustee System, How Your City Can Make Use of Baltimore’s Approach to Creative Financing for Economic Development,” April 1984, 1, available at Department of Legislative Reference, Baltimore.
29. Mfume, No Free Ride, 250.
30. Wong and Peterson, “Urban Response,” 306.
31. Thomas Edsall, “Parren Mitchell Criticizes Mayor on Workers’ Layoffs,” Sun, June 28, 1977, C3; and Douglas and Powell, “Mayor Schaefer’s Shadow Government.”
32. “Poor People’s Advocate Taking Fight to the Streets,” News-American, December 17, 1978, folder “Social Welfare,” MR, VF, EPFL; and Robert Embry to William Donald Schaefer, August 30, 1979, folder “Department of Housing and Community Development, 1979 [I],” box 90, SP, 9, BCA.
33. “Baltimore City Employees Fight Layoff Threat,” Public Employee (July 1977): 7.
34. “Grapevine,” Hall Light, April 1978, 1.
35. “Grapevine.” See also “Grapevine,” Hall Light, February 1979, 2.
36. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 111–112, 116; “Saturday Forum: Henry Koellein, Jr., An Interview,” Daily Record, February 2, 1985, 3.
37. Michael DeCourcy Hinds, “Baltimore’s Story of City Homesteading,” New York Times, January 16, 1986.
38. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 112; and Ralph E. Moore, letter to editor, “Housing: The City Fails the Poor,” Sun, November 4, 1978, A13.
39. “Neighborhood Projects Have Chance for Survival,” Afro, October 22, 1977; and “Communities Organized to Improve Life, Inc. (COIL)” flyer, folder “Housing-Baltimore, 1970–1979,” MR, VF, EPFL.
40. Thomas Kavanagh, “City Housing Policies Questioned at Sit-In,” newspaper article, n.d., folder “Housing-Baltimore, 1970–1979,” MR, VF, EPFL.
41. Jane A. Smith and David Rosenthal, “In Black America: A Special Report—Emergence of Black Middle Class Lags in Baltimore,” Sun, April 8, 1988, A1, A8.
42. Editorial, “No on N, Yes on C,” Afro, November 6, 1976, 4.
43. Smith, William Donald Schaefer.
44. Portia E. Badham, “Black Legislators Send Mayor a Message,” Afro, January 26, 1980, 1–2; and “Mayor Nixes Black Caucus Demands,” Afro, February 2, 1980, 1.
45. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 119–120; Frank DeFilippo, “There’s No Love Lost over Labor,” News-American, July 29, 1983, folder “AFL-CIO,” box 812, SP, 9, BCA; Bernard Berkowitz, “Rejoinder to Downtown Redevelopment as an Urban Growth Strategy: A Critical Appraisal of the Baltimore Renaissance,” Journal of Urban Affairs 11, no. 1 (1987): 130; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 348–349; Chalkley, “City That Builds”; and Marc Levine, “‘A Third-World City in the First World’: Social Exclusion, Racial Inequality, and Sustainable Development in Baltimore, Maryland,” in The Social Sustainability of Cities: Diversity and the Management of Change (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 134.
46. Marc V. Levine, “Response to Berkowitz Economic Development in Baltimore: Some Additional Perspectives,” Journal of Urban Affairs 9, no. 2 (1987): 136.
47. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Greater Baltimore Commitment: A Study of Urban Minority Economic Development (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983), iii.
48. Murphy, “Rumpelstiltskin.” See also Robert Stoker, “Baltimore: The Self-Evaluating City?” in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. Clarence Stone and Heywood Sanders (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), 244–266; Richard Hula, “The Two Baltimores,” in Leadership and Urban Regeneration: Cities in North America and Europe, ed. Dennis Judd and Michael Parkinson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990); and Jon Teaford, The Tough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940–1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 264.
49. Editorial, “Bad Time to Be Hungry,” Sun, December 17, 1977, A14; “Rights Drive Changes in Ten Years Since King,” Sun, April 4, 1978, C1; and Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment.”
50. “Controversy over Welfare Flares Again in State,” Sun, March 11, 1979, A1, A3.
51. Lenwood Ivey to William Donald Schaefer, December 18, 1980, folder “Urban Services Agency,” box 455, SP, 9, BCA.
52. Sharon Dickman, “Welfare Budgets Shrink Along with the Hopes of the Poor,” Sun, May 22, 1977, K3; Tom Linthicum and M. William Salganik, “Health Agency Cuts Its Budget by $4.2 Million,” Sun, December 3, 1980, E1; Sandy Banisky, “City Has to Cut Services to Aged, Poor, Lay Off 22,” Sun, December 6, 1980, B1; Wanda Dobson, “Spilling Blood to Avoid Red Ink,” Sun, December 28, 1980, K2; “City Letting Our Garbage Pile Up,” Afro, April 1, 1978, 1–2; and Clarence W. Hunter, “City Playgrounds, Pools May Shut Down,” Afro, April 1, 1978, 1–2.
53. Helen Winternitz, “Families Tell of Hard Times,” Sun, March 11, 1979, A1, A3.
54. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 1–26.
55. Police Foundation, “Evaluation of the Urban Initiatives Anti-Crime Program: Baltimore, MD Case Study” (John F. Kennedy School of Government, for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, 1984), 43.
56. Hinton, From the War on Poverty, 276–306; Police Foundation, “Evaluation”; and Ron Howell, “City Beefs Up Security at Public Housing,” Evening Sun, July 3, 1978, C20.
57. “Sun Endorsements for Schaefer, Clarke, Douglass,” Sun, August 28, 1983, K6.
58. Kalman R. Hettleman, letter to the editor, News-American, March 18, 1978, folder “Social Welfare,” MR, VF, EPFL.
59. Quentin R. Lawson, “Suggested Urban Policy Statement,” and Robert W. McGee to Bernard Berkowitz, September 7, 1977, folder “Urban Policy,” box 266, SP, BCA.
60. Sandy Banisky, “Work Load Soaring, Funds Blocked, Harried Food Stamp Offices Face Crisis” Sun, March 23, 1980, B8.
61. Editorial, “Park Heights Focus,” Afro, January 26, 1980, 4.
62. Tracie Rozhon, “Ouster of City Welfare Rights Organization Opposed,” Sun, August 1, 1979, C16.
63. Banisky, “Work Load Soaring”; Rosa Smith Washington to William Donald Schaefer, November 27, 1979, folder “Social Services [I], box 949, SP, 9 BCA”; and William Stump, “The Cost of Welfare Is More Than Money,” News-American, May 8, 1977, folder “Social Welfare, 1970,” MR, VF, EPFL.
64. “Proposition 13,” Sun, August 26, 1978, B1.
65. Dickman, “Welfare Budgets Shrink.”
66. “U.S. Checks Welfare Rolls Against Public Payrolls,” Sun, June 24, 1977, A1.
67. “U.S. Checks Welfare Rolls.”
68. Theodore W. Hendricks, “Welfare Error Rate Denounced,” Sun, May 6, 1978, B1.
69. Hendricks, “Welfare Error Rate.”
70. “Statement by James Farmer,” in Local Distress, State Surpluses, Proposition 13: Prelude to Fiscal Crisis or New Opportunities? Hearings Before the Subcommittee on the City of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives with the Joint Economic Committee (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 25–26, 1978), 597.
71. Jimmy Carter, “Address,” October 24, 1978, Anti-Inflation Program, American Experience, Official Site, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carter-anti-inflation/.
72. Joseph McCartin, “’Fire the Hell out of Them: Sanitation Workers’ Struggles and the Normalization of the Striker Replacement Strategy in the 1970s,” Labor: Studies in the Working-Class History of the Americas 2, no. 3 (2005): 67–92.
73. Jerry Wurf, “President’s Column,” Public Employee (November 1977): 2.
74. “AFSCME and CSEA Unite; AFSMCE Now Largest in AFL-CIO,” Public Employee (May 1978): 1.
75. “Wurf Tells Congressional Unit: Welfare Plan Flawed,” Public Employee (October 1977): 4; “Wurf Says Private Sector Jobs Vital to Urban Recovery,” Public Employee (April 1978): 3; and Jerry Wurf, “Which Way on Welfare and Jobs?” Sun, September 24, 1977, A15.
76. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
77. Windham, Knocking on Labor’s Door; Stein, Pivotal Decade; Dorothy Sue Cobble, The Other Women’s Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); and Klein and Boris, Caring for America.
78. Goulden, Labor’s Last Angry Man; and Francis Ryan, AFSCME’s Philadelphia Story (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010).
79. “Proposition 13: Threat to All Public Employees, Threat to All Public Services,” Public Employee (July 1978): 1.
80. John Hanrahan, Government for Sale: Contracting-Out the New Patronage (Washington, DC: AFSCME, 1977), 9.
81. Hanrahan, Government for Sale; “Contracting-Out: The New Patronage,” Public Employee (October 1977): 6–7; and Jerry Wurf, “President’s Column,” Public Employee (November 1977): 2.
82. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 119–120.
83. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment,” 114.
84. Antero Pietila, “Outlook for City’s Blacks is Unclear” Sun, January 6, 1980, K3; and Joseph Arnold, “Baltimore: Southern Culture and a Northern Economy,” in Snowbelt Cities: Metropolitan Politics in the Northeast and Midwest Since World War II, ed. Richard Bernard (Bloomington: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 25–30.
85. Felicia Willett to William Donald Schaefer, March 20, 1979, folder “Department of Housing and Community Development 1979 [I],” box 90, 28, 9, BCA. (Typos in letter corrected.)
86. William Donald Schaefer to Felicia Willett, April 30, 1979, folder “Department of Housing and Community Development 1979 [I],” box 90, SP, 9, BCA.
87. Leon L. Lerner, “Dark Shadows in Harborplace’s Bright Circle,” Evening Sun, July 15, 1981, A11.
Chapter 9
1. Polly Kummel, “The Reactions in Maryland Are Predictable,” News-American, November 11, 1980, folder “(A–Z) Reagan, Ronald (President Elect),” box 423, SP, 9, BCA.
2. James Abraham, “Reagan’s Victory: Are We Doomed,” Afro, November 8, 1980, 1.
3. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of Population and Housing, Census Tracts, Baltimore, Maryland, Standard Metropolitan Area (Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office, 1983), P5, P83.
4. John Farrell, “Reagan Country: What Will His Election Mean for U.S. and Baltimore?” News-American, November 5, 1980, folder “(A–Z) Reagan, Ronald (President Elect),” box 423, SP, 9, BCA.
5. Kummel, “Reactions.”
6. Farrell, “Reagan Country.”
7. David Leips, “1980 Presidential General Election Results—Maryland,” Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections, http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/datagraph.php?year=1980&fips=24&f=0&off=0&elect=0.
8. “Urban Services Fact Sheet,” [pre–October 1981], 2, folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA.
9. Samuel Banks, “Reagan in Baltimore: Oblivious to Desperation?” Evening Sun, July 28, 1982, folder “Blacks,” clippings file, Department of Legislative Reference, Baltimore.
10. Ronald Reagan, “Inaugural Address,” January 20, 1981, American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=43130.
11. Conlan, From New Federalism; Michael Luger, “Federal Tax Incentives as Industrial and Urban Policy,” in Sunbelt/Snowbelt: Urban Development and Regional Restructuring, ed. Larry Sawers and William Tabb (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 201–234; George Peterson and Carol Lewis, Reagan and the Cities (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1986); Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980 (New York: Basic, 1984); and Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986).
12. “‘Welfare Queen’ Becomes an Issue in Reagan Campaign,” New York Times, February 15, 1976, 51.
13. See, for example, Susan Douglas and Meredith W. Michaels, The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and How It Has Undermined Women (New York: Free Press, 2004), 173–202; Ange-Marie Hancock, The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen (New York: New York University Press, 2004); Wahneema Lubiano, “Black Ladies, Welfare Queens, and State Minstrels: Ideological War by Narrative Means,” in Race-ing Justice, En-gendering Power: Essays on Anita Hill, Clarence Thomas, and the Construction of Social Identity, ed. Toni Morrison (New York: Pantheon, 1992), 323–363.
14. Quoted in Walker Newell, “The Legacy of Nixon, Reagan and Horton: How the Tough on Crime Movement Enabled a New Regime of Race-Influenced Employment Discrimination,” Berkeley Journal of African American Law and Policy 15, no. 1 (January 2013): 17.
15. Newell, “Legacy,”17.
16. Dan T. Carter, From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963–1994 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999); López, Dog Whistle Politics; and Alexander, New Jim Crow, 48–50.
17. Dudley Digges, “The First Major Urban Program of the Reagan Administration?” Evening Sun, July 18, 1981, A8.
18. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (hereafter HUD), The President’s National Urban Policy Report, 1982 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), 23.
19. HUD, Urban Policy, 14; and Kleinberg, Urban America.
20. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 295.
21. “Urban Action Grants: The Cruelest Cut of All,” News-American, February 5, 1981, folder “Economic Conditions,” MR, VF, EPFL; and “City Seen Losing $350 Million in Federal Cutbacks,” Evening Sun, August 11, 1981, B3.
22. Harvey, Brief History of Neoliberalism.
23. Stein, Pivotal Decade.
24. Dale Russakoff, “As 3,000 CETA Workers Seek Jobs, Baltimore Braces for More Cutbacks,” Washington Post, April 30, 1981, C4.
25. “Baltimore City: Key Issues,” December 1984, 2–3, folder “Johns Hopkins University Seminar 3/12, 3–5 pm,” box 709, SP, 9, BCA; and Helen Winternitz, “Families Tell of Hard Times,” Sun, March 11, 1979, A1.
26. Burchell, New Reality, 10–11.
27. William Donald Schaefer, “Hearing on New Federalism,” March 8, 1983, 22, folder “(A–Z) New Federalism,” box 821, SP, 9, BCA.
28. Ernest Furgurson, “Baltimore ‘Grantsmanship’ Cited as Kind Reagan Wants Ended,” Sun, November 24, 1981, D 4.
29. Schaefer, “Hearing on New Federalism,” 31–32. On the city’s struggles to attract business, see Mollenkopf, Contested City, 242.
30. Schaefer, “Hearing on New Federalism,” 29–30.
31. “[Schaefer Testimony Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce],” April 6, 1981, 2, folder “Reagan Budget Cuts, WDS #141,” box 841, SP, 9, BCA.
32. William Donald Schaefer, “Congressional Testimony, U.S. House of Representatives,” April 6, 1981, 4, folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA.
33. Schaefer, “Congressional Testimony,” 4–5.
34. Letter to Honorable William D. Schaefer from John B. Ferron, March 24, 1981, folder “Letters of Support for Mayor Testifying Before Congress Comm WDS 141,” box 731, SP, 9, BCA.
35. See correspondence in “Letters of Support for Mayor Testifying Before Congress Comm WDS 141,” box 731, SP, 9, BCA.
36. Vernon Jordan Jr., “The New Regionalism,” in To Be Equal, January 21, 1981, Folder “(A–Z) Reagan, Ronald (President Elect),” box 423, SP, 9, BCA.
37. Fred Barnes, “Reagan’s Cuts Will Hurt Baltimore, Study Says,” Sun, August 9, 1981, folder “Economic Conditions—1980s,” MR, VF, EPFL.
38. Jordan, “New Regionalism.”
39. Maudine Cooper, “Legislative Update,” Black Women’s Agenda News and Views (A Digest), December 1981, n.p., folder “Women’s Issues 1983—Background Info,” box 977, SP, 9, BCA. See also Vernon Jordan Jr., “Fat Pentagon Can’t Land Chopper but Social Programs Under Attack,” Afro, February 28, 1981, 5.
40. Cooper, “Legislative Update.”
41. See, for example, “UL Raps Reagan’s State’s Rights Concept” Afro, March 24, 1981, 7.
42. Vernon Jordan Jr., “Reagan Should Resist Benign Neglect,” Afro, February 7, 1981, 5.
43. Jerry Wurf, “President’s Column,” Public Employee (March 1981): 2; and “AFSCME Forces Mobilize,” Public Employee (April 1981): 3.
44. Nancy J. Schwerzler, “D.C. Rally Sends Reagan a Message; 200,000 Gather to Decry Budget Cuts,” Sun, September 20, 1981, A1.
45. Jerry Wurf, “President’s Column,” Public Employee (April 1981): 2.
46. “Chop Slash Trim: Reagan Drops the Axe,” Public Employee (March 1981): 3.
47. William Lucy, “Report of the International Secretary Treasurer,” Public Employee (April 1981): 11.
48. Lucy, “Report.” See also “AFSMCE Women’s Advisory Committee Plans Action Agenda,” Public Employee (April 1982): 1.
49. Lucy, “Report.”
50. “Who Speaks for the Family?” Public Employee (June 1983): 5.
51. “AFSCME Proposes Economic Stimulus Program as Alternative to ‘New Federalism,’” Public Employee (April 1982): 1, 7–9. For additional discussion by an AFSCME official of Reaganomics, see, for example, William Lucy, “Report International Secretary Treasurer,” Public Employee (January 1980): 11; “What We’re Up Against … Corporate American Makes a ‘Capitol’ Investment,” Public Employee (October 1980): 4; and “Wurf Urges Full Funding for Social Programs,” Public Employee (February 1981): 10.
52. Coalition on Women and the Budget, “Inequality of Sacrifice: The Impact of the Reagan Budget on Women” (Washington, DC: Coalition on Women and the Budget, 1984), title page.
53. Coalition, “Inequality of Sacrifice,” 49–50.
54. Coalition, “Inequality of Sacrifice”; Chappell, War on Welfare; and Linda Gordon, “The Women’s Liberation Movement,” in Feminism Unfinished: A Short, Surprising History of American Women’s Movements, ed. Dorothy Sue Cobble, Linda Gordon, and Astrid Henry (New York: Liveright, 2015), 69–146.
55. “Urban Services Fact Sheet,” [pre-October 1981], 2, folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA.
56. Laura T. Hammel, “Social Services Will ‘Hurt, Hurt Badly,” News-American, December 14, 1981, folder “Social Welfare, 1970–,”MR, VF, EPFL.
57. Wanda Dobson, “Plans Given to Cope with Cuts in Budget,” Evening Sun, May 5, 1981, D2.
58. Tom Linthicum, “State Officials Still Sorting Out Details of ‘New Federalism,’” Sun, September 20, 1981, B1–B2.
59. Linthicum, “State Officials.”
60. Ernest B. Crofoot, “From the Director’s Desk,” Maryland Public Employee (June 1981): 2; and Crofoot, “From the Director’s Desk,” Maryland Public Employee (February 1983): 2.
61. Will England, “City Budget for ’84 Sets Cuts in Jobs,” Sun, April 14, 1983, A1.
62. Veneda Smith, “Helping Those Who Have Lost Their Jobs,” Public Employee (June 1983): 6.
63. See for example, “Facing the Crisis: Social Service Planning in an Atmosphere of Uncertainty,” 1981, folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA; Hammel, “Social Services”; Department of Human Resources, “News,” [1981], folder “Social Welfare, 1980–,”MR, VF, EPFL; and Letter to Walter R. Dean Jr. from Bronwyn Mayden, January 15, 1981, and Maryland Region, National Conference of Christians and Jews, Invitation to “‘Budget Cuts’: What Will They Be and How Will Baltimore City Be Affected,” folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA.
64. Lorraine Branham, “Local Solidarity Group Gears Washington Protests Against Budget Cuts,” Sun, September 14, 1981, D1.
65. Frank P. L. Somerville, “Church Groups Back Rally,” Sun, September 12, 1981, A12; James M. Abraham, “Working People Set for March on DC,” Afro, September 15, 1981, 1–2; Lorraine Branham, “Solidarity Day Committee Expects 450–500 Busloads for DC Rally,” Sun, September 18, 1981, D3; and Schwerzler, “DC Rally Sends Reagan a Message.”
66. Abraham, “Working People Set for March.”
67. “Solidarity Day in Maryland,” Public Employee (May 1981): 13; and Ernest B. Crofoot, “From the Director’s Desk,” Maryland Public Employee (November 1981): 2.
68. National Conference of Christians and Jews, “Invitation” and “Facing the Crisis,” folder “Budget Cuts,” box 29, SP, 9, BCA; Social Service and Income Maintenance State Board, “Minutes,” December 18, 1981, to June 21, 1984, “Department of Human Resources, Social Service and Income Maintenance Records, Maryland State Archives; and Department of Human Resources, “News,” [1981], folder “Social Welfare, 1980–,”MR, VF, EPFL.
69. Department of Human Resources, “News.”
70. National Conference of Christians and Jews, “Facing the Crisis”; and Hammel, “Social Services.”
71. Eileen Canizan, “Children Fare Best as Human Resources Rebudgets for Cuts,” Sun, September 24, 1981, D8.
72. Chappell, War on Welfare, 202, 211; and Michael Katz, The Price of Citizenship (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).
73. Marshall Kaplan and Sue O’Brien, The Governors and the New Federalism (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), 4–5; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 297, 320; Robert Thomas, “National-Local Relations and the City’s Dilemma,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 509, no. 1 (May 1990): 115; Wright, “Policy Shifts,”; Richard Berke, “Federal Deficits Imperil an Important City Fund Source—UDAGs: UDAGs Put into Peril by U.S. Deficits,” Evening Sun, October 8, 1985, folder “UDAGs Action Grants,” box 819, SP, 9, BCA; Marc Bendick Jr. and David Rasmussen, “Enterprise Zones and Inner-City Economic Revitalization,” in Reagan and the Cities, ed. George Peterson and Carol Lewis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1986), 97–129; and George Peterson et al., eds., The Reagan Block Grants: What Have We Learned? (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1986), 21.
74. Alexander, New Jim Crow, 50.
75. Alexander, New Jim Crow, 51–53; and David Cole, No Equal Justice (New York: New Press, 1999), 141–143.
Chapter 10
1. R. B. Jones, “Urban Service Reassigns Family Service Workers,” Afro, March 29, 1986, A1.
2. Jones, “Urban Service Reassigns.”
3. The figures do not include those African American workers who were self-employed.
4. Editorial, “Two Directions at Once,” Afro, February 21, 1981, 4.
5. Donald Kimelman, “Increased Tax Relief Weighed,” Sun, December 12, 1978, C1; Memo to William Donald Schaefer from Bernard Berkowitz, June 26, 1978, folder “Proposition 13,” box 418, SP, 9, BCA; and John W. Frece, “Hughes Opposes Limits on State Spending,” Afro, November 7, 1981, 3.
6. Smith, William Donald Schaefer, 161.
7. Tom Kenworthy, “Montgomery County Sheds Its Weakling Image in State Politics,” Sunday Sun, April 8, 1984, folder [no name], box 739, SP, 9, BCA.
8. Tom Kenworthy, “City’s Lobbying Keeps Officials Busy Year Round,” Evening Sun, September 19, 1983, D1.
9. Jack Krost, “Annapolis: Delegation from City Faces Tests,” News-American, November 20, 1983, folder [no name], box 739, SP, 9, BCA.
10. Fraser, William Donald Schaefer.
11. Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 321; and Richard Berke, “City’s Economy Cited as Vital to State, but State Aid Declines,” Evening Sun, October 18, 1983, D4.
12. Todd Steiss, Baltimore Region Employment Trends (Baltimore: The Division, 1991), iv, 7, 22.
13. Memo to Mayor William D. Schaefer from Shirley Williams, August 5, 1981; “Summary Chart of Minorities”; and “Full-Time” [chart on city workforce racial and sex composition], [1981], all folder “Minorities 143,” box 740, SP, 9, BCA.
14. Richard Nathan, Fred Doolittle, and Associates, Reagan and the States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 86–88.
15. “CETA: Reagan Budget Mania Axes 300,000 Public Service Jobs,” Public Employee (October 1981): 9.
16. Laura Hammel, “President Pledged Less Government,” News-American, December 13, 1981, folder “Economic Conditions—1980s,” MR, VF, EPFL; and Sandy Banisky, “Manpower Office Plans 40 Layoffs,” Evening Sun, May 12, 1984, A5.
17. Lenwood Ivey to Evelina Ryce, January 24, 1983, folder “Urban Services Agency,” box 455, SP, 9, BCA.
18. Athima Chansanchai, “Sallie Williams, 64, Nurse, Union Leader,” Sun, August 23, 2002, 5B.
19. Jones, “Urban Service Reassign”; Joyce Price, “Urban Services Lays Off 21; Union Files Grievance,” News-American, March 16, 1986, folder “UDAG’s Action Grants,” box 819, SP, 9, BCA; and R. B. Jones, “Urban Service Workers in Shock over Job Layoffs,” Afro, March 15, 1986, 1–2.
20. Jones, “Urban Service Workers,” 1.
21. Quoted in Stetz, “War Stories.”
22. Editorial, “No Immunity to Budget Cuts,” Sun, June 5, 1984, A6.
23. “Johns Hopkins Applied Research: A University Tries to Take on the Social Problems That Surround It,” Economist, September 3, 2016, http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21706340-university-tries-take-social-problems-surround-it-applied-research.
24. Jane A. Smith and David Rosenthal, “In Black America: A Special Report—Emergence of Black Middle Class Lags in Baltimore,” Sun, April 8, 1988, A1, A8.
25. Smith and Rosenthal, “Black America.”
26. Smith and Rosenthal, “Black America.”
27. Gerald C. Horne, “‘Privatization’ Encourages Unfair Dual System,” Afro, January 3, 1981, 5.
28. Martin Evans, “Murphy Appeals to Women Voters,” Afro, August, 6, 1983, 1; and “NAACP Suit Charges City, State with Discrimination,” News-American, August 31, 1983, folder “NAACP,” box 814, SP, 9, BCA.
29. “Statement by Hilda E. Ford,” [August 5, 1983], and “Baltimore City” [handwritten data on city employment], [1983–84], folder “Women’s Issues 1983—Reports/Investigations,” box 977, SP, 9, BCA; “War of Words Goes On, with Murphy Focusing on Minority Hiring,” Sun, August 11, 1983, B8; and “State Offers Better Pensions Than the Richest Corporations,” Evening Sun, November 18, 1975, A1.
30. James M. Abraham, “Public Workers Are Scared of Being Reaganized: DSS Staffers Fear Mass Lay-Offs,” Afro, June 27, 1981, 1.
31. Hammel, “Social Services.”
32. Michael Himowitz, “Hughes Vows Easing of Black Staff Layoffs,” Evening Sun, June 24, 1981, B3.
33. Abraham, “Public Workers,” 1–2.
34. Abraham, “Public Workers,” 1–2; John Douglass, “Report to the Baltimore Metropolitan Committee: Black Employment in Maryland State Government,” March 14, 1975, and John Douglass, Jacob Lima, and Yolande Marlow, “Black Employment in Maryland State Government: An Eighteen Month Follow-Up Study,” January 1977, 1–2, Maryland Commission for Women, Department of Legislative Reference, City Hall, Baltimore; “Women Employed in Maryland State Government in 1979,” DHR Pub. 5003, August 1980, 10–16, folder “Women’s Commission,” box 838, SP, 9, BCA; and “NAACP Suit,” BCA.
35. Sue Williams, “Public Workers Are Scared of Being Reaganized: Hughes Promises He Won’t Forget Affirmative Action,” Afro, June 27, 1981, 1.
36. Himowitz, “Hughes Vows.”
37. “States & Communities in Crisis from Reagan $42 Billion Cuts,” Public Employee (March 1984): 8–9; U.S. Bureau of the Census, State and Metropolitan Area Data Book 1979 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979), 55; U.S. Bureau of the Census, State and Metropolitan Area Data Book 1986 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), 570–571; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, State and Metropolitan Area Data Book 1991 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991), 298. Maryland employees in education include those who worked at the state’s institutions of higher education.
38. C. Fraser Smith, “U.S. Work Force Cuts Hit Women, Minorities Hard,” Sun, December 31, 1981, C1, C3.
39. Smith, “U.S. Work Force,” C1.
40. Letter to Richard Gephardt from Lonis C. Ballard, March 13, 1981, folder “2 Blacks in Government (BIG) 3-10/81,” box 171, National Urban League Papers, Part III, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.
41. Smith, “U.S. Work Force,” C1.
42. Robert Pear, “21% Cutback in Social Security Staff Planned,” New York Times, April 4, 1985, A18.
43. “AFGE Local 1923 Testifies on Staffing Reduction Plan,” Local 1923 Report, May 1985, 4, folder “Unions,” History Department Files, Social Security Administration Headquarters, Woodlawn, Maryland.
44. Joseph McCartin, Collision Course: Ronald Reagan, the Air Traffic Controllers, and the Strike That Changed America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
45. Ken Hughes, “Running on Empty, Funds, Membership Dip to Critical Low,” Federal Times, January 22, 1990, 1. Reagan favored a performance-based rating over the unions’ seniority system. United Press International, “Burger Lifts Court Bar on Personnel Policies,” New York Times, July 6, 1985, section 1, 8; Robert Pear, “Federal Aides Outline Plan to Cut Retirement Program” New York Times, November 21, 1984, A16; Associated Press, “Accord Reached on Pensions for New Federal Employees,” New York Times, May 17, 1986, section 1, p. 8.
46. “An Affirmative Action Commitment,” Oasis (September 1984): 11. See also “SSA Statistics,” Oasis (January 1983): 28; “Current Status, Future Plans Examined, Downsizing in SSA,” Oasis (February 1989): 12–14; and “Shop Talk,” Local 1923 Report, May 1985, 1, History Department Files, Social Security Administration Headquarters, Woodlawn, Maryland.
47. Jane A. Smith and David Rosenthal, “Emergence of Black Middle Class Lags in Baltimore,” Sun, April 8, 1988, A1; and Bart Landry, The New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
48. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Greater Baltimore Commitment: A Study of Urban Minority Economic Development (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983), 1–2, 8.
49. Commission on Civil Rights, Greater Baltimore, 8.
50. Commission on Civil Rights, Greater Baltimore, 26.
51. “15,000 Job Seekers Apply for 20 Slots,” Afro, April 4, 1981, 25.
52. Ann LoLordo, “While Addicts Wait for Help, Crime Goes On,” Sun, September 20, 1983, A5; and Andrea Pawlyna, “PCP’s Popularity, Crack in Rural Areas Sets Maryland Apart from Remainder of Northeast,” Sun, June 27, 1988, 1B, 2B.
53. Ann LoLordo, “City Narcotics Squad Seeks ‘Containment,’” Sun, September 18, 1983, A1, A14–15; and Pawlyna, “PCP’s Popularity,” 2B.
54. LoLordo, “While Addicts Wait.”
55. LoLordo, “While Addicts Wait.”
56. Randi Henderson, “Help May Depend on Addict’s Means,” Sun, June 28, 1988, 4C.
57. Henderson, “Help.”
58. Ann LoLordo, “Police Hope Grim Facts Turn Use from Drugs,” Sun, September 18, 1983, A1, A5.
59. LoLordo, “Police Hope.”
60. LoLordo, “City Narcotics Squad,” A15.
61. Pawlyna, “PCP’s Popularity,” 2B.
62. Vincent Shiraldi and Jason Ziedenberg, Race and Incarceration in Maryland (Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute, 2003), 6–7, http://www.justicepolicy.org/research/2029.
63. “Baltimore Joins Top 10 in Poverty Percentage,” Baltimore Sun, n.d., folder “(A–Z) New Federalism,” box 821, SP, 9, BCA.
64. Hammel, “Social Services.”
65. Hammel, “Social Services.”
66. Hammel, “Social Services.”
67. Some funding was restored by Congress in 1983, and states also sometimes compensated for the cuts. “AFSCME Resolution: Title XX,” Resolution No. 216, AFSCME 26th International Convention, June 18–22, 1984, San Francisco, http://www.afscme.org/about/resolute/1984/r26-116.htm; Laura Hammel, “The ‘Safety Net’ Gets Smaller,” News-American, December 13, 1981, folder “Economic Conditions—1980s,” MR, VF, EPFL; [Joint Economic Committee of Congress], “What Baltimore Loses,” Sun, August 18, 1981, A11; “Gird for More Cuts, Schaefer Tells City Agencies,” Sun, November 10, 1981, D1; Judd and Swanstrom, City Politics, 296, 315; and Nathan and Doolittle, Reagan and the States.
68. Laura Hammel, “City’s Federal ‘Pipeline’: What Will Reagan Cut?” News-American, November 16, 1980, folder “Economic Conditions—1980s,” MR, VF, EPFL; and Portia E. Badham, “Returning School Students Face Higher Lunch Costs,” Afro, September 5, 1981, 1.
69. “Mayor’s Study Shows Cities Slashing Services in Wake of Reagan Budget Cuts,” Public Employee (February 1982): 5; and Hammel, “Social Services.”
70. Quoted in Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 238.
71. Beth Ruben et al., “Unhousing the Reagan Poor: The Reagan Legacy,” Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 19, no. 1 (March 1992): Article 8.
72. Hammel, “‘Safety Net’ Gets Smaller”; “City Residents March to State Capitol,” Afro, March 28, 1981, 3; “Report Tells Concerns of the Black Elderly,” Afro, April 11, 1981, 3; and “Elderly Blacks Will Suffer Most from Reagan’s Budget Cuts,” Afro, January 22, 1985, 20.
73. Sue Williams, “Kids Make Personal Appeal to President, Governor,” Afro, April 4, 1981, 1–2.
74. Ron Davis, “Museum Chief Argues Against Cutting Budget,” Sun, May 4, 1984, D2; and James Abraham, “City to Close Some Recreation Centers; Budget Blamed,” Afro, May 9, 1981, 1.
75. “21 Will Be Laid Off in Recreation Agency,” Sun, January 14, 1984, B12; and Abraham, “City to Close Centers.”
76. Shelia Rhyne, letter to the editor, Afro, July 4, 1981, 4.
77. Patricia Tatum, “Welfare Righters Suing State for ‘Neglect’ of Needy,” Afro, October 17, 1981, 1–2; and Tatum, “Welfare Righters Win in Court,” Afro, October 24, 1981, 1.
78. Williams, Politics of Public Housing, 239.
Conclusion
1. Associated Press, “Baltimore Mayor Supports Legalization of Illicit Drugs,” New York Times, September 30, 1988, http://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/30/us/baltimore-mayor-supports-legalization-of-illicit-drugs.html?emc=eta1.
2. Paul Valentine, “Baltimore Fights Drug War Step by Small Step,” Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1990, http://articles.latimes.com/1990-06-24/news/mn-632_1_drug-addiction.
3. James Bock, “BUILD Seeks ‘Living Wage’ for Downtown Employees,” Sun, November 21, 1993, 2B.
4. Oren Levin-Waldman, The Political Economy of the Living Wage (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2005).
5. James Bock, “Labor Leaders Preach, and Preachers Urge Union Solidarity,” Sun, May 23, 1994, 1B.
6. Quoted in Levin-Waldman, Political Economy, 145.
7. “BUILD’s Undefined Demands,” Sun, October 29, 1993, 18A; Marc Levine, “A Nation of Hamburger Flippers,” Sun, July 31, 1994, E1, E4; Christopher Niedt et al., “The Effects of the Living Wage in Baltimore,” Working Paper No. 119 (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 1999), 3; Stephanie Luce, Fighting for a Living Wage (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004).
8. Andrew Green, “Living Wage Becomes MD Law,” Sun, May 9, 2009, 1A.
9. Annette Bernhardt and Laura Dresser, “Why Privatizing Government Services Would Hurt Women Workers” (Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 2002), 4–5.
10. U.S. Department of Commerce, Census of Population: 1960, Volume 1, Characteristics of the Population, Part 22 Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), 126; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1970 Census of Population, Volume 1, Characteristics of the Population, Part 22 Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 212, 228, 347; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, Maryland (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 223, 272; U.S. Census, “PCT87. Sex by Industry by Class or Worker for the Employed Civilian Population 16 Years and Over [65],” Data Set: Census 2000 Summary File 4, generated by Jane Berger, using American FactFinder, http://factfinder.census.gov (November 21, 2006).
11. Brookings Institution, “Baltimore in Focus: A Profile from Census 2000,” November 1, 2003, https://www.brookings.edu/research/baltimore-in-focus-a-profile-from-census-2000/.
12. “On Business People,” Evening Sun, May 9, 1990, G2; and Laura Vozzella, “Voters OK Changes to City Council,” Sun, November 6, 2002, 7B.
13. Glenard S. Middleton Sr., “‘Comp Time’ Law Will Create Sweatshops,” Sun, June 9, 1997, 12A; Doug Donovan, “Council Finds Its Own Voice on Hotels,” Sun, August 15, 2005, 1A, 4A.
14. “Municipal Workers Express Dissatisfaction with Deal,” Sun, June 20, 2003, 4B.
15. Baltimore Teachers Union, “2017 Legislative Priorities,” February 8, 2017, https://www.baltimoreteachers.org/2017-legislative-priorities-for-the-baltimore-teachers-union/.
16. Joe Mozingo and Timothy Phelps, “Black Power in Baltimore,” Los Angeles Times, April 29, 2015, https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-black-power-20150429-story.html.
17. Levine, “Downtown Redevelopment.”
18. Alexander, New Jim Crow.
19. López, Dog Whistle Politics, 105–107.
20. Marc Mauer, “Bill Clinton, ‘Black Lives Matter’ and the Myths of the 1994 Crime Bill,” Marshall Project, April 11, 2016, https://www.themarshallproject.org/2016/04/11/bill-clinton-black-lives-and-the-myths-of-the-1994-crime-bill.
21. James DeFilippis, ed., Urban Policy in the Time of Obama (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016).
22. Lynsea Garrison, producer, “Transcript of ‘Charm City,’ Part 2,” New York Times, pod-cast, aired June 5, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/05/podcasts/charm-city-part-two-transcript.html.
23. Garrison, “Transcript.”
24. U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, “Investigation of the Baltimore City Police Department,” August 10, 2016, 41, https://www.justice.gov/crt/file/883296/download; and Bill Keller, “David Simon on Baltimore’s Anguish,” Marshall Project, April 29, 2015, https://www.themarshallproject.org/2015/04/29/david-simon-on-baltimore-s-anguish.
25. Luke Broadwater, “Still Under Fire, Former Baltimore Mayor Sheila Dixon Eyes a Comeback,” Sun, March 17, 2016, 1, 11.
26. Department of Justice, “Investigation,” 42.
27. Garrison, “Transcript.”
28. Christine Zhang, “Maryland’s Prison Population Drops to 1980s Levels,” Sun, April 24, 2019, https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/crime/bs-md-prison-population-vera-20190423-story.html.
29. Jaeah Lee and Edwin Rios, “7 Charts Explaining Baltimore’s Economic and Racial Struggles,” Mother Jones, May 6, 2015, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/05/baltimore-race-economy-charts/.
30. Gwendolyn Mink, “Violating Women: Rights Abuses in the Welfare Police State,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 577, no. 1 (September 1, 2001): 79–93.
31. Glen Kessler, “Barack Obama: The ‘Food Stamp President’?” Washington Post, December 8, 2011, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/fact-checker/post/barack-obama-the-food-stamp-president/2011/12/07/gIQAzTdQdO_blog.html.
32. Kathryn J. Edin and H. Luke Shaefer, $2.00 a Day: Living on Almost Nothing in America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2015); and Chappell, War on Welfare.
33. Eric Siegel, “Baltimore, Washington Trail Suburbs in Cutting Welfare Caseload Since ’96,” Sun, June 7, 2001, 22B.
34. Kathy Lally, “Md’s Progress ‘Dramatic’ in Reducing Welfare Rolls,” Sun, January 14, 1997, 6A.
35. Pamela Ovwigho et al., Life on Welfare: The Active TANF Caseload in Maryland (Baltimore: University of Maryland School of Social Work, 2004).
36. Jennifer Vey, “Building from Strength: Creating Opportunity in Greater Baltimore’s Next Economy” (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, 2012), 19.
37. Associated Black Charities, “Analysis of Patterns of Employment by Race in Baltimore City and the Baltimore Metropolitan Area,” prepared by Jing Li and Richard Clinch (Baltimore: Associated Black Charities, 2018), 5.
38. Baltimore Black Worker Center, “The State of Black Workers in Baltimore,” https://bmoreblackworkercenter.org/our-report.
39. Stacey Hirsch, “Finding Work away from Assembly Line,” Sun, September 18, 2005, C1.
40. Stein, Pivotal Decade.
41. Sarah Gantz, “Raymond James Bringing Back Alex. Brown Name,” Sun, September 6, 2016, https://www.baltimoresun.com/business/bs-bz-alex-brown-20160906-story.html.
42. Robert Little, “New Longshoremen’s Local Could Lead to Labor Conflict,” Sun, June 11, 1999, 8A; Colin Campbell, “Port of Baltimore Breaks Records for Containers, General Cargo,” Sun, September 29, 2017, 4D; Colin Campbell, “Port Workers to Vote Today on 6-Year Contracts,” Sun, October 4, 2018, 4; and Marc Levinson, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).
43. Baltimore Black Worker Center, “State of Black Workers in Baltimore.”
44. Associated Black Charities, “Analysis,” 3; and Maryland Commission on Interracial Problems and Relations, An American City in Transition: The Baltimore Community Self-Survey of Inter-Group Relations ([Baltimore], 1955), 30, 32.
45. “Baltimore’s Food Deserts,” Sun, June 15, 2015, https://www.baltimoresun.com/opinion/editorial/bs-ed-food-desert-20150615-story.html; and Christina Jedra, “One in Four Baltimore Residents Live in Food Desert,” Sun, June 10, 2015, https://www.baltimoresun.com/maryland/baltimore-city/bs-md-ci-food-desert-20150610-story.html.
46. Mayor Cuts the Ribbon to Baltimore’s First New Rec Center in 10 Years,” WJZ-13 CBS Baltimore, aired July 28, 2014, https://baltimore.cbslocal.com/2014/07/28/mayor-cuts-the-ribbon-on-baltimore-citys-1st-new-rec-center-in-10-years/.
47. Andrea McDaniels, “Social Workers Join List of Services at Libraries,” Sun, September 27, 2017, 1, 15.
48. Republican National Committee, Contract with America (New York: Three Rivers, 1994); Stephen Barr, “Downsizing: Whose Jobs Will Be Cut?” Washington Post, April 3, 1995, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/04/03/downsizing-whose-jobs-will-be-cut/33913cbe-9d95-4e27-832f-4502c99f0b4a/; and Bill Clinton, “Clinton’s Economic Plan: The Speech,” New York Times, February 18, 1993, https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/18/us/clinton-s-economic-plan-speech-text-president-s-address-joint-session-congress.html.
49. George Will, “Back to 1900,” Sun, January 1, 1995, 3F.
50. Reihan Salam, “Where the Jobs Aren’t,” National Review, March 31, 2011, https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2011/04/18/where-jobs-arent/.
51. Eric Siegel, “Urban Services Set to Vanish as Agency,” Sun, May 23, 1993, 4B.
52. Siegel, “Urban Services.”
53. Ralph Vartabedian, “The New Mission: Are Defense Mergers Good for the Industry?” Los Angeles Times, April 6, 1997, 2, http://articles.latimes.com/1997-04-06/business/fi-46013_1_lockheed-martin/2.
54. Steven Greenhouse, “A Watershed Moment for Public-Sector Unions,” New York Times, February 18, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/19/us/19union.html.
55. Alexander Hertel-Hernandez, “How ALEC Helped Undermine Public Unions,” Washington Post, December 17, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/12/17/how-alec-helped-undermine-public-unions/; and Nancy MacLean, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Viking, 2017).
56. Roberta Lynch, “Unions are About Freedom and Fairness,” On the Move 179 (October 2017): 2, https://m.afscme31.org/on-the-move/pdf/OTM-October-2017-WEB.pdf.
57. AFSCME District Council 20, “AFSMCE: 75+ Years of History,” https://www. afscme .org/about/history/75-years-of-afscme.
58. Rachel Cohen, “The Radical Teachers’ Movement Comes to Baltimore,” Nation, June 7, 2019, https://www.thenation.com/article/baltimore-teachers-union/.
59. Daniel DiSalvo, “The Trouble with Public Sector Unions,” National Review, Fall 2010, https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/the-trouble-with-public-sector-unions.
60. Terry Moe, Special Interest: Teachers Unions and America’s Public Schools (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011); and Leo Casey, “Teachers Unions and Public Education,” Perspectives on Politics 10, no. 1 (March 2012): 126–129.
61. AFSCME, “AFSCME: 75+.”
62. Yvonne Wanger, “Saving Sandtown-Winchester: Decade-Long, Multimillion-Dollar Investment Questioned,” Sun, May 10, 2015, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/baltimore-city/west-baltimore/bs-md-ci-sandtown-winchester-blight-20150510-story.html.
63. Timothy Wheeler, “Bill to Help City Development Ok’ed,” Sun, March 30, 2000, 2B.
64. Mark Reutter, “Analysis: Before City Hall Loved TIFs It Shunned Them as Bad Policy,” BaltimoreBrew, March 23, 2016, https://www.baltimorebrew.com/2016/03/23/analysis-before-city-hall-loved-tifs-it-shunned-them-as-bad-policy/.
65. Roy Meyers, “The Port Covington TIF: Did Baltimore ‘Protect This House’?” in Tax Increment Financing and Economic Development: Uses, Structures and Impact, 2nd edition, ed. Craig L. Johnson and Ken Kriz (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2019), 83–100; and Maximilian Tondro, “The Baltimore Development Corporation: A Case Study of Economic Development Corporations, Shadow Government, and the Fight for Public Transparency and Accountability,” Legal History Publications 23 (2010), https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/mlh_pubs/23.
66. Edward Ericson Jr., “Checking Up on the Developers Who Get City Tax Breaks,” Sun, June 19, 2013 (originally published in City Paper), https://www.baltimoresun.com/citypaper/bcp-cms-1-1507227-migrated-story-cp-20130619-mobs2-20130619-story.html.
67. Brookings, “Baltimore in Focus.
68. Meyers, “Port Covington TIF,” 83.
69. Meyers, “Port Covington TIF,” 93.
70. Mark Reutter, “Slow the Roll of the Port Covington TIF Subsidy, Protesters Say,” BaltimoreBrew, May 20, 2016, https://www.baltimorebrew.com/2016/05/20/slow-the-roll-of-the-port-covington-tif-subsidy-protesters-say/; and Meyers, “Port Covington TIF,” 83.
71. Reutter, “Slow the Roll.”
72. Quoted in Meyers, “Port Covington TIF,” 87.
73. Quoted in Editorial, “Approve Port Covington,” Sun, September 12, 2016, 12.
74. Meyers, “Port Covington TIF,” 89–97; and Fern Shen, “Port Covington Deal: Signed, Sealed and Delivered,” BaltimoreBrew, September 28, 2016, https://www.baltimorebrew.com/2016/09/28/port-covington-tif-signed-sealed-and-delivered/.