Methodology for Data Selection
The data set for state and city policy actions includes state statutes, court decisions, and city ordinances that reflected important policy decisions. Many of these policies were innovative, whereby a city or state embarked on a new (or relatively new) civic activity. Although legislative statutes are emphasized, the entries also reference constitutional provisions—either amendments to an existing charter or a whole new constitution. To the extent state statutes enabled or instructed local government to do certain things, they empowered local action. But in some cases, I included municipal ordinances directly. I selected six states (and each one’s major city) for the 1783–1870 data set and eight states for 1870–1917. States were selected based on their geographic diversity and influence on American governance.
My sampling technique loosely follows the research design in David R. Mayhew, Divided We Govern: Party Control, Lawmaking and Investigations, 1946–2000 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005). Mayhew wanted to ascertain the important legislative accomplishments of the post–World War II Congresses. To achieve this objective, he reviewed accounts of journalists who assessed the activities of each Congress, as well as authors who published studies of specific policy areas. Mayhew used a similar methodology, based on secondary literature, for America’s Congress: Actions in the Public Sphere, James Madison through Newt Gingrich (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), ch. 2.
My goal was to identify important policy actions at the state and municipal levels. I relied principally on secondary works concerning a particular state or city as my source for relevant information. The most useful publications are listed in the sources below. In some cases I identified pertinent policy actions from comparative studies of state governance, such as Carter Goodrich, Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1880–1890 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), and Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). Most of these works are cited in the endnotes.
Regarding the dating of actions, I generally used the year a new law was enacted, rather than the date it became operational. Thus, I record the date the Erie Canal was authorized by New York (1817) rather than the year it opened to traffic from Buffalo to Albany (1825). Some municipal actions complicated this protocol, in that both state and city decisions were involved, as illustrated by authorization for the Boston Public Library. Massachusetts permitted cities and towns to appropriate funds for public libraries in 1851; Boston approved trustees for a library in 1852 and opened the facility in a temporary home in 1853. That year, the state passed special legislation that allowed Boston to commit funds for construction of the library; the Boylston Street facility was built in 1855–1857. For table A.1 on Massachusetts, I used 1851 as the date for the Boston Public Library; for table 5.1 (Boston Governance, 1821–1863), I used 1852. In some cases, the sources do not note whether an action was a state enabling act or a municipal decision. But these gaps and discrepancies in dating do not alter the broader policy patterns contained in the data.
The data set includes approximately 1,850 entries for the years 1783–1929. Sources for state policy actions are divided into two parts: six states for 1783–1870, and eight states for 1870–1917 and the 1920s. I included a few dates that lay outside the chronological boundaries to complete certain policy stories.
Sources for Tables A.1 and A.2 (1783–1870)
CALIFORNIA
Delmatier, Royce D., et al. The Rumble of California Politics, 1848–1970. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970.
Fankhauer, William G. A Financial History of California: Public Revenues, Debt, and Expenditures. Berkeley: University of California, 1913.
McDonald, Terrence J. The Parameters of Urban Fiscal Policy: Socioeconomic Change and Political Culture in San Francisco, 1860–1906. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Nash, Gerald D. State Government and Economic Development: A History of Administrative Policies in California, 1849–1933, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
Pierce, John M. “420 State Activities: California Government Continues to Expand.” Tax Digest (August 1936): 261, 281–286.
Pisani, Donald J. To Reclaim a Divided West: Water, Law, and Public Policy, 1848–1902. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992.
ILLINOIS
Cole, Arthur C. The Era of the Civil War, 1848–1870. Springfield: Illinois Centennial Commission, 1919.
Howard, Robert P. Illinois: A History of the Prairie State. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1972.
Labovita, I. M. “The Illinois Revenue System, 1818–1936.” Illinois Tax Commission Special Report 4 (1936).
Monkkonen, Eric H. The Local State: Public Money and American Cities. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995.
Pease, Theodore C. The Frontier State, 1818–1848. Springfield: Illinois Centennial Commission, 1918.
Pierce, Bessie Louise. A History of Chicago. Vols. 1–3. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1937, 1940, 1957.
Tingley, Donald F., ed. Essays on Illinois History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1968.
MASSACHUSETTS
Abbott, Richard H. “Massachusetts. Maintaining Hegemony.” In Radical Republicans in the North: State Politics during Reconstruction, ed. James C. Mohr. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
Baum, Dale. The Civil War Party System: The Case of Massachusetts, 1848–1876. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
Bullock, Charles J. Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of Mass., from 1780 to 1905. 3rd ser., vol. 8:2. New York: Publications of the American Economic Association, 1907.
Formisano, Ronald. Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Handlin, Oscar. Commonwealth: A Study of the Role of Government in the American Economy: Massachusetts, 1774–1861. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
Hart, Albert B., ed. Commonwealth History of Massachusetts, vol. 4, 1820–1889. New York: States History Co., 1930.
Huse, Charles P. The Financial History of Boston, 1822–1909. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1916.
Koren, John. Boston, 1822 to 1922: The Story of Its Government. Boston: City of Boston Printing Department, 1922.
Lane, Roger. Policing the City: Boston, 1822–1905. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.
Whitten, Robert H. Public Administration in Massachusetts: The Relation of Central to Local Authority. New York: Columbia University, 1898; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1969.
NEW YORK
Benson, Lee. The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961.
Bidwell, Frederick D. Taxation in New York State. Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1918.
Ellis, David M., et al. A History of New York State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967.
Galie, Peter J. Ordered Liberty: A Constitutional History of New York State. New York: Fordham University Press, 1996.
Gunn, L. Ray. The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York, 1800–1860. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
Hartog, Hendrik. Public Property and Private Power: The Corporation of the City of New York in American Law, 1730–1870. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983.
Henretta, James A. “The Rise and Decline of ‘Democratic-Republicanism’: Political Rights in New York and the Several States, 1800–1905.” In Toward a Usable Past, ed. Paul Finkelman and Stephen E. Gottlieb. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991.
Mohr, James C. The Radical Republicans and Reform in New York during Reconstruction. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973.
New York State Constitutional Convention Committee. Problems Relating to Taxation and Finance, vol. 4, State and Local Government in New York. 1938.
Schneider, David M. History of Public Welfare in New York State, vol. 1, 1609–1866. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Sowers, Don C. The Financial History of New York State: From 1789 to 1912. New York: Columbia University Press, 1914.
OHIO
Aumann, Francis R., and Harvey Walker. The Government and Administration of Ohio. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1956.
Bogart, Ernest L. Financial History of Ohio. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1912.
Orth, Samuel P. The Centralization of Administration in Ohio. New York: Columbia University Press, 1903.
Roseboom, Eugene H. The Civil War Era, 1850–1873, vol. 4 of The History of the State of Ohio. Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1944.
Roseboom, Eugene H., and Francis P. Weisenburger. A History of Ohio. Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1953.
Scheiber, Harry N. Ohio Canal Era: A Case Study of Government and the Economy, 1820–1861. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1969.
Weisenburger, Francis P. The Passing of the Frontier, 1825–1850, vol. 3 of The History of the State of Ohio. Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1941.
VIRGINIA
Goodrich, Carter. “The Virginia System of Mixed Enterprise: A Study of State Planning of Internal Improvements.” Political Science Quarterly 64 (1949): 355–387.
Heineman, Richard, J. Kolp, A. Parent, and Wm. G. Shade. Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2007.
Hodges, Wiley E. “Pro-Governmentalism in Virginia, 1789–1836: A Pragmatic Liberal Pattern in the Political Heritage.” Journal of Politics 25 (May 1963): 333–360.
Nelson, Margaret V. A Study of Judicial Review in Virginia, 1789–1928. New York: Columbia University Press, 1947.
Risjord, Norman K., and Gordon DenBoer. “The Evolution of Political Parties in Virginia, 1782–1800.” Journal of American History 60 (1974): 961–984.
Shade, William G. Democratizing the Old Dominion: Virginia and the Second Party System, 1824–1861. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997.
Shafer, Alan. “Virginia’s ‘Critical Period.’” In The Old Dominion: Essays for Thomas Perkins Abernethy, ed. Darrett B. Rutman. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1964.
Sydenstricker, Edgar. A Brief History of Taxation in Virginia. Richmond: Superintendent of Public Printing, 1915.
Sources for Tables A.3 (1870–1917) and A.7 (1918–1929)
CALIFORNIA
Blackford, Mansel G. The Politics of Business in California, 1890–1920. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1977.
Issel, William, and Robert W. Cherny. San Francisco, 1865–1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Mowry, George. The California Progressives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951.
Starr, Kevin. Americans and the California Dream, 1850–1915. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.
Swisher, Carl B. Motivation and Political Technique in the California Constitutional Convention, 1878–79. Claremont, CA: Pomona College, 1930.
Williams, Hal. The Democratic Party and California Politics, 1880–1896. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973.
Wollenberg, Charles M. All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1855–1975. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.
FLORIDA
Brookings Institution. The Florida Fiscal Situation: A Preliminary Study. Tallahassee: Tax Inquiry Council of Florida, 1941.
Colburn, David R., and Richard K. Scher. Florida’s Gubernatorial Politics in the Twentieth Century. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1981.
Dauer, Manning J., and William C. Harvard. “The Florida Constitution of 1885—A Critique.” University of Florida Law Review 8 (1955).
Doyle, Wilson K., A. Laird, and S. Weiss. The Government and Administration of Florida. New York: Thomas Crowell, 1954.
Flynt, Wayne. Duncan Upshaw Fletcher: Dixie’s Reluctant Progressive. Tallahassee: Florida State University Press, 1971.
Kendrick, Bayard H. Florida Trails to Turnpikes, 1914–1964. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964.
McDonell, Victoria H. “The Businessman’s Politician: A Study of the Administration of John Wellborn Martin, 1925–1929.” MA thesis, University of Florida, 1968.
Price, Hugh Douglas. The Negro and Southern Politics: A Chapter in Florida History. New York: New York University Press, 1957.
Proctor, Samuel. Napoleon Bonaparte Broward: Florida’s Fighting Democrat. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1950.
Tebeau, Charlton W. A History of Florida. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1971.
University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Economic leaflets, 1941–1960.
Williamson, Edward C. Florida Politics in the Gilded Age, 1877–1893. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1976.
ILLINOIS
Bogart, Ernest L., and John M. Mathews. The Modern Commonwealth, 1893–1918. Springfield: Illinois Centennial Commission, 1920.
Bogart, Ernest L., and Charles M. Thompson. The Industrial States, 1870–1893. Springfield: Illinois Centennial Commission, 1920.
Buenker, John D. “Urban Immigrant Lawmakers and Progressive Reform in Illinois.” In Essays in Illinois History, ed. Donald F. Tingley. Carbondale: South Illinois University Press, 1968.
Campbell, Ballard C. Representative Democracy: Public Policy and Midwestern Legislatures in the Late Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Garvey, Neil F. The Government and Administration of Illinois. New York: Thomas Crowell, 1958.
Ginger, Ray. Altgeld’s America, 1890–1905. Chicago: Quadrangle, 1965.
Keisser, John H. Building for the Centuries: Illinois, 1865–1898. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977.
Kirschner, Don S. City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1970.
Pegram, Thomas R. Partisans and Progressives: Private Interests and Public Policy in Illinois. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992.
Tingley, Donald F. The Structuring of a State: The History of Illinois, 1899–1928. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980.
MASSACHUSETTS
Abrams, Richard. Conservatism in a Progressive Era: Massachusetts Politics, 1900–1912. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964.
Blodgett, Geoffrey. The Gentle Reformers: Massachusetts Democrats in the Cleveland Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
Campbell, Ballard C. “Public Policy and State Government.” In The Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Origins of Modern America, ed. Charles W. Calhoun. 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
Cheape, Charles W. Moving the Masses: Urban Public Transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880–1912. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Connolly, James J. The Triumph of Ethnic Progressivism: Urban Political Culture in Boston, 1900–1925. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
Dodd, E. Merrick. The First Half-Century of Statutory Regulation of Business Corporations in Massachusetts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934.
Frisch, Michael H. Town into City: Springfield, Massachusetts, and the Meaning of Community, 1840–1880. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Hart, Albert B., ed. Commonwealth History of Massachusetts, vol. 5, 1889–1930. New York: Russell & Russell, 1930.
Huthmacher, J. Joseph. Massachusetts People and Politics: The Transition from Republican to Democratic Dominance, 1919–1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.
Keyssar, Alexander. Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Kirkland, Edward C. Men, Cities, and Transportation: A Study in New England History, 1820–1900. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948.
Lazerson, Marvin. Origins of the Urban School: Public Education in Massachusetts, 1870–1915. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Leiby, James. Carroll Wright and Labor Reform: The Origins of Labor Statistics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960.
Rosenkrantz, Barbara G. Public Health and the State: Changing Views in Massachusetts, 1842–1936. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Tager, Jack, ed. Massachusetts in the Gilded Age. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1985.
Van de Woestyne, Royal S. State Control of Local Finance in Massachusetts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935.
NEW YORK
Baker, Paula. Moral Frameworks of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the Sate in Rural New York, 1870–1930. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Caldwell, Lynton. The Government and Administration of New York. New York: Thomas Crowell, 1954.
Ingalls, Robert P. Herbert H. Lehman and New York’s Little New Deal. New York: New York University Press, 1975.
McCormick, Richard L. From Realignment to Reform: Political Change in New York State, 1893–1910. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981.
Prescott, Frank W., and Joseph F. Zimmerman. The Politics of the Veto of Legislation in New York State. 2 vols. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980.
Schick, Thomas. The New York State Constitutional Convention of 1915 and the Modern State Governor. N.p.: National Municipal League, 1978.
Schneider, David M. Public Welfare in New York State, vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Wesser, Robert F. Charles Evans Hughes: Politics and Reform in New York, 1905–1910. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967.
OHIO
Warner, Hoyt L. Progressivism in Ohio, 1897–1917. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1964.
OREGON
Burton, E. Democrats of Oregon: The Pattern of Minority Politics, 1900–1956. Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 1970.
Burton, E. “The New Deal in Oregon.” In The New Deal, vol. 2, The State and Local Levels, ed. John Braeman et al. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975.
Dodds, Gordon B. Oregon: A Bicentennial History. New York: Norton, 1977.
Higgens-Evenson, Rudy. “Parties, Patronage, Professionals, and the State: A History of Oregon Institutions, 1859–1900.” MA thesis, University of Oregon, 1995.
Isseks, Morris S. History of State Administrative Agencies in Oregon, 1843–1937. Salem: Oregon State Planning Board, 1939.
MacColl, E. Kimbark. The Growth of a City: Power and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1915–1950. Portland, OR: Georgian Press, 1979.
Swarthout, John M., and Kenneth R. Gervais. “Oregon: Political Experiment Station.” In Politics in the American West, ed. Frank H. Jonas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1969.
VIRGINIA
Heinemann, Ronald L. Depression and New Deal in Virginia. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1983.
Magruder, F. A. Recent Administration in Virginia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1912.
Moger, Allen W. Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870–1925. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1968.
Pate, James E. “State Supervision over Local Fiscal Officers in Virginia.” American Political Science Review 25 (1931): 1004–1008.
Pulley, Raymond H. Old Virginia Restored: An Interpretation of the Progressive Impulse, 1870–1930. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1968.
Renda, Lex. “The Advent of Agricultural Progressivism in Virginia.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 96 (1988): 55–82.
Silver, Christopher. Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984.
Tables
In the following tables, cities are abbreviated as follows: Bos = Boston; Chic = Chicago; Cinc = Cincinnati; Clev = Cleveland; Jack = Jacksonville (FL); NYC = New York City; Rich = Richmond; San Fr = San Francisco. USDA = US Department of Agriculture.
Table A.1. Massachusetts Policy Innovations in the Antebellum Era
|
Social policy: Education |
•Authorized district system, 1789 •Free schools (towns enabled), 1827 •State Board of Education (powers over local aid), 1837 •Normal schools, 1839 (Lexington, later Framingham State College; W. Barre, later Westfield State College) •Libraries: city and town support, 1851 •Compulsory education, 1852, 1858 |
|
Children |
•Ten-hour workday for children in industries, 1842 •Adoption of children, 1851 |
|
Indigent |
•Aid to towns, 1794 |
|
persons, |
•Boston almshouse (House of Industry), 1821 |
|
immigrants, |
•Feebleminded (insane): 1833 (Worcester Street Hospital), 1848 (school) |
|
dependents |
•Immigrants: bonding required of shipping companies (head tax), 1837; Board of Alien Passengers, 1851 •State almshouse, 1854 •Committee on Public Charitable Institutions, 1859 •Town authority to deny residency to paupers, 1860 |
|
Community |
•Restrict lotteries, 1801, 1817, 1837 |
|
values |
•Liquor: ∘License, 1838 ∘Prohibition, 1852 •Race: ∘Personal liberty law, 1843 ∘Prohibit school segregation, 1855 •Women: ∘Property rights, 1845 ∘Prohibit contraceptive information, 1847 |
|
Criminal |
•Militia Act, Riot Act, Sedition Act, 1786 |
|
justice and |
•Prison (Charleston), 1802; adopt Auburn model, 1829 |
|
public order |
•Reform schools (Boston), 1826 (boys), 1855 (girls) •Abolition of imprisonment for debt (partial), 1834 •Uniformed police, 1859 |
|
Commercial |
•Savings banks, 1816; general incorporation, 1834 |
|
assistance |
•Agriculture: ∘Geographic survey, 1830 ∘Board, 1852 ∘Census, 1845 •Railroads: ∘State investment, 1835–1841 ∘Charters, 1852 ∘Hoosac Tunnel, 1854 ∘Street railways, 1854 •Manufacturing, 1851 •“Free” banks, 1851; general incorporation, 1852 |
|
Commercial |
•Gas companies, 1855 |
|
assistance |
•Physicians: elimination of most licensing restrictions, 1859 •Physicians: elimination of most licensing restrictions, 1859 |
|
Commercial |
•Licensing: ∘Ferries, 1796 ∘Liquor, 1838 ∘Pilots, 1855 •State system of weight standards, 1835 •Bank commissioners, 1838 ∘Commission, 1852 ∘Specie minimum, 1858 •Workers: hours, exemption from criminal conspiracy, 1842 •Railroads: regulate charters, 1852 •Cities: regulation of street railways, 1854 •Insurance board, 1855; general regulations, 1856 |
|
Health and safety |
•Cochituate water system for Boston, 1836 •Towns required to establish board of health, 1849 •Compulsory vaccination, 1850 •Prohibition of milk adulteration, 1856, 1858 |
|
Government |
•Executive veto: ∘Governor, 1780 (first used 1827) ∘Boston mayor, 1854 •Suffrage: ∘Small property qualification, 1780 constitution ∘Taxpayers, 1821 (constitutional amendment) ∘English literacy required, 1857 ∘Citizenship required, 1859–1863 •Creation of cities authorized, 1820 (constitutional provision) •Legislature: ∘Legislator compensation, 1825 ∘Property qualification abolished, 1840 ∘House set at 240 members, 1857 •Authorization of state census, 1840 •“Police power” recognized, 1851 (Commonwealth v. Alger) |
|
Finance |
•State property, circa 1780 •Tax on banks, 1812 •Immigrant head tax, 1848 |
Table A.2. State Actions, 1783–1870: California, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Virginia
|
Governmental Structure and Process |
|
|
Suffrage: property qualifications abolished |
OH: 1802 |
|
Popular election of governors |
NY: 1777 |
|
Governor veto |
NY: 1821 |
|
Election of officials |
NY: 1839 (mayors) |
|
Election of judges |
NY: 1846 |
|
Biennial legislative sessions |
VA, OH: 1851 |
|
Incorporation of cities |
Cinc: 1810 |
|
State police powers |
NY: 1827 (Vanderbilt v. Adams) |
|
Social Policy |
|
|
Education: |
|
|
Public schools established |
MA: 1789, 1827 |
|
Free high schools |
OH: 1849 |
|
Compulsory education |
MA: 1852, 1858 |
|
Education: |
|
|
State board of education |
MA: 1837 |
|
State financial aid |
MA: 1834 |
|
Normal schools |
MA: 1839 |
|
State university |
OH: 1804 |
|
Care of indigent and dependents: |
|
|
Almshouses |
Bos: 1821 |
|
Blind |
NY: 1834 |
|
Insane |
VA: 1828 |
|
Feebleminded |
MA: 1853, 1851 |
|
Board of charities |
MA: 1863 |
|
Immigration control |
MA: 1837, 1851 |
|
Community values: Liquor: license |
MA: 1838 |
|
Liquor: prohibition |
MA: 1852 |
|
Sunday closing of saloons |
IL: 1827, 1841 |
|
Restriction of lotteries |
MA: 1801, 1837 |
|
Abolition and racial exclusion |
IL: 1820s (antiblack laws) |
|
Personal liberty law |
NY: 1840 |
|
Marital property rights for women |
MA: 1845 |
|
Restriction of personal behavior |
NY: 1845 (antiabortion) |
|
Parks |
Bos: 1824 |
|
Public Health and Safety |
|
|
Fresh water systems |
Rich: 1830 (James River) |
|
Sewer systems |
NYC: 1849 |
|
Food adulteration |
MA: 1856 (milk), 1872 |
|
Compulsory vaccination |
MA: 1850 |
|
Board of health |
NY: 1866 (metro) |
|
Criminal Justice |
|
|
Capital punishment reform |
NY: 1796, 1835, 1841 |
|
Prisons |
NY: 1796 (Newgate), 1816 (Auburn) |
|
Prison boards |
NY: 1846 |
|
Police: uniformed |
NYC: 1856 |
|
Reform schools |
NYC: 1824, 1848 |
|
Reform schools for girls |
MA: 1855 |
|
Commercial Assistance |
|
|
Promotion of transportation |
VA: 1816 (internal improvement fund), 1817 (turnpikes) |
|
NY: 1817 (Erie Canal), 1836 (expanded) |
|
|
OH: 1825 (canal system), 1836–1845 |
|
|
IL: 1829–1836 (canal acts); 1835, 1837 (loans); 1849 (county investment) |
|
|
MA: 1835–1841 (railroad investment), 1854–1868 (Hoosac Tunnel) |
|
|
CA: 1859 (for cities and counties), 1863–1873 (rail subsidy) |
|
|
San Fr: 1863 (harbor) |
|
|
Incorporation of private enterprise: |
NY: 1811 (selected industries), 1827 (limited liability) |
|
Manufacturing: general law |
NY: 1848 |
|
Banks: “free banking” |
NY: 1838 |
|
Railroads |
MA: 1852 (charters), 1854 (street railways) |
|
Stay laws for debtors |
OH: 1820, 1841 |
|
Agriculture: |
|
|
Board of agriculture |
NY: 1841 |
|
Geological survey |
MA: 1830 |
|
Water regulations |
CA: 1854 |
|
Workers: |
|
|
Hours |
MA: 1842, 1866 (children), 1874 (women) |
|
Exemption from criminal conspiracy |
MA: 1842 (Commonwealth v. Hunt) |
|
Commercial Regulations |
|
|
Banking |
MA: 1799 (note redemption, 1810), 1838 |
|
Insurance |
NY: 1850 |
|
Railroads |
OH: 1849 (rates), 1867 (commission) |
|
MA: 1852 (via charters), 1854 (street railroads), |
|
|
IL: 1869 (commission) |
|
|
Usury |
OH: 1803, 1869 |
|
NY: 1837 |
|
|
IL: 1849, 1857 |
|
|
Abolition of imprisonment for debt |
NY: 1817, 1831 |
|
MA: 1834, 1855 |
|
|
OH: 1838 |
|
|
Public Finance |
|
|
Business taxes: |
|
|
On banks |
MA: 1812, 1862 (excise) |
|
On corporations |
OH: 1831, 1846 |
|
Business and vendor license fees |
VA: 1807 (peddlers), 1838 (graduated licenses) |
|
State property tax |
MA, VA, OH: 1780s |
|
Board of equalization |
NY: 1859 |
|
Fiscal controls: |
|
|
Debt limit on state |
NY: 1846 |
|
Prohibition of investment in corporations and internal improvements: |
|
|
Debt limitations on cities |
San Fr: 1856 |
|
Tax limitations |
IL: 1845 (cities) |
Table A.3. State Actions, 1870–1917: California, Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia
|
Gilded Age (1870–1900) |
Progressive Era (1901–1917) |
|
|
Governmental Structure and Process |
||
|
Legislature: |
||
|
Legislative Reference Bureau |
NY: 1890 |
CA: 1904 MA, OH: 1910 IL, OR: 1913 VA: 1914 |
|
Apportionment: county system |
NY: 1894 |
OH: 1903 |
|
Elections: |
||
|
Female suffrage |
School elections: |
General elections: |
|
MA: 1879 |
CA: 1911 |
|
|
NY: 1880 |
OR: 1912 |
|
|
OR: 1882 |
IL: 1913 |
|
|
IL: 1891 OH: 1894 |
NY: 1917 |
|
|
Secret ballot |
MA: 1888 CA, IL, OH, OR: 1891 NY, VA: 1894 FL: 1895 |
|
|
Voter registration |
MA: 1884 VA: 1884, 1894 IL: 1885 (Chic) NY: 1890 |
VA: 1902 |
|
Regulation of campaign finances/parties |
CA: 1886 OH: 1889 |
VA: 1902 FL: 1905 |
|
NY: 1890 MA: 1892, 1894 |
OR: 1908 OH: 1911 |
|
|
Direct primary |
OR: 1904 IL: 1910 MA, CA: 1911 VA: 1912 FL, NY, OH: 1913 |
|
|
Initiative and referendum |
OR: 1903 CA: 1911 OH: 1913 MA: 1918 |
|
|
Executives and administration: |
||
|
Civil service |
NY: 1883 MA: 1884 |
OH: 1903 IL: 1905, 1911 CA, OH: 1913 FL: 1938 VA: 1942 |
|
Governor’s veto |
VA: 1870 NY: 1876 (item veto) IL: 1884 |
VA: 1902 OH: 1903 CA: 1908 MA: 1918 |
|
Municipal: |
||
|
Strengthening of mayor |
IL: 1875 NY: 1884 Bos: 1885 (item veto) Clev: 1891 San Fr: 1898 |
OH: 1902 NYC: 1908 (budget) Bos: 1909 (charter reform) |
|
Home rule |
Chic: 1903 OR: 1906 CA: 1911 (commission government) OH: 1912 NY: 1915 |
|
|
Zoning authority |
VA: 1908 MA: 1911 IL: 1913 NY: 1914 OR: 1919 |
|
|
Judicial review |
NY: 1885 (In Re Jacobs) IL: 1895 (Ritchie v. People) |
OR: 1908 (recall of judges) OH: 1912 (restriction of court) |
|
Public Finance |
||
|
Tax commission (permanent) |
MA: 1864 IL: 1887 NY: 1896 |
OR: 1909 OH: 1910 FL: 1913 IL: 1919 VA: 1923 |
|
Taxation: |
||
|
Corporations |
NY: 1880 VA: 1880 OH: 1898 (franchise) |
CA: 1905, 1910 (constitutional amendment) VA: 1915 (income) |
|
Utilities |
MA: 1882 OH: 1894 NY: 1899 |
NY: 1901, 1905 (stock), 1917 (income) OR: 1906, 1913 (valuation) CA: 1910, 1913 |
|
Inheritance |
NY: 1885 MA: 1891 OH: 1893 IL: 1895 |
OR: 1903 CA: 1905 MA: 1908 IL: 1908 (increase; progressive) NY: 1910 (stronger) VA: 1916 |
|
Auto registration |
NY: 1901, 1910 MA: 1903 CA, FL, OR: 1905 OH: 1906 IL: 1907 VA: 1910 |
|
|
Personal income tax |
MA, VA: 1916 NY: 1919 |
|
|
Financial controls: |
||
|
State supervision of local government |
NY: 1872 IL: 1876 MA: 1879 (county) CA: 1895 |
MA: 1906 (local reports) |
|
Local accounting standards |
NY: 1905, 1907 MA: 1912 |
|
|
Municipal debt limit |
IL: 1870 Cinc: 1877 CA: 1879 MA: 1879 (county), 1885 NY: 1884 |
OH: 1911 MA: 1913 |
|
Municipal tax limit |
IL: 1879 MA: 1885 |
IL: 1901, 1915 (classification) OH: 1910 |
|
State budget systems |
CA: 1911 OH, OR: 1913 IL: 1917 MA, VA: 1918 FL, NY: 1921 |
|
|
Social Policy |
||
|
Civil rights: |
||
|
Racial discrimination |
FL: 1885 (schools), 1889 (poll tax) CA: 1885 (Asians, Indians in schools) |
VA: 1902 (segregation, disenfranchisement) 1912 (residential) CA: 1913, 1920 (anti-Japanese) |
|
Racial nondiscrimination |
NY: 1895 (open accommodations) OH: 1887 (schools) |
|
|
Education: |
||
|
Compulsory education |
CA, NY, OH: 1874 IL: 1883 OR: 1889 |
VA: 1908 (local option) FL: 1915 |
|
Free textbooks |
MA: 1884 |
CA: 1911 FL: 1925 |
|
Teachers’ retirement |
Chic, NYC: 1895 MA: 1900 |
MA, VA: 1908 NY: 1911 CA: 1913 IL: 1915 OH: 1919 FL: 1939 |
|
Care of indigent and dependents: |
||
|
Insane |
NY: 1890 CA: 1897 MA: 1898 |
VA: 1902 (board) MA: 1904 (state) |
|
Blind |
CA, FL: 1885 |
IL: 1903 MA: 1906 |
|
Mothers’ pensions |
IL: 1911 MA, CA, OH: 1913 NY, OR: 1915 VA:1918 FL: 1919 |
|
|
Veterans’ home |
IL: 1885 OH: 1886 FL: 1891 VA: 1892 CA: 1897 |
|
|
Mores: |
||
|
Female suffrage |
IL: 1891 (school) OH: 1894 (school) |
CA: 1911 OR: 1912 IL: 1913 NY: 1917 OH: 1923 MA: 1924 |
|
Liquor: local option |
MA: 1881 CA, IL: 1883 |
OR: 1904 |
|
Mores: |
||
|
Liquor: local option |
FL: 1885 |
OH, VA: 1886 NY: 1896 |
|
Liquor: state prohibition |
OR, VA: 1914 OH: 1916 FL: 1918 |
|
|
Gambling (horse races) |
NY: 1908 FL: 1931 |
|
|
Parks and reserves |
NY: 1883 (Adirondack) MA: 1893 (metro district), 1896 (Revere Beach), 1898 (Bos playgrounds), 1898 (Mt. Greylock State Forest) |
FL: 1935 |
|
Public Health |
||
|
State board |
VA: 1872 IL: 1877 CA: 1879 NY: 1880 OH: 1886 FL: 1889 |
OR: 1903 |
|
Department |
VA: 1908 NY: 1909 MA: 1914 IL, OH: 1917 |
|
|
Water standards |
MA: 1878, 1886 VA: 1892 |
OH: 1908 |
|
Metropolitan sewers |
NY: 1849 Bos: 1876 MA: 1998 IL: 1889 OH: 1898 San Fr: 1899 |
MA: 1919 (metro district commission) |
|
Food and drug adulteration |
NY: 1881 IL: 1881, 1899 MA: 1882 OH: 1886 VA: 1899 |
OH: 1904 CA, FL: 1907 VA: 1908 |
|
Sanitary code/tenement regulation |
IL: 1881 MA: 1888 (schools) OH: 1893 |
NY: 1901 (tenements), 1909 OH: 1908 (tenements VA: 1910 MA: 1912 |
|
Tuberculosis sanatoriums |
MA: 1898 |
OH: 1908 (county option) VA: 1910 IL: 1915 (Chic) |
|
Licensing: |
||
|
Physicians |
CA: 1875 IL: 1877 VA: 1884 FL, NY, OR: 1889 MA: 1894 OH: 1896 |
|
|
Pharmacists |
IL: 1881 OH: 1884 MA: 1885 VA: 1886 FL, NY: 1889 CA, OR: 1891 |
|
|
Dentists |
IL: 1881 VA: 1886 FL, MA, OR: 1887 NY: 1895 |
|
|
Nurses |
NY, VA: 1903 CA: 1905 IL: 1907 MA: 1910 OR: 1911 FL: 1913 OH: 1915 |
|
|
Undertakers (embalmers) |
VA: 1894 |
OH: 1902 MA: 1904 CA: 1915 FL: 1917 OR: 1921 |
|
Public Safety |
||
|
Vagrancy law strengthened |
IL: 1874, 1877 MA: 1875, 1880 NY: 1880 MA: 1896, 1898 |
|
|
Militia reorganization |
IL: 1879 NY: 1883 OR: 1887 MA: 1888 |
|
|
Antiriot/conspiracy |
IL: 1887 |
NY: 1902 (Anarchy Act) IL: 1905 |
|
Parole |
OH: 1884 MA: 1891 CA: 1893 IL: 1895 |
MA: 1913 OH: 1913 FL: 1940 VA: 1942 |
|
Social Policy |
||
|
Prohibition of the leasing of convicts |
OH: 1906 FL: 1923 |
|
|
State prison farm |
VA: 1894 FL: 1911 |
OH: 1913 |
|
Juvenile court |
Chic: 1899 NYC: 1900 NYC: 1900 |
Clev: 1902 Bos: 1906 OH: 1913 FL: 1951 |
|
State police |
MA: 1865 |
CA: 1905, 1917 NY: 1917 |
|
Workers |
||
|
Bureau of labor statistics |
MA: 1869 OH: 1877 IL: 1879 NY, CA: 1883 VA: 1898 |
OR: 1903 |
|
Labor arbitration |
MA, NY, OH: 1886 CA: 1891 IL: 1895 |
NY: 1901 |
|
Limited hours: women and children |
NY: 1886, 1892 OR, VA: 1890 (women) MA: 1892 (10 hours) IL: 1893 (women) |
MA: 1900, 1911 (54-hour week) IL: 1903 (children), 1909 (women) NY: 1903 (children), 1913 (women) OH: 1905 (children), 1911 FL: 1907 VA: 1908 CA: 1911 OR: 1913 |
|
Eight-hour day, state workers |
MA: 1911 OH: 1912 |
|
|
Factory conditions, standards |
Chic: 1879 MA, NY: 1887 CA: 1889 |
IL: 1905 OH: 1912 |
|
Factory inspectors |
OH: 1885 IL: 1893 |
OR: 1903 IL: 1907 NY: 1913 OH: 1913 (industrial commission) |
|
Anti-sweatshop |
MA: 1891 NY: 1892, 1900 IL: 1893 |
|
|
Mine regulations |
IL: 1872, 1883 (board) OH: 1873 CA: 1880 NY: 1890 |
IL: 1905 OR: 1911 OH: 1914 |
|
Compulsory payment of money wages |
OH: 1878 MA: 1886 NY: 1889 IL: 1891 |
OR: 1913 (semimonthly) |
|
Minimum wage |
MA: 1912 (women) CA, OR: 1913 |
|
|
Employment offices |
OH: 1890 IL: 1899 |
MA: 1906 IL: 1899 NY: 1914 CA: 1915 |
|
Employer liability defined |
MA: 1887 |
NY: 1902 |
|
Anti-injunction law |
IL: 1898 (unconstitutional) |
CA: 1906 MA: 1914 |
|
Workers’ compensation |
OH: 1913 FL: 1935 |
|
|
Commercial Assistance |
||
|
General incorporation |
MA: 1882 NY: 1892 (holding companies) IL: 1887 (general banking) |
MA: 1903 (rules relaxed) |
|
Licensing of accountants |
NY: 1896 |
CA: 1901 OR: 1913 MA: 1923 FL: 1927 |
|
Agriculture: |
||
|
Experiment stations |
IL: 1876 CA: 1877 NY: 1880 MA, OH: 1882 VA: 1886 OR: 1888 |
|
|
Dairy commission/bureau |
IL: 1872 NY: 1884 FL: 1885 OH: 1886 MA: 1892 OR: 1893 CA: 1895 |
CA: 1907 (quality standards) VA: 1908 |
|
Cattle commission |
MA: 1860 OH: 1884 IL: 1885 NY: 1893 VA: 1898 CA: 1899 OR: 1913 |
|
|
Commercial Assistance |
||
|
Anti-oleo |
NY: 1877, 1884 FL: 1881 VA: 1892 CA, OR: 1895 IL: 1897 |
|
|
Commodity standards |
IL: 1872 (board of trade) CA: 1880 (viticulture) VA: 1890 (fertilizer) |
CA: 1909 (dairy certification) IL: 1911 (grain) FL: 1911 (citrus) |
|
Department of agriculture |
IL: 1884 FL: 1885 NY: 1893 |
OH: 1913 IL: 1917 CA: 1919 |
|
Transportation: |
||
|
Highways: state aid |
MA: 1892 NY: 1898 |
OH: 1904 IL: 1905 VA: 1906 CA: 1909 OR: 1911 FL: 1915 |
|
Highway commission |
MA: 1893 CA: 1895 |
OH: 1904 IL: 1905 VA: 1906 NY: 1908 OR: 1913 FL: 1915 |
|
Registration of motor vehicles (annual) |
MA, NY: 1901 CA, FL: 1905 OH: 1906 IL: 1907 VA: 1910 OR: 1911 |
|
|
Subway |
Bos: 1893 |
NYC: 1904 |
|
Waterways |
MA: 1879 (Bos harbor) OH: 1888 (canal commission) OR: 1891 (Portland harbor commission) NY: 1895 (Erie Canal enlargements) |
NY: 1903 (barge canal) CA: 1910 MA: 1911 (Bos harbor) FL: 1912 (Jack harbor commission) |
|
Resources: |
||
|
Fish/fishing |
NY: 1868 IL: 1875 OR: 1878, 1893 CA: 1885 MA: 1886 |
|
|
Forestry |
CA, FL, OH: 1885 (boards) NY: 1885 (department) |
MA: 1904, 1914 CA: 1905 NY: 1909 OR: 1911 OH: 1914 FL: 1927 |
|
Reclamation |
FL: 1881 (drainage) OR: 1895 |
FL: 1905 (Everglades drainage) VA: 1910 (drainage) OH: 1913 (flood) |
|
Commercial Regulation |
||
|
Banking |
CA: 1878, 1895 (strengthened NY: 1884, 1892 IL: 1887 OH: 1891 (building and loan) |
NY: 1905 MA: 1906) OR: 1907 OH: 1908 MA: 1908 (commissioner) CA: 1909 VA: 1910 |
|
Insurance |
OH, NY: 1886 (fire) OR: 1887 CA: 1891 IL: 1893 |
NY, VA: 1906 OR: 1909 (commissioner) |
|
Railroad commission |
OH: 1867 MA: 1869 IL: 1870 VA: 1877 OR: 1877-1898 CA: 1880 NY: 1883 FL: 1897 |
OH: 1906 (passengers) NY: 1911 (expanded jurisdiction) |
|
Gas |
MA: 1885 |
NY: 1905, 1907 (commission) |
|
Electricity Telephones |
MA: 1887 |
NY: 1905 FL: 1909 NY: 1910 MA: 1913 |
|
Public utility commission (including railroads) |
VA: 1902 NY: 1905 OR: 1907 CA, FL, OH: 1911 IL, MA: 1913 |
|
|
Small loans |
MA: 1888 IL: 1891 |
OR: 1913 NY: 1915 IL: 1917 FL: 1925 |
|
Commercial Regulation |
||
|
Antimonopoly |
CA: 1889 IL: 1891 OH: 1898 |
CA: 1907 MA: 1911 (prices) VA: 1919 |
|
Futures (“bucket shops”) |
IL: 1887 |
NY: 1908 |
|
Securities (“blue sky” laws) |
NY: 1907 (utilities) OH: 1908, 1913 CA: 1913 IL: 1917 |
|
Table A.4. Presidential Administrations and Policy Actions, 1869–1901
|
Administration |
Year |
Policy Actions |
|
Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877) |
1870 |
•Fifteenth Amendment (ratified) |
|
•Justice Department |
||
|
•National Weather Service (from US Army to USDA) |
||
|
1871 |
•Coast and Geodetic Survey |
|
|
1872 |
•Yellowstone National Park |
|
|
1873 |
•Silver coinage stopped |
|
|
1875 |
•Resumption of coin-for-greenback swap |
|
|
Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881) |
1877 |
•Federal troops used in great railroad strike |
|
•Desert Land Act (assistance for irrigation) |
||
|
1878 |
•Bland-Allison Silver Purchase Act |
|
|
1879 |
•US Geological Survey |
|
|
•National Board of Health |
||
|
James A. Garfield (1881)/ |
1881 |
•Forest Agency (in USDA) |
|
Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885) |
1882 |
•Chinese Exclusion Act |
|
1883 |
•Civil Service Act |
|
|
•First appropriations act for construction of steel naval ships |
||
|
1884 |
•Bureau of Labor Statistics |
|
|
Grover Cleveland (1885–1889) |
1886 |
•Appropriations to build a “modern” navy |
|
1887 |
•Interstate Commerce Act |
|
|
•Indian Reorganization Act (Dawes Severalty Act) |
||
|
•Agricultural experiment stations (grants to states) |
||
|
1889 |
•Agriculture elevated to department status |
|
|
Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893) |
1890 |
•Sherman Antitrust Act |
|
•McKinley tariff |
||
|
•Sherman Silver Purchase Act |
||
|
•Appropriations to build three battleships |
||
|
•Dependents Pension Act |
||
|
1891 |
•General Land Act: national forest system established |
|
|
•Federal appeals courts established |
||
|
•Immigration regulations (Immigration and Naturalization Service) |
||
|
•“Billion-dollar Congress” (51st) |
||
|
1893 |
•Good roads appropriations—Office of Road Inquiry (1894) |
|
|
•Railway Safety Appliance Act |
||
|
Grover Cleveland (1893–1897) |
1893– |
•Appropriations for five battleships |
|
1896 |
||
|
1893 |
•Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed |
|
|
1894 |
•Federal troops used to break Pullman strike |
|
|
•Wilson tariff, with income tax provision |
||
|
•Treasury purchases gold; additional |
||
|
•purchases in 1895 |
||
|
1896 |
•Rural free delivery of mail |
|
|
•Veto of immigration law requiring literacy |
||
|
William McKinley (1897–1901) |
1897 |
•Dingley tariff |
|
•Registration of copyrights |
||
|
1898 |
•Hawaii annexed |
|
|
•Spanish-American War |
||
|
1899 |
•Puerto Rico and Philippines acquired |
|
|
1900 |
•Gold Standard Act |
Table A.5. Federal Agencies, 1867–1921
|
Year |
Agency |
|
1867 |
•Office of Education (Interior Department) |
|
1870 |
•National Weather Service (from US Army to USDA) |
|
•Army Signal Corps |
|
|
•Justice Department |
|
|
1871 |
•Coast and Geodetic Survey |
|
•Office of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries |
|
|
1879 |
•US Geological Survey |
|
•National Board of Health |
|
|
1881 |
•Forest Agency (USDA) |
|
1883 |
•Civil Service Commission |
|
1884 |
•Bureau of Labor Statistics (independent department as of 1888) |
|
1887 |
•Interstate Commerce Commission |
|
1888 |
•Office of Experiment Stations (USDA) |
|
1889 |
•USDA given cabinet status |
|
1890 |
•Weather Bureau transferred from US Army to USDA |
|
1891 |
•Immigration and Naturalization Service |
|
•National forest system |
|
|
1894 |
•Office of Road Inquiry (Office of Public Roads, 1905) |
|
1897 |
•Register of Copyrights (Library of Congress) |
|
1901 |
•Bureau of Plant Industry (USDA) |
|
•Bureau of Chemistry and Soils (USDA) |
|
|
•Bureau of Forestry (USDA) |
|
|
1902 |
•Reclamation Service (Bureau of Reclamation, 1922) |
|
•Bureau of the Census |
|
|
1903 |
•Bureau of Corporations |
|
•Department of Commerce and Labor (until 1913) |
|
|
•Antitrust Division, Justice Department |
|
|
1904 |
•Bureau of Entomology (USDA) |
|
1905 |
•Forest Service |
|
1907 |
•Bureau of Plant Industry (USDA) |
|
1908 |
•Bureau of Investigation, Justice Department (FBI, 1935) |
|
1910 |
•Bureau of Mines |
|
1912 |
•Children’s Bureau |
|
•US Public Health Service |
|
|
1913 |
•Department of Labor |
|
•Department of Commerce |
|
|
1914 |
•Agricultural Extension Service (USDA) |
|
•Federal Reserve Board (per 1913 act) |
|
|
•Federal Trade Commission |
|
|
1915 |
•Bureau of Efficiency |
|
•Naval Consulting Board |
|
|
•Bureau of Public Roads |
|
|
1916 |
•Grain Standards Act (USDA) |
|
•Tariff Commission (investigatory authority) |
|
|
•US Shipping Board |
|
|
•National Park Service |
|
|
•Federal Farm Loan Board |
|
|
1917 |
•War Industries Board |
|
•US Employment Service |
|
|
•US Housing Corporation |
|
|
•Federal Board for Vocational Education |
|
|
1918 |
•Women’s Bureau |
|
1919 |
•Bureau of Public Roads |
|
1920 |
•Federal Power Commission |
|
1921 |
•Bureau of the Budget |
|
•Grain Futures Administration |
|
|
•General Accounting Office |
Table A.6. The Documentary State: Information about Individuals, 1789–1920
|
Period Beginning |
Information Collected From |
|
1789 |
•Military records: US and state |
|
1790 |
•US census |
|
•State censuses |
|
|
•Land entries in public domain (US territories) |
|
|
•Local property and tax records |
|
|
1850 |
•State birth records |
|
•State death records |
|
|
•Municipal health inspections |
|
|
1862 |
•Distillers’ licenses and inspections (US excise tax) |
|
1863 |
•US postal addresses: urban delivery |
|
1870s |
•Municipal criminal records |
|
•School records |
|
|
•Professional and occupational licenses: dentists, pharmacists, physicians, engineers, veterinarians, vessel pilots, undertakers |
|
|
1890 |
•Voter registration |
|
1891 |
•Immigration control |
|
1896 |
•US postal addresses: rural delivery |
|
1901 |
•Auto registrations |
|
•National death registrations |
|
|
1903 |
•State police |
|
1905 |
•State criminal bureaus |
|
1906 |
•Driver’s licenses |
|
1907 |
•Marriage licenses (some required medical certification) |
|
1908 |
•US Bureau of Investigation |
|
1909 |
•Local fingerprint files |
|
1913 |
•US income tax |
|
1914 |
•US narcotics control (e.g., Harrison Act) |
|
1915 |
•National birth registrations |
|
1917–1918 |
•World War I draft registrations |
|
•US passports (e.g., Travel Control Act) |
Table A.7. State Actions, 1918–1929: California, Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia
|
Governmental Structure and Process |
|
|
State budget |
CA: 1911 (1921), 1922 |
|
OH, OR: 1913, 1927 |
|
|
NY: 1916 |
|
|
IL: 1917, 1927 |
|
|
MA: 1918 |
|
|
FL: 1921 |
|
|
State administrative reorganization |
IL: 1917 |
|
MA: 1919 |
|
|
CA, OH: 1921 |
|
|
NY: 1925 (partial) |
|
|
VA: 1927 |
|
|
Public employee pensions |
MA: 1911 |
|
NY: 1920 |
|
|
FL: 1927 |
|
|
Voter literacy |
NY: 1922 |
|
FL, OR: 1926 |
|
|
Social Policy |
|
|
Civil rights |
CA: 1921 (Alien Land Act: anti-Japanese) |
|
VA: 1925 (racial segregation of private accommodations) |
|
|
Education: |
|
|
School aid increased |
MA: 1919 |
|
CA: 1920 |
|
|
FL: 1924 |
|
|
NY: 1925 |
|
|
School consolidation |
VA: 1923 |
|
Care of indigent and dependents: |
|
|
Deaf, blind |
NY: 1922 |
|
MA: 1923 |
|
|
CA: 1929 (aid to blind) |
|
|
Veterans |
CA, OH: 1921 |
|
Old-age pensions |
CA: 1929 |
|
Welfare department |
MA: 1919 |
|
CA: 1925 |
|
|
FL: 1927 (board) |
|
|
Housing: slum clearance |
NY: 1926 |
|
Prohibition enforcement |
NY: 1926 |
|
Public Health and Safty |
|
|
Children’s health |
CA: 1919 |
|
Housing regulation |
NY: 1920 |
|
Mental health |
MA: 1922 |
|
Automobile insurance required |
MA: 1925 |
|
State police |
NY: 1917 |
|
IL: 1921 (highway) |
|
|
MA: 1921 |
|
|
FL: 1939 (highway) |
|
|
Sedition/antiradicalism |
CA, IL, MA, NY, OH, OR: 1919 |
|
Bureau of criminal investigation, |
CA: 1917, 1927 |
|
anticrime |
OH: 1921 |
|
NY: 1926 |
|
|
Workers |
|
|
Anti-injunction provisions |
IL: 1925 |
|
Hours |
NY: 1927 (maximum of 48 for women) |
|
Industrial safety |
OH: 1919 |
|
OR: 1920 |
|
|
Commercial Assistance |
|
|
Licenses: |
|
|
Accountants |
MA: 1923 |
|
Fishing |
CA: 1919 |
|
Transportation: |
|
|
Dedicated highway funds |
OR: 1919 |
|
MA: 1925 |
|
|
State highway system; county |
VA: 1918 |
|
road aid |
NY: 1920 |
|
OH: 1927 |
|
|
Port |
NY: 1921 (authority) |
|
Corporations |
IL: 1919 (revised incorporation) |
|
Agriculture: |
|
|
Marketing cooperatives |
CA: 1915 |
|
VA: 1922 |
|
|
FL: 1929 |
|
|
Commodity standards |
FL: 1925, 1929 (citrus, milk) |
|
CA: 1927 (fruit) |
|
|
Resources |
MA: 1920 (forest purchases) |
|
CA: 1920 (license offshore drilling), 1929 (oil, gas controls) |
|
|
NY: 1921 (water power commission) |
|
|
IL: 1925 (department of conservation) |
|
|
FL: 1927 (forests), 1929 (Okeechobee flood control) |
|
|
Commercial Regulation |
|
|
Trucking |
CA: 1917, 1919 |
|
IL, NY, OH, OR: 1921, 1924 |
|
|
VA: 1923 |
|
|
FL: 1929 |
|
|
Securities |
IL: 1919 |
|
OH: 1929 |
|
|
Airports |
CA: 1927 |
|
Small businesses |
CA: 1927 (dry cleaners), 1929 (gas production) |
|
Loans |
FL: 1925 |
|
Finance |
|
|
Motor vehicle fuel tax |
IL: 1924 (unconstitional), 1927 |
|
OH: 1925 |
|
|
MA, NY: 1929 |
|
|
Corporations |
IL: 1919 (franchise) |
|
MA: 1919 (income) |
|
|
FL: 1925 (license), 1927 (insurance) |
|
|
NY: 1926 (financial institutions) |
|
|
CA, OR: 1929 (income) |
|
|
Personal income tax |
NY: 1919 |
|
OR: 1924 (repealed 1930) |
|
|
FL: 1924 (prohibited) |
|
|
Financial controls: |
|
|
Borrowing |
MA: 1918 (two-thirds vote of legislature) |
|
Supervision of local finance |
OH: 1925 |
|
MA: 1926 |
|
|
VA: 1927 |
|
|
CA: 1929 |
|
|
Property classification permitted |
OH: 1929 |