CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS LATINO ANTI-BLACKNESS?
1. Vilson, “My Skin Is Black, My Name Is Latino. That Shouldn’t Surprise You.”
2. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks.
3. Quarshie and Slack, “Census: US Sees Unprecedented Multiracial Growth, Decline in the White Population for First Time in History.”
4. Vespa, Medina, and Armstrong, Demographic Turning Points for the United States.
5. Jung and Costa Vargas, Antiblackness; Costa Vargas, The Denial of Antiblackness.
6. “Hispanic Population to Reach 111 Million by 2060”; Population by Hispanic or Latino Origin: 2010 and 2020.
7. Gosin, “The Death of ‘La Reina de la Salsa’: Celia Cruz and the Mythification of the Black Woman.”
8. Godreau, “Folkloric ‘Others’: Blanqueamiento and the Celebration of Blackness as an Exception in Puerto Rico.”
9. Lao-Montes, “Afro-Latin@ Difference and the Politics of Decolonization.”
10. Román and Flores, introduction to The Afro-Latin@ Reader, 1.
11. The various terms for referring to Latinos is discussed at the end of this chapter.
12. Goldberg, Racist Culture.
13. Quesada, “The Violent History of Latin America Is ALL About Promoting Whiteness.”
14. Okamoto and Mora, “Panethnicity.”
15. Gotanda, “A Critique of ‘Our Constitution Is Color-Blind.’”
16. Wilkerson, Caste.
17. Eberhardt, Biased.
18. Poets Medrano, Regando esencias [The Scent of Waiting]; Perdomo, Where a Nickel Costs a Dime. Novelists Acevedo, The Poet X; Llanos-Figueroa, Daughters of the Stone; Díaz, The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao; Serrano, Gunmetal Black. Memoirists Díaz, Ordinary Girls; Redd, “Something Latino Was Up with Us”; Thomas, Down These Mean Streets.
19. García-Peña, “Dismantling Anti-Blackness Together”; Petra Rivera-Rideau, “Expanding the Dialogues: Afro-Latinx Feminisms”; Jaime, “How Latinx People Can Fight Anti-Black Racism in Our Own Culture”; López, “It’s Time for Non-Black Latinx People to Talk About Anti-Blackness in Our Own Communities”; Julie Torres, “Black Latinx Activists on Anti-Blackness”; Pérez, “As Non-Black POC, We Need to Address Anti-Blackness.”
20. Holder and Aja, Afro-Latinos in the U.S. Economy.
21. “Afro-Latinos in 2017: A Demographic and Socio-Economic Snapshot”; Logan, How Race Counts for Hispanic Americans; López and Gonzalez-Barrera, “Afro-Latino: A Deeply Rooted Identity Among U.S. Hispanics”; Monforti and Sanchez, “The Politics of Perception.”
22. Vargas, “Latinos and Criminal Justice, Policing, and Drug Policy Reform.”
23. Quiros and Dawson, “The Color Paradigm.”
24. LaVeist-Ramos et al., “Are Black Hispanics Black or Hispanic?”
25. Gravlee, Dressler, and Bernard, “Skin Color, Social Classification, and Blood Pressure in Southeastern Puerto Rico.”
26. López et al., “What’s Your ‘Street Race’?”
27. Roth, “Racial Mismatch.”
28. López, “Killing Two Birds with One Stone?”; Nolasco, “Doing Latinidad While Black.”
29. Hernández, Racial Subordination in Latin America, 2.
30. Hernández, “Roots of Anger.”
31. Ashla, reader response, Los Angeles Times.
32. Adriana E. Padilla, reader response, Los Angeles Times.
33. Telles, Sawyer, and Rivera-Salgado, Just Neighbors?
34. Roth and Kim, “Relocating Prejudice.”
35. Roth and Kim, “Relocating Prejudice; Massagali, “What Do Boston-Area Residents Think of One Another?,” 144–64.
36. Smith, “Market Rivals or Class Allies?”; Marrow, New Destination Dreaming, 120–34.
37. Hernández, “‘Too Black to Be Latino/a’,” 154; Prud’homme, “Race Relations Browns vs. Blacks”; Morales, “Brown Like Me?”
38. Black Latinas Know Collective (blog); Radio Caña Negra podcast; Latinx Racial Equity Project.
39. Crenshaw et al., Critical Race Theory, defining critical race theory as the scholarly examination of the relationship among race, racism, and power to reveal practices of systemic and structural subordination facilitated and permitted by legal discourse and legal institutions.
40. Spivak, “Subaltern Studies: Deconstructing Historiography.”
41. Hernández, Racial Subordination in Latin America, 73.
42. SlaveVoyages Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org/estimates/bE6pXgi9. Accessed Oct. 27, 2021.
43. Telles, Pigmentocracies, 3.
44. Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba; Clealand, The Power of Race in Cuba.
45. Telles, Pigmentocracies.
46. Reiter and Simmons, Afro-Descendants, Identity, and the Struggle for Development in the Americas.
47. Hall, “A Descriptive Analysis of Skin Color Bias in Puerto Rico,” 177–78.
48. Torres, “La gran familia Puertorriqueña ‘ej preta de Beldá’” (The Great Puerto Rican Family Is Really Black), 285, 297.
49. Valentín and Minet, “Las 889 páginas de telegram entre Rosselló Nevares y sus allegados.”
50. Dulitzky, “A Region in Denial.”
51. Miller and Garran, Racism in the United States, 289.
52. Valdes, “Race, Ethnicity, and Hispanismo in a Triangular Perspective,” 326.
53. De Carvalho-Neto, “Folklore of the Black Struggle in Latin America.”
54. Hordge-Freeman, The Color of Love; Hordge-Freeman and Veras, “Out of the Shadows, into the Dark,” 146–60.
55. Adames, Chavez-Dueñas, and Organista, “Skin Color Matters in Latino/a Communities”; Derlan et al., “Longitudinal Relations Among Mexican-Origin Mothers’ Cultural Characteristics, Cultural Socialization, and 5-Year-Old Children’s Ethnic–Racial Identification.”
56. Hordge-Freeman and Veras, “Out of the Shadows, into the Dark.”
57. Bonilla-Silva, “Reflections About Race by a Negrito Acomplejao.”
58. Cruz-Janzen, “Latinegras,” 170.
59. Cruz-Janzen, “Latinegras,” 179.
60. Comas-Díaz, “LatiNegra,” 168.
61. Comas-Díaz, “LatiNegra,” 176.
62. Llorens, “Identity Practices.”
63. Comas-Díaz, “LatiNegra,” 177.
64. Jorge, “The Black Puerto Rican Woman in Contemporary American Society,” 138.
65. Candelario, Black Behind the Ears.
66. Calzada, Kim, and O’Gara, “Skin Color as a Predictor of Mental Health in Young Latinx Children.”
67. Quiñones Rivera, “From Triguenita to Afro Puerto Rican.”
68. Feliciano, Lee, and Robnett, “Racial Boundaries Among Latinos.”
69. Jorge, “The Black Puerto Rican Woman,” 139.
70. Morales, “Parental Messages Concerning Latino/Black Interracial Dating.”
71. McClain et al., “Racial Distancing in a Southern City”; Torres-Saillant, “Problematic Paradigms”; Valdes, “Race, Ethnicity, and Hispanismo in a Triangular Perspective,” 307.
72. Candelario, Black Behind the Ears.
73. Candelario, Black Behind the Ears, 339.
74. Howard, “Afro-Latinos and the Black-Hispanic Identity.”
75. Dulitzky, A Region in Denial, 39.
76. Mindiola et al., Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes, 20–29, 37–38.
77. Yancey, Who Is White?, 65.
78. Krupnikov and Piston, “The Political Consequences of Latino Prejudice Against Blacks.”
79. Mindiola, Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes, 35.
80. Mindiola, Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes, 44–45.
81. Marcus L. Britton, “Close Together but Worlds Apart?”
82. Charles, Won’t You Be My Neighbor?, 161.
83. Mindiola, Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes, 46.
84. McClain et al. “Racial Distancing in a Southern City.”
85. Wilkinson, Partners or Rivals?, 64.
86. Charles, “Neighborhood Racial-Composition Preferences,” 379.
87. Yancey, Who Is White?, 70–71; Lindo, “Miembros de las diversas razas prefieren a los suyos.”
88. National Conference of Christians and Jews, Taking America’s Pulse.
89. Piatt, Black and Brown in America, 52–57.
90. Barreto, Gonzalez, and Sánchez, “Rainbow Coalition in the Golden State?”
91. Bobo and Hutchings, “Perceptions of Racial Group Competition.”
92. Gomez-Aguinaga et al., “Importance of State and Local Variation in Black-Brown Attitudes,” 214–25.
93. Bobo and Hutchings, “Perceptions of Racial Group Competition,” 964.
94. Sampson and Raudenbush, “Seeing Disorder,” 319, 332–33, 336.
95. Darity, Hamilton, and Dietrich, “Passing on Blackness”; Loveman and Muniz, “How Puerto Rico Became White.”
96. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race.”
97. Darity and Boza, “Choosing Race,” 4–5; Darity et al., “Bleach in the Rainbow.”
98. Darity et al., “Bleach in the Rainbow.”
99. Cohn, “Millions of Americans Changed Their Racial or Ethnic Identity from One Census to the Next.”
100. DiFulco, “Can You Tell a Mexican from a Puerto Rican?,” 86.
101. Pessar, A Visa for a Dream, 44.
102. Howard, Coloring the Nation, 114–15.
103. Nieves, “The Representation of Latin@s in the Media”; Fletcher, “The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV”; Goin, “Marginal Latinidad.”
104. Calderón, My Time to Speak, 59.
105. Flores, “Race Discrimination Within the Latino Community.”
106. Flores, “Race Discrimination Within the Latino Community,” 30–31.
107. Pew Research Center, Majority of Latinos Say Skin Color Impacts Opportunity in America and Shapes Daily Life, 21; National Survey of Latinos Report, 74.
108. US Census Bureau, “Population by Hispanic or Latino Origin: 2010 and 2020, Table 3”; US Census Bureau, “The Hispanic Population in the United States: 2019.”
109. Del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; McDonald, The Mexican War.
110. Foley, Quest for Equality.
111. Haney López, “Protest, Repression, and Race.”
112. Salazar, “Chicanos Would Find Identity Before Coalition with Blacks,” 239, 241.
113. Salazar, “Negro Drive Worries Mexican-Americans,” 113.
114. Salazar, “Negro Drive Worries Mexican-Americans.”
115. Hernández, “Afro-Mexicans and the Chicano Movement,” 1537.
116. Murguia and Forman, “Shades of Whiteness.”
117. Barbaro, “Ethnic Resentment,” 77, 89–91.
118. Barbaro, “Ethnic Resentment,” 91.
119. Barbaro, “Ethnic Resentment,” 90.
120. Hutchinson, “Urban Tension.”
121. Lee and Suro, “Latino-Black Rivalry Grows.”
122. Martínez, “African-Americans, Latinos, and the Construction of Race.”
123. Kasindorf and Puente, “Hispanics and Blacks Find Their Futures Entangled.”
124. Kasindorf and Puente, “Hispanics and Blacks Find Their Futures Entangled.”
125. Archibold, “Racial Hate Feeds a Gang War’s Senseless Killing.”
126. Rivera, “Poly High Violence Just Made News, But Parents Say It’s a Decades-Old Problem.”
127. Chideya and Del Barco, “Racial Tension at Los Angeles High School.”
128. “Brawl Erupts at Carson High School Between 30 Black, Latino Students”; “Lunchtime Brawl Involving 40 People Breaks Out at LA High School After Tensions Flared Between Black and Hispanic Students at Prom”; “Riots Break Out Between Black, Latino Students at Victorville School”; Buchanan, “Tensions Mounting Between Blacks and Latinos Nationwide.”
129. Lee and Suro, “Latino-Black Rivalry Grows.”
130. Lee and Suro, “Latino-Black Rivalry Grows.”
131. Guidry, “Reaching the People Across the Street.”
132. De Genova and Ramos-Zayas, Latino Crossings, 187–89; McClain et al., Racial Distancing in a Southern City; Swarns, “Bridging a Racial Rift That Isn’t Black and White.”
133. Heard, “Racial Strife Runs Deep at High School.”
134. LeDuff, “At a Slaughterhouse, Some Things Never Die.”
135. Marrow, New Destination Dreaming, 118.
136. Schleef and Cavalcanti, Latinos in Dixie, 54, 88.
137. Jones, “Blacks May Be Second Class, But They Can’t Make Them Leave,” 73.
138. Dunn and Stepick, “Blacks in Miami,” 41.
139. Dunn and Stepick, “Blacks in Miami,” 45.
140. Stack and Warren, “The Reform Tradition and Ethnic Politics,” 174.
141. Grenier and Castro, “Blacks and Cubans in Miami,” 137, 151.
142. Peery, “Witnessing History,” 305, 306–8.
143. Logan, How Race Counts for Hispanic Americans, 7.
144. Logan, How Race Counts for Hispanic Americans, 8.
145. Betancur, “Framing the Discussion of African-American-Latino Relations,” 159–72.
146. Opie, Upsetting the Apple Cart.
147. De Genova and Ramos-Zayas, Latino Crossings, 40.
148. Lee, Building a Latino Civil Rights Movement.
149. Jorge, “The Black Puerto Rican Woman in Contemporary American Society,” 134, 139.
150. Cruz, “Interminority Relations in Urban Settings,” 84, 90.
151. Cruz, “Interminority Relations in Urban Settings,” 91.
152. Barbaro, “Ethnic Resentment,” 83.
153. Lee and Diaz, “’I Was the One Percenter,’” 64.
154. Cruz, “Interminority Relations in Urban Settings,” 91; Melendez, We Took the Streets.
155. Ramos-Zayas, National Performances.
156. Itzigsohn et al., “Immigrant Incorporation and Racial Identity,” 50, 69.
157. Monforti and Sanchez, “The Politics of Perception,” 261–62; “National Survey of Latinos,” 74.
158. Freeman, “A Note on the Influence of African Heritage on Segregation,” 137, 141.
159. Itzigsohn and Dore-Cabral, “Competing Identities?,” 225, 240.
160. Russell, “Perth Amboy Gang Tensions Worry Parents.”
161. Ortiz, Never Again a World Without Us.
162. Mora, Perez, and Vargas, “Who Identifies as ‘Latinx’?”
163. Noe-Bustamante, Mora, and Lopez, “About One-in-Four U.S. Hispanics Have Heard of Latinx, but Just 3% Use It.”
164. Salinas and Lozano, “Mapping and Recontexualizing the Evolution of the Term ‘Latinx.’”
165. Ramos, Finding Latinx.
CHAPTER 2: “NO JUEGUES CON NIÑOS DE COLOR EXTRAÑO”
1. Blades, “Plástico.”
2. Hernández, Racial Subordination in Latin America, 109–11, 128.
3. Sued Badillo and Lopez Cantos, Puerto Rico Negro; Morales Carrión, Auge y decadencia de la trata negrera en Puerto Rico (1820–1860); Kinsbruner, Not of Pure Blood, 32.
4. Duany, “Making Indians out of Blacks,” 31–32.
5. Santiago-Valles, “Policing the Crisis in the Whitest of All the Antilles,” 43–44.
6. Betances, “The Prejudice of Having No Prejudice in Puerto Rico, Part II,” 22, 33.
7. Llorens, Garcia-Quijano, and Godreau, “Racismo en Puerto Rico”; Santiago-Valles, “Policing the Crisis in the Whitest of All the Antilles,” 43–44; Muñoz Vásquez and Alegría Ortega, Discrimen por razón de raza y los sistemas de seguridad y justicia.
8. Puerto Rico Civil Rights Act, 1 P.R. Laws Ann. §§ 13–19 (1943); P.R.
Const. Art. II, § 1 (1952); 29 P.R. Laws Ann. § 146 (codifying as amended 1959 P.R. Laws 100).
9. 48 U.S.C. § 734.
10. 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000a et seq.
11. Bermudez Zenon, 790 F. Supp. 41, 43.
12. Dinzey-Flores, Locked In, Locked Out, 4.
13. US Census Bureau, QuickFacts, “Miami City, Florida.”
14. US Census Bureau, “Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census.”
15. Booth, “Miami.”
16. Aja et al., The Color of Wealth in Miami.
17. Sawyer, “Racial Politics in Multiethnic America.”
18. Laroche, 62 F. Supp.2d 1375. Complaint at 1.
19. Labaton, “Denny’s Restaurants to Pay $54 Million in Race Bias Suits.”
20. Grillo, Black Cuban, Black American.
21. Greenbaum, More Than Black, 310.
22. In re Trujillo, 2002 WL 1491999.
23. In re Pryor, 1994 WL 910076.
24. In re Andrews, 2003 WL 23529549.
25. US Census Bureau, “Carlsbad, New Mexico Population: Census 2010 and 2000.”
26. US Census Bureau, “Carlsbad, New Mexico Population: Census 2010 and 2000”; US Census Bureau, QuickFacts: “Carlsbad City, New Mexico.”
27. Pirtle, 2003 WL 27385258.
28. Pirtle, 2003 WL 27385258. Complaint at 16.
29. Pirtle, 2003 WL 27385258. Complaint at 7.
30. Haywood, “‘Latino Spaces Have Always Been the Most Violent,’” 759.
31. Haywood, “‘Latino Spaces Have Always Been the Most Violent,’” 774.
32. Garcia-Louis and Cortes, “Rejecting Black and Rejected Back.”
33. Garcia-Louis and Cortes, “Rejecting Black and Rejected Back,” 11.
34. Smith and Jones, “Intraracial Harassment on Campus.”
35. Telzer and Vazquez Garcia, “Skin Color and Self-Perception of Immigrant and U.S.-Born Latinas.”
36. Haywood, “‘Latino Spaces Have Always Been the Most Violent,’” 777–80.
37. Literte, “Competition, Conflict, and Coalition.”
38. Office for Civil Rights, “Section 101 Privacy Act and Freedom of Information Act,” 5.
39. Office for Civil Rights, “Pending Cases Under Investigation at Elementary-Secondary and Post-Secondary Schools as of May 28, 2021.”
40. Dache, Haywood, and Mislán, “A Badge of Honor Not Shame.”
41. Straus, “Unequal Pieces of a Shrinking Pie”; Williams and Garza, “A Case Study in Change and Conflict.”
42. Hardie and Tyson, “Other People’s Racism.”
43. Straus, “Unequal Pieces of a Shrinking Pie,” 507.
44. Ericksen and Casuso, “Race Fights Break Out at Samohi.”
45. Stovall, interview with author, 2–19.
46. “6 Students Arrested After Fight at Streamwood H.S.”
47. Hodge, “Hard Lessons.”
48. Hodge, “Hard Lessons.”
49. Ayala, “Racismo institucional en las escuelas: Una condena para lxs niñxs negrxs; Torres Gotay, “Justicia desiste del caso contra estudiante de educación especial.”
50. Cruz-Janzen, “Y tu abuela a’onde esta?”
51. Fennell, 963 F. Supp. 2d 623.
52. Recio, “Black and Ugly.”
53. Sinnette, Arthur Alfonso Schomburg, 13.
54. Valdés, Diasporic Blackness.
55. Cortés, interview with author, 48–64.
56. Stovall, interview with author, 86–90.
57. Vilson, interview with author, 99–120.
58. Montoya, interview with author, 132–62.
59. “Providence, 2019–20 Report Card: Overview,” accessed June 24, 2021. Afro-Latino numbers are not specified in the data in which the remaining student population is reported as 9 percent White, 5 percent Asian, 4 percent multiracial, and 1 percent Native American.
60. Teach for America fellow, Rhode Island, interview with author; “Providence, 2019–20 Report Card: Civil Rights Data Collection for 2017–2018,” accessed June 24, 2021, showing disproportionate suspensions and school arrests for students of color compared to White students.
61. Generation Teach, “Why We Exist and What We Do,” accessed July 20, 2021.
62. Teaching fellow, Generation Teach Rhode Island Program, interview with author, 22–30.
63. Teaching fellow, Generation Teach Rhode Island Program, interview with author, 140–52.
64. Epstein, Blake, and Gonzalez, Girlhood Interrupted.
65. Stovall, interview with author, 76–82.
66. Jackson et al., “Betrayed: Chicago Schools Fail to Protect Students from Sexual Abuse and Assault, Leaving Lasting Damage”; Schuler, Annual Report—Fiscal Year 2019.
67. City of Chicago School District 299, teacher demographics, accessed July 20, 2021.
68. Cruz-Janzen, “Latinegras,” 171.
CHAPTER 3: WORKING IN THE USA
1. Olumuyiwa, 1999 WL 529553.
2. Ajayi, 336 F.3d 520; Dunn, 288 F. Supp. 3d 749; EEOC v. New Koosharem Corp, No. 2:13-cv-2761 (W.D. Tenn.); Gallentine, 919 F. Supp. 2d 787; Young, 2009 WL 3352148; EEOC v. E&D Services, Inc., No. SA-08-CA-0714-NSN (W.D. Tex.); EEOC v. Lockheed Martin, Civil No. 05–00479 SPK (D. Haw.); Cruz, No. 3–21709 (S.D. Fla. Mia. Div.); Reform Bd. of Trustees, 1999 WL 258488, at *1; Hines, 2010 WL 2599321; Roberts, 2003 WL 1194102, at *1; Ferguson, No. 2017–026195-CA-01 (Fla. Cir. Ct.); Bradshaw, No. 2016–020723-CA-01 (Fla. Cir. Ct.); Green, No. 2015–024883-CA-01 (Fla. Cir. Ct.); Turner, 49 Misc.3d 1220(A); Boyce, 958 N.Y.S.2d 306; Bowen, 49 S.W. 3d 902; In re Johnson, 1998 WL 104771.
3. Cruz, No. 3–21709 (S.D. Fla. Mia. Div.).
4. Berrey, Nelson, and Nielsen, Rights on Trial; Nielsen and Nelson, “Rights Realized?”
5. Clermont and Schwab, “Employment Discrimination Plaintiffs in Federal Court,” 127.
6. Clermont and Schwab, “Employment Discrimination Plaintiffs in Federal Court.”
7. Hornby, “Summary Judgment Without Illusions,” 273, 279–80.
8. Johnson v. Pride Indus., 2018 WL 6624691, dismissal of case pending appeal; Osei-Buckle, 1998 WL 552126, at *1; Patino, 1997 WL 416949, at *1; Farias, 925 F.2d 866, 879; Atencia, 2020 WL 3893582; Shelby, 2019 WL 1958001; Smiley, 2010 WL 10669508; Cortez, No. 03–1251 BB/LFG (D. New Mexico); Isaac, 2002 WL 31086118, at *1; Allen, 2001 WL 1249054, at *1; Hogan, 102 F. Supp. 2d 1180; Russell, 46 F. Supp. 2d 1330; Harper, 1999 WL 147698, at *1; Vincent, 3 F. Supp. 2d 1405; Bernard, 1996 WL 457284; Mathura, 1996 WL 157496; Foster, 2016 WL 4098676; Johnson, 2009 WL 867131; Donjoie, No. 2018–036551-CA-01 (Fla. Cir. Ct.); Beard, 2013 WL 5947951; Walcott, 2013 WL 593488; McCleary, 2019 WL 7205918; Hicks, 2003 WL 21788903; McCrimmon, 2003 WL 1862156; Quintana, 1989 WL 645048; In re Green, 2020 WL 2303164; In re Garcia, 2018 WL 6625532; In re Hernandez, 2007 WL 9254612.
9. Giuliano, Levine, and Leonard, “Manager Race and the Race of New Hires.”
10. Arrocha, No. CV021868, 2004 WL 594981.
11. Fanon, Peau noir, masques blancs (Black Skin, White Masks).
12. Castaneda, 430 U.S. 482.
13. Collins, Black Feminist Thought; Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex.”
14. Young, 2009 WL 3352148.
15. “Remedies for Employment Discrimination.” Punitive damages may also be awarded to punish an employer who has committed an especially malicious or reckless act of discrimination. There are limits on the amount of compensatory and punitive damages a person can recover depending on the size of the employer.
16. Bartholomew, No. 3:11CV02219 (D.P.R.).
17. Webb, 992 F. Supp. 1382.
18. Sprott, 1998 WL 472061, at *1.
19. Manager of learning and organizational development, email to author.
20. Joshi and Kline, “Lack of Jury Diversity”; Democracy and Government Reform Team, Examining the Demographic Compositions of U.S. Circuit and District Courts; Bannon and Adelstein, “State Supreme Court Diversity—February 2020 Update.”
21. Mendez, interview with author.
22. Mindiola, Flores Niemann, and Néstor, Black-Brown: Relations and Stereotypes, 31–35.
23. Portugues-Santa, 614 F. Supp. 2d 221.
24. Vance, 570 U.S. 421; De Los Santos Rojas, 85 F. Supp. 3d 615.
25. “Section 15: Race and Color Discrimination.”
26. EEOC v. Koper, U.S. Dist. Ct. of P.R. Case No. 09–1563.
27. Johnson v. Pride Indus., (No. 19–50173) 2018 WL 6624691. Dismissal of case pending appeal.
28. US Census Bureau, “QuickFacts: El Paso County, Texas.”
29. Ash, 546 U.S. 454, 456.
30. West, Race Matters.
31. Stack, “Black Workers’ Suit Accuses Job Agency of Favoring Hispanic Applicants.”
32. Hunt, 2018 Fair Emp. Prac. Case (BNA) 59,091.
33. Stack, “Black Workers’ Suit Accuses Job Agency of Favoring Hispanic Applicants.”
34. EEOC v. Rodriguez, 1994 WL 714003.
35. Haslip-Viera, White Latino Privilege.
36. EEOC v. Rodriguez, at *10.
37. Morales, “The Utility of Shared Ethnicity on Job Quality Among Latino Workers”; Elliot and Smith, “Ethnic Matching of Supervisors to Subordinate Work Groups.”
38. Farias, 925 F.2d 866, 879.
39. Newman, No Shame in My Game; Smith, Mexican New York.
40. Fuentes-Mayorga, “Sorting Black and Brown Latino Service Workers in Gentrifying New York Neighborhoods.”
41. Hersch, “Profiling the New Immigrant Worker.”
42. Murguia and Telles, “Phenotype and Schooling Among Mexican Americans,” 276–89.
43. Hersch, “The Persistence of Skin Color Discrimination for Immigrants”; Hersch, “Colorism Against Legal Immigrants to the United States.”
44. Rosenblum et al., “Looking Through the Shades.”
45. Melendez, Rodriguez, and Barry Figueroa, Hispanics in the Labor Force.
46. Hill, Black Labor and the American Legal System, 182–83, 254; Royster, Race and the Invisible Hand, 29–33; Higginbotham, “Employment for Professional Black Women in the Twentieth Century.”
47. Felix, 27 Emp. Prac. Dec. P 32,241, 22,2768 n. 6.
48. Denton and Massey, “Racial Identity Among Caribbean Hispanics”; Padilla, “‘But You’re Not a Dirty Mexican’”; Uhlmann et al., “Subgroup Prejudice Based on Skin Color Among Hispanics in the United States and Latin America.”
49. Tafoya, “Shades of Belonging.”
50. Valcarel, “Growing Up Black in Puerto Rico.”
51. Hernández, “Afro-Latin@s and the Latino Workplace.”
52. Cruz-Janzen, “Y tu abuela a’onde esta?”; Quiñones Rivera, “From Trigueñita to Afro-Puerto Rican.”
53. Belluck, “John H. Pratt, 84, Federal Judge Who Helped Define Civil Rights.”
54. Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex,” 139.
55. Banks, “Colorism.”
56. Falero Santiago, 10 F. Supp. 2d 93.
57. White, “The Irrational Turn in Employment Discrimination Law.”
58. Ash, 126 S. Ct. 1195.
59. Orozco and Tareque, 2020 State of Latino Entrepreneurship Report.
60. Minorities in Business.
61. Kramer Mills et al., Latino-Owned Businesses.
62. Orozco and Tareque, 2020 State of Latino Entrepreneurship Report.
63. Noe-Bustamante, Lopez, and Krogstad, “U.S. Hispanic Population Surpassed 60 Million in 2019, but Growth Has Slowed.”
64. Orozco and Tareque, 2020 State of Latino Entrepreneurship Report.
65. Morales, “The Utility of Shared Ethnicity,” 439–65; Aguilera, “The Impact of Social Capital on the Earnings of Puerto Rican Migrants.”
66. Elliot and Smith, “Ethnic Matching of Supervisors,” 258–76.
67. Rushing and Winfield, “Bridging the Border Between Work and Family.”
CHAPTER 4: “OYE NEGRO, YOU CAN’T LIVE HERE”
1. Quinta, interview with author.
2. Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. § 3603(b) (1968).
3. 42 U.S.C. § 1982 (1866).
4. Reosti, “‘We Go Totally Subjective,’” 625.
5. Limón et al., State of Hispanic Homeownership Report, 4; “Homeownership Rate in the U.S. 1990–2020.”
6. Martinez, No. CV 05–7608-JTL, 2007 WL 8435675, at *1.
7. Lacayo, “Latinos Need to Stay in Their Place”; “Hate Crimes on the Rise in Orange County: Report”; Fry and Queally, “Hate Crimes Targeting Jews and Latinos Increased in California in 2018, Report Says”; Carroll, “‘They Just Don’t Fit In.’”
8. US Census Bureau, “2010 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, Illinois.”
9. López, “Cosa de Blancos.”
10. Clealand, “Undoing the Invisibility of Blackness in Miami.”
11. Aja, Miami’s Forgotten Cubans, 28.
12. Nicholas, “Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in Rental Housing.”
13. Greenbaum, More Than Black; Prohías and Casal, The Cuban Minority in the US.
14. Grillo, Black Cuban, Black American.
15. Aja, Miami’s Forgotten Cubans, 47–49.
16. Grillo, Black Cuban, Black American.
17. Gosin, The Racial Politics of Division, 6.
18. Hay, “I’ve Been Black in Two Countries,” 46.
19. “Current Hispanic or Latino Population Demographics in Miami, Florida 2020, 2019 by Gender and Age.”
20. Mirabal, Suspect Freedoms, 189.
21. Hoffnung-Garskof, Racial Migrations.
22. Delgado, “Puerto Rican.”
23. Maciag, “Residential Segregation Data for U.S. Metro Areas.”
24. Keys v. Garcia, HUDALJ 05–89–0457–1.
25. Machicote, “Dear Latines.”
26. US Census Bureau, “1990 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, Illinois.”
27. Gabriel and Painter, “Mobility, Residential Location, and the American Dream.”
28. Limón et al., 2019 State of Hispanic Homeownership Report, 9; “NAHREP Releases New State of Hispanic Homeownership Report.”
29. US Census Bureau, “2000 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, New York.”
30. US Census Bureau, “1990 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, New York.”
31. Tulsen, 1999 WL 521272, at *1.
32. Rochester, The Black Tax.
33. García, “The Birth of the MS13 in New York”; “MS-13 on Long Island.”
34. US Census Bureau, “2000 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, Iowa.”
35. Echols, 1998 WL 21060, at *1.
36. United States v. Barberis, 887 F. Supp. 110.
37. Frazier, 27 F.3d 828.
38. US Census Bureau, “1990 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics, New York.”
39. Paquette, “Book Details Klan Role in Smithtown’s Past”; Glaberson, “15 Hate Groups in Region, Monitoring Organization Says.”
40. Frazier, 27 F.3d at 831.
41. Scott, interview with author, 74–80.
42. Hendley, interview with author, 89–119.
43. LaRaia, interview with author, 51–56.
44. Dinzey-Flores, Locked In, Locked Out, 6–7, 134.
45. Fair Housing Act of 1968, 42 U.S.C. § 3604 (2019), prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental, or related services is prohibited against any person on the basis of race, color, or national origin.
46. Larkin, “The Forty-Year ‘First Step,’” 1617.
47. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 151.
48. Massey and Bitterman, “Explaining the Paradox of Puerto Rican Segregation,” 326; Gans, “Second Generation Decline,” 1–20.
49. South, Crowder, and Chavez, “Migration and Spatial Assimilation Among US Latinos: Classical Versus Segmented Trajectories,” 514.
50. Iceland and Nelson, “Hispanic Segregation in Metropolitan America,” 752; Sacks, “The Puerto Rican Effect on Hispanic Residential Segregation,” 98.
51. Uzogara, “Who Desires In-Group Neighbors?”
52. Lofland, A World of Strangers.
53. Britton, “Close Together but Worlds Apart?”
CHAPTER 5: PHYSICAL VIOLENCE
1. Johnson, “5 Things About Alex Michael Ramos.”
2. Clemente, “Not in Our Name: A Puerto Rican White Supremacist in Charlottesville.”
3. Hing, “The Curious Case of George Zimmerman’s Race.”
4. Yancey, “‘Blacks Cannot Be Racist.’”
5. Resto-Montero, “With the Rise of the Alt-Right, Latino White Supremacy May Not Be a Contradiction in Terms.”
6. “14 Words: General Hate Symbols, Hate Slogans/Slang Terms.”
7. Resto-Montero, “With the Rise of the Alt-Right, Latino White Supremacy May Not Be a Contradiction in Terms.”
8. Resto-Montero, “With the Rise of the Alt-Right, Latino White Supremacy May Not Be a Contradiction in Terms.”
9. Johnson v. California, 543 U.S. 499.
10. Spiegel, “Prison Race Rights.”
11. Moore, “Hundreds Hurt in California Prison Riot.”
12. Tanner, “Hispanics Battle Blacks in Major Calif. Prison Riot.”
13. Ripston and Butler, “Legality of Segregating Prisoners by Race.”
14. Raphael, “California Prisons Struggle to Adapt to Desegregation.”
15. Vasquez, “One Prison Taught Me Racism. Another Taught Me Acceptance.”
16. Vasquez, “One Prison Taught Me Racism. Another Taught Me Acceptance.”
17. Quinones, “Race, Real Estate, and the Mexican Mafia.”
18. Quinones, “Race, Real Estate, and the Mexican Mafia.”
19. In re Louis Vasquez on Habeas Corpus, Case No. C087261 (Cal. 3rd App. Dist. June 4, 2018); Gonzales, “La Puente Man Sentenced to Decades in Prison for Stabbing 2 Men in Covina.”
20. Holland, “2 Convicted of Racial Hate Crime in San Fernando Valley Shootings.”
21. “Final Gang Defendant in Federal Hate Crimes Indictment Pleads Guilty in Firebombing of African-American Residences,” press release no. 19–067.
22. Rubin, “Gang Member Gets Prison for Firebombing Black Families in Boyle Heights.”
23. U.S. v. Rios et al., Docket No. 2:11-cr-00492 (C.D. Cal. June 1, 2011).
24. Ng, “Latino Gang Charged with Racial Cleansing Attacks in California Town.”
25. Hutchinson, “Will Latino Gang Arrests Deepen Black-Brown Divide?”
26. Quinones, “Azusa 13 Street Gang Leader, Son Sentenced to Prison.”
27. U.S. v. Flores et al., Docket No. 2:09-cr-00445 (C.D. Cal. May 6, 2009).
28. “Massive Racketeering Case Targets Hawaiian Gardens Gang Involved in Murder of Sheriff’s Deputy, Attacks on African-Americans and Widespread Drug Trafficking.”
29. Cunningham and Kimball, “Gangs, Guns, Drugs and Money”; Glover and Winton, “Dozens Arrested in Crackdown of Latino Gang Accuse of Targeting Blacks.”
30. People v. Alcarez et al., No. NA072796 (LA County Superior Court Jan. 1, 2007).
31. Spano, “Blacks Were Targeted, Witness Insists.”
32. Marrero, “El odio en acción.”
33. U.S. v. Cazares et al., 788 F.3d 956 (9th Cir. 2015); US Department of Justice, Gang Members Convicted of Federal Hate Crimes for Murders, Assaults of African Americans.
34. US Department of Justice, Gang Members Convicted of Federal Hate Crimes for Murders, Assaults of African Americans.
35. Murr, “A Gang War with a Twist.”
36. Rafael, The Mexican Mafia, 216.
37. Quinones, “Last Suspect in Cheryl Green Hate-Crime Murder Gets 238 Years.”
38. Hipp and Tita, “Ethnically Transforming Neighborhoods and Violent Crime Among and Between African-Americans and Latinos.”
39. Umemoto and Mikami, “A Profile of Race-Bias Hate Crime in Los Angeles County.”
40. Davis and Erez, “Immigrant Populations as Victims,” 1.
41. Cuevas, “Race and the L.A. Human.”
42. Steffensmeier et al., “Reassessing Trends in Black Violent Crime, 1980–2008.”
43. Márquez, Black-Brown Solidarity, 12; Telles, Sawyer, and Rivera-Salgado, Just Neighbors?, 1–28.
44. Meinero, “La Vida Loca Nationwide: Prosecuting Sureño Gangs Beyond Los Angeles.”
45. Lyons, “Defending Turf: Racial Demographics and Hate Crime Against Blacks and Whites.”
46. 2010 Census data reports the racial demographic statistics for each of the following California neighborhoods. Azusa: 3% African American, 67.57% Hispanic, 19.3% White persons not Hispanic; Hawaiian Gardens: 3.83% African American, 77.24% Hispanic, 7.32% White persons not Hispanic; Highland Park: 2.13% African American, 71.69% Hispanic, 13.16% White persons not Hispanic; Harbor Gateway: 9.63% African American, 48.48% Hispanic, 28.66% White persons not Hispanic. “Racial/Ethnic Composition, Cities and Communities, Los Angeles County: By Percentages, 2010 Census.”
47. Logan, How Race Counts for Hispanic Americans; Parisi et al., “Multi-Scale Residential Segregation,” using an “Index of Dissimilarity.”
48. Telles et al., Just Neighbors?, 1.
49. Feldmeyer, “The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide.”
50. Vigil, “Ethnic Succession and Ethnic Conflict.”
51. Lefebvre, The Production of Space.
52. Boddie, “Racial Territoriality.”
53. “Two California Men Indicted in Federal Hate Crime Case Stemming from New Year’s Eve Attack on African-American Youths.”
54. US Census Bureau, QuickFacts Table, “Compton City, California.”
55. Bell, Hate Thy Neighbor.
56. Rafael, The Mexican Mafia.
57. Shroder, “Suspect Arrested in Carlsbad Hate Crime.”
58. Hernandez et al., Case No. B236093, California 2nd App. Dist.; “4 Face Arson, Hate Crime Trial for Cross Burning.”
59. Taylor, 2006 WL 2239659.
60. Gonzalez, Case No. 3D13–1474 (Fla. 3rd Dist. Ct. of App.) (denying appeal from lower court conviction).
61. State of Florida v. Nunez, Case No. 2013-CF-002454-A-O (Fla. Orange Cnty.); “Full Sail Student Stabbed in Class with Screwdriver, Deputies Say.”
62. Moran, “Hate Crime Charges Dropped Against Northwestern Chapel Vandals.”
63. Glueck, “Iowa City Man Charged with Hate Crime for Assaulting Black Man.”
64. Unger, “Hate Crime Strikes Rio Rancho.”
65. Baumgartner, Epp, and Shoub, Suspect Citizens.
66. Dart and Laughland, “Sandra Bland.”
67. Vargas, “Latinos and Criminal Justice, Policing, and Drug Policy Reform,” question 25.
68. López and Krogstad, “How Hispanic Police Officers View Their Jobs.”
69. “Philando Castile Death.”
70. Hauser, “Florida Police Chief Gets 3 Years for Plot to Frame Black People for Crimes.”
71. U.S. v. Atesiano, No. 1:18-cr-20479, 2018 WL 5831092.
72. Alford, “’They Believe We’re Criminals.’”
73. Cratty, “Agreement Announced to Reform Puerto Rico’s Police Force.”
74. Torres Gotay, “Justicia desiste del caso contra estudiante de educación especial.”
CHAPTER 6: LATINOS AND THE FUTURE OF RACIAL EQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES
1. Bonilla-Silva, “We Are All Americans!”
2. Guinier and Torres, The Miner’s Canary, 225.
3. Guinier and Torres, The Miner’s Canary.
4. Haslip-Viera, ed., White Latino Privilege.
5. Saenz, “Who and What the Hell Is a White Hispanic?”
6. García, “White Privilege and the Effacement of Blackness,” 79.
7. Hernández, Racial Subordination in Latin America, 2.
8. Vargas, “Latina/o Whitening?”
9. Vargas, “Off White.”
10. Ramirez and Peterson, Ignored Racism; Morales, Latinx.
11. Gómez, Inventing Latinos.
12. Sanchez and Rodriguez Espinosa, “Does the Race of the Discrimination Agent in Latinos’ Discrimination Experiences Influence Latino Group Identity?”; Carey et al., “The Determinants and Political Consequences of Latinos’ Perceived Intra-Group Competition.”
13. Howard, “Afro-Latinos and the Black-Hispanic Identity.”
14. McConnaughy et al., “A Latino on the Ballot.”
15. Li and Rudensky, “Rethinking the Redistricting Toolbox.”
16. Sanchez, “Latino Group Consciousness and Perceptions of Commonality with African Americans”; Kaufmann, “Cracks in the Rainbow.”
17. Cartagena, interview with author, 120.
18. Saenz, interview with author, 132.
19. Nelson, interview with author, 54.
20. Smith, Whitelash, 1.
21. Valdes, “The Fight for Latino Voters for the G.O.P.”
22. Krupnikov and Piston, “The Political Consequences of Latino Prejudice Against Blacks”; Haywood, “Anti-Black Latino Racism in an Era of Trumpismo,” 957.
23. Beltrán, The Trouble with Unity.
24. Hernández, “Latino Antiblack Bias and the Census Categorization of Latinos,” 283; Gómez, Inventing Latinos.
25. Cohn, “Census History: Counting Hispanics.”
26. Reyes, “Afro-Latinos Seek Recognition and Accurate Census Count.”
27. Rodríguez-Muñiz, Figures of the Future, xviii.
28. “The Census Bureau’s Proposed ‘Combined Question’ Approach Offers Promise for Collecting More Accurate Data on Hispanic Origin and Race, but Some Questions Remain.”
29. Parker, “Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and Growing in Numbers.”
30. Hogan, “Reporting of Race Among Hispanics”; Allen, “Investigating the Cultural Conception of Race in Puerto Rico.”
31. Hernández, “‘Too Black to Be Latino/a’: Blackness and Blacks as Foreigners in Latino Studies.”
32. Duany, The Puerto Rican Nation on the Move.
33. Minority Rights Group, No Longer Invisible.
34. Gosin, “‘A Bitter Diversion.’”
35. Marks and Rios-Vargas, “Improvements to the 2020 Census Race and Hispanic Origin Question Designs, Data Processing, and Coding Procedures.”
36. U.S. Census Bureau, “Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race: 2010 and 2020.”
37. López and Gonzalez-Barrera, “Afro-Latino.”
38. López and Hogan, “What’s Your Street Race?”
39. Contreras and Reyes, “The Multiracial Identity Revolution Among U.S. Latinos.”
40. 1andOnlyAlpha, Twitter post.
41. Giron, Twitter post.
42. DiAngelo, White Fragility.
43. U.S. Census Bureau, “Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race: 2010 and 2020.”
44. Wang, “The 2nd-Largest Racial Group in the U.S. Is ‘Some Other Race.’”
45. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race: 2010 and 2020” (percentages based on the total Hispanic populations for 2010 and 2020 respectively).
46. US Census Bureau, “Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census” (percentages based on the total Hispanic populations for 2010 and 2020 respectively).
47. US Census, “2020 Census: Redistricting File (Public Law 94-171) Dataset” (tabulated from census dataset).
48. Hoy, “Negotiating Among Invisibilities.”
49. Rosado, “Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and the Emotional Politics of Race and Blackness in the U.S.,” 115.
50. Eustachewich, “Dominicans in Inwood Blasted on Social Media for Chasing Away Black Men”; Amezcua, “A History of Anti-Blackness Permeates the Grid of Chicago’s Southwest Side.”
51. Padgett, “Why Are So Many Latinos Obsessed with Demonizing Black Lives Matter? It’s Complicated.”
52. Márquez, Black-Brown Solidarity, 157.
53. Machicote, “Dear Latines.”
54. Hordge-Freeman and Loblack, “‘Cops Only See Brown Skin, They Could Care Less Where It Originated.’”
55. Fox, Hispanic Nation.
56. Fernández, The Young Lords.
57. Jones, The Browning of the New South.
58. Guinier and Torres, The Miner’s Canary.
59. Gordon and Lenhardt, “Rethinking Work and Citizenship”; Millet, “Case Study of Black-Brown Bridging.”
60. Community Coalition.
61. Grant-Thomas, Sarfati, and Staats, “Natural Allies or Irreconcilable Foes?”
62. Millet, “Case Study of Black-Brown Bridging,” 30–35; “Encuentro Diaspora Afro.”
63. Pastor et al., “Bridges Puentes.”
64. Paul Ortiz, An African American and Latinx History of the United States, 204.
65. Foley, Quest for Equality.
66. Aja, Bustillo, and Wallace, “Countering ‘Anti-Blackness’ Through ‘Black-Brown’ Alliances and Inter-Group Coalitions,’” 77–78.
67. Siegel, “A Short History of Sexual Harassment,” 1, 8.
68. Kleppin, interview with author, 172–79.
69. Hernández, “Latino Inter-Ethnic Employment Discrimination and the ‘Diversity Defense.’”
70. Cruz, interview with author, 141.
71. Victor Rivera Sanchez, No. 02–1161.
EPILOGUE: ON BEING AN AFRO-LATINA INTERROGATING LATINO ANTI-BLACKNESS
1. The detailed list of all queries and datafiles searched can be viewed on the following research website link: www.ProfessorTKH.com, Racial Innocence Book Methodology Appendix page.
2. I have used pseudonyms for all the personal names used in the epilogue in order to protect the privacy of my family and friends. The epilogue includes an excerpt previously published in my work Multiracials and Civil Rights: Mixed-Race Stories of Discrimination and is reprinted by permission of the publisher.
3. Haslip-Viera, Taíno Revival.
4. Hernández, Racial Subordination in Latin America.
5. Candelario, Black Behind the Ears.
6. Hall and Whipple, “The Complexion Connection.”
7. Ojalá is the Spanish term for “God willing” or “Let’s hope so.” Aché is the Santeria religious term for grace and blessing.