PART 1
1
David M. Whitford
In the previous two research guides, Martin Luther was treated alone and his life and theology were separated for individual articles. A very positive developing trend has been to expand the focus beyond Luther exclusively and to examine the ways in which others contributed to the formation of Lutheran tradition. Luther still demands the lion’s share of attention from the scholarly community, but events like the 1997 five hundredth anniversary of Philip Melanchthon’s birth have provided important opportunities to look beyond Luther. In what follows, we shall briefly examine some of the current trends in the study of Luther and those who chose to follow him. Along the way, we will cast our gaze beyond the theologians to see how others contributed to the success or failure of the Lutheran Reformation.
Martin Luther
In 1982, when Ozment’s Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research was published, the best and most exhaustive biography of Luther remained Julius Köstlin’s 1875 The Life of Martin Luther. Today Köstlin, who can still be helpful, has been replaced by Martin Brecht’s Martin Luther. This three-volume biography, both exhaustive and encyclopedic, will remain the authoritative examination of Luther’s life for the foreseeable future. Numerous other (and shorter) biographies continue to pour out of popular and academic presses. The most important of these is Heiko Oberman’s Luther: Man Between God and the Devil (1990). The sentimental favorite will remain Roland Bainton’s 1950 Here I Stand; though it is certainly dated in both its approach and research, it remains unsurpassed as pure narrative. Richard Marius’s Martin Luther should be approached with caution and should not be read without also consulting Oberman’s review of it.1 The 2002 Luther’s Lives (underwritten by the Sohmer-Hall Foundation) provides side-by-side translations of two contemporary biographies of Luther (one by Melanchthon and the other by his foe Johannes Cochlaeus).
Theology continues to be a focus in Luther scholarship where exciting (and controversial) new trends have recently emerged. Bernhard Lohse’s Martin Luther and Martin Luther’s Theology provide excellent introductions to Luther’s thought. Other authors that offer a broad introduction to Luther’s theology and life include Alister McGrath (Reformation Thought), David Bagchi and David Steinmetz (Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology), Donald McKim (Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther), Carter Lindberg (Reformation Theologians), Timothy George (Theology of the Reformers), Jaroslav Pelikan (Christian Tradition), Heiko Oberman (Luther: Man Between God and the Devil), Oswald Bayer (Martin Luthers Theologie), and Thomas Kaufmann (Martin Luther). For introductions into the theological world from which Luther emerged, one should consult G. R. Evans (The Medieval Theologians), Oberman (The Harvest of Medieval Theology), and Ozment (The Age of Reform). For more general introductions to the historical and theological context of the Reformation, one should consult Lindberg (The European Reformations) and Euan Cameron (The European Reformation). Helpful works on particular loci in Luther have also been recently published. Robert Kolb (Bound Choice, Election, and Wittenberg Theological Method) explains clearly and comprehensively the historical dimensions of the debate over the will in Luther and Erasmus, while Gerhard Forde (The Captivation of the Will) plumbs the theological depths of the issue. At the end of his career, Gerhard Forde poured out a number of important works on Luther’s theology including his doctrines of the Word, the theology of the cross, eschatology, atonement, and the Incarnation.2 In The Assurance of Faith, Randall Zachman examines the conscience and the doctrine of assurance in both Luther and Calvin. Oswald Bayer’s Martin Luthers Theologie offers a thorough presentation of both justification and sanctification.
The most significant development in the study of Luther’s theology has been the withering of two twentieth-century trends and the emergence of the so-called Finnish interpretation of Luther. Twentieth-century scholars have spent considerable energy trying to determine precisely when Luther made his turn to Evangelical theology. Key to this issue was the significance of Luther’s “tower experience” in 1517. This preoccupation with when and to what degree Luther suddenly embraced an Evangelical theology has given way to the idea that Luther’s theology was evolving and changing from as early as 1516 through at least 1522. Marxist interpretations of Luther and the Reformation have also largely disappeared since the 1989 collapse of East Germany and the Eastern Bloc.
The Finnish interpretation of Luther or the so-called Finnish school is centered on the work of Tuomo Mannermaa and his students. In 1979, Mannermaa (at the time a professor of church history at the University of Helsinki) published In ipsa fide Christus adest: Luterilaisen ja ortodoksisen kritinuskonkäsityksen leikkauspiste [In Faith Itself Is Christ Really Present: The Point of Intersection Between Lutheran and Orthodox Theology].3 The heart of Lutheran theology has always been his doctrine of justification; Luther himself noted that it is the doctrine upon which the church either stands or falls.4 The traditional line of interpretation has been that during the 1510s, or perhaps as late as the early 1520s, Luther’s understanding of justification underwent a process of significant change.5 He began to understand justification forensically, viewing righteousness as something imputed to the sinner rather than God’s distributive justice that judges the sinner. Mannermaa argues that the focus on forensic (or passive) justification overshadows an equally important aspect of Luther’s understanding. Mannermaa believes that Luther paid at least as much attention to the idea that justification is a real indwelling of Christ in the sinner that transforms the believer through a process of theosis or deification. Thus, there is no distinction between Christ for us and Christ in us. According to Kirsi Stjerna (a former Mannermaa student and the editor and translator of the English edition), Mannermaa offers a deeper appreciation of Luther as a spiritual and mystical theologian.6 As such, Mannermaa’s interpretation is seen as a rejection of nearly two centuries of Luther scholarship held “under the spell of neo-Kantian presuppositions,”7 in which the spiritual, the mystical, and the ontological were sublimated by a focus on justification as an external act of God.8
While originally this new understanding of Luther was undertaken in an attempt to provide a bridge between Finnish Lutherans in conversation with their Orthodox brethren, the focus on theosis, mysticism, and ontology have proved equally useful to theologians in dialogue with Roman Catholics. The Finnish school has developed a significant following among American theologians, especially Carl Braaten, Robert Jenson, and David Yeago, and the Finns have also garnered their fair share of critics. While the supporters tend to come from the ranks of systematic theologians, the critics are almost entirely made up of historians. For the historians, the Finnish reading of Luther is not “new nor, in the final analysis, [is it] germane to the heart of Luther’s theology.”9 For the historians, the Finns ignore Luther’s historical context and disregard the debates surrounding justification in the sixteenth century in an attempt to find a more “ecumenical” Luther.10 What they discover may in fact be an ecumenical Luther, but what they have most definitely not found, according to the historians, is the Luther who lived, wrote, and disputed in the sixteenth century.11 This debate over Luther and justification is by no means settled. It played a major role in the 1997 and 2002 Luther Congresses and in the discussions surrounding the Lutheran-Catholic Joint Declaration on Justification. Those wishing to be conversant in Lutheran theology in the early twenty-first century will need to be aware of and understand the contributions and limitations of the Finnish school.12
The reception of Luther’s theology also remains an important avenue of investigation. In 1978, Gerald Strauss examined parish visitation records from 1527 to the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War. He argued in Luther’s House of Learning that the reception of Luther’s theology remained tenuous at best and that the common people remained largely ignorant of evangelical tenets. Mark Edwards, in Luther’s Last Battles, noted the challenge this posed to the study of Luther and called for greater attention to the reception and institutionalization of the Reformation. Confessionalization studies have emerged as a significant avenue of investigation into the lasting effects of Luther’s Reformation.13
Luther’s involvement in political and social affairs also remains important. Studies into Luther’s relationship to Islam and the Turks—given a new relevance since September 11, 2001—are an especially interesting and long-neglected area of inquiry. Adam Francisco’s Martin Luther and Islam and Gregory Miller’s “Luther on the Turks and Islam” provides an excellent introduction to the field, but there is much that remains to be unearthed. The impact of Luther’s theology on early modern understandings of poverty and the poor also remains a dynamic field of inquiry with much that can still be learned. For an introduction to Luther’s theology of the poor, see Carter Lindberg’s Beyond Charity. For a more broad-based examination of early modern poor relief, see the many works by Thomas Max Safley, especially his excellent The Reformation of Charity.
Luther was a prodigious exegete throughout his career, and much has recently been gleaned by looking at his place in the history of exegetical writing. The Bible in the Sixteenth Century, edited by David Steinmetz, provides an excellent introduction to this field of inquiry. His 1986 Luther in Context is also, largely, a republication of articles on Luther the exegete. Heinrich Bornkamm’s Luther and the Old Testament is now almost forty years old, yet still very helpful. More recently, Mickey Mattox (Defender of the Most Holy Matriarchs) has examined Luther’s exegetical method by looking at key women in the Old Testament. This book has an added bonus of contributing to the dearth of information on Luther’s views on women. In Luther on Women, Susan Karant-Nunn and Merry Wiesner-Hanks have brought together a wonderful collection of Luther’s writings on women, gleaned from his exegetical, theological, and personal writings. Jonathan Trigg’s Baptism in the Theology of Martin Luther is largely derived from the Genesis Lectures. For Luther’s hermeneutical framework, one should consult Kenneth Hagen’s more recent work on the subject as well as Gerhard Ebeling’s 1942 classic.14
By looking at Luther the exegete, we may also put him into dialogue with his own more theological and even social writings. Kristen Kvam and Bergit Stolt have both looked at the ways in which Luther’s marriage affected his exegetical understandings of Adam and Eve and the first household.15 David Whitford used Luther’s Genesis lectures to assess whether Luther abandoned his “two kingdoms” doctrine later in life.16 As with many other avenues of Luther scholarship, the digitization of Luther’s writings opens up many exciting avenues to scholars interested in tracking Luther’s exegetical views on specific topics and issues. Finally, no less than Luther, others such as Melanchthon are also in need of further exegetical investigation.
Primary Sources for Research on Luther
The standard version of Luther’s writings is D. Martin Luthers Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, commonly referred to as the Weimar Ausgabe (because it was published in the city of Weimar). Publication began in 1883, and revisions and republications continue to this day. The Weimar Ausgabe is broken into three sections. The first, Shriften, contains Luther’s German and Latin writings and treatises. It is commonly abbreviated WA and has sixty-one volumes. Some of these volumes are themselves broken into subvolumes, thus WA 10/1 or WA 10/2. In older works, the Weimar Ausgabe is often cited by volume, then page, then the specific line upon which the quote falls: WA 10/1:357, 7–9. This format has largely dropped out of fashion. In its place, authors now refer to the volume and page only (e.g., WA 10/1:357).
The second section of the Weimar Ausgabe is the Briefwechsel (Letters), abbreviated WABr. It is made up of eighteen volumes and contains letters and correspondence both from and to Luther. The third section is the Tischreden (Table Talks), abbreviated WATR or WATr, consisting of six volumes. As Luther became more famous and influential, students began to jot down his discussions with students over meals and in other informal settings. Some of the Tischreden are more reliable than others and should thus be consulted with due caution. The final section of the WA, the Deutsche Bibel, abbreviated WADB, is twelve volumes and contains Luther’s translations of the biblical texts. A more affordable (and more compact) edition of Luther’s works in Latin and German can be found in the Luthers Werke in Auswahl, Studienausgabe. Often referred to simply as the Studienausgabe, this eight-volume set contains the most significant works by Luther, helpfully cross-referenced to the Weimar Ausgabe.17 Another option is the eleven-volume Die Werke Martin Luthers in neuer Auswahl für die Gegenwart.
For decades, the Institut für Spätmittelalter und Reformation in Tübingen has been compiling a comprehensive (though not exhaustive) index of the Weimar Ausgabe. Though the volumes are now being published, literally generations of work have been nullified by the release of two electronic versions of Luther’s writings. The first is an electronic edition of the entire Weimar Ausgabe released in 2000 (the Chadwyck version), access to which is limited to academic libraries that have purchased it.18 Using the Chadwyck version, one may search Luther’s Werke by word or root-word (in German, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek) using either key word or Boolean logic. The ability to search by the root of a word (in fact, one may even search by just using the first couple of letters of a word) allows one to find all of the references to a word even if Luther spelled them slightly differently. One may search within a specific volume, a specific treatise, a specified time frame, or the entire Weimar Ausgabe. The second electronic option is offered by Alexander Street Press (www.alexanderstreetpress.com). Like the Chadwyck electronic Weimar Ausgabe, the Alexander Street Press version is available at academic libraries by subscription; it is far more affordable than Chadwyck’s electronic version of the Weimar Ausgabe and is priced with even small academic libraries in mind. While the Chadwyck version is based on the nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholarly edition of the Weimar Ausgabe, Alexander Street Press has moved in a different direction, offering the Latin edition of Luther’s writings published in Wittenberg by Hans Lufft (who also published many of Luther’s other works) between 1550 and 1558. The choice of a sixteenth-century text over the more recent text reflects a developing trend in early modern scholarship that values editions published at the time over later scholarly editions.19 Like Chadwyk’s version, the Alexander Street Press version has a fully developed search capability. In addition, this version has two significant advantages. First, it provides not only an electronic version of the text but also an image of each page from which the text was taken, allowing one to look at textual marginalia and so forth. Second, Luther’s writings are a very small part of the complete Alexander Street Press library. There are literally hundreds of early modern authors in the Alexander Street Press Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts and its companion, the Digitial Library of the Catholic Reformation. The advantage to the scholar is obvious: one can compare a keyword, exegetical point, or doctrinal loci across many theological perspectives with the simple click of a mouse-button. Alexander Street Press continues to add new content all the time; the true impact of these new research tools has barely been felt.
For those without access to an academic library or whose library cannot afford either of the electronic versions already discussed, there is another new option. In 2006, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht released a CD-ROM version of their eleven-volume collection (at a cost of about 45 euros). The search apparatus is less sophisticated than the other electronic versions; on the other hand, the price is affordable on almost any budget.20
The standard English version (often called the American Edition) is Luther’s Works (abbreviated LW). Luther’s Works was published between 1955 and 1986 by Concordia Publishing House and Augsburg Fortress. In fifty-four volumes plus one index volume, many of the most important of Luther’s treatises, letters, and table talks are translated and introduced. A CD-ROM version of Luther’s Works was released in 2001 (it also contains the full King James Version of the Bible and the Tappert edition of the Book of Concord).21 This version also has full-text searching, but like the Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht CD, the search engine is not very sophisticated. In 2007, Concordia announced that, beginning in 2008, it will publish twenty new volumes of previously untranslated works by Luther. The first three volumes will contain material from Luther’s sermons and a new comprehensive index to all volumes will be compiled.
Research Aids
Each year, the Lutherjahrbuch, the Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, Literaturbericht, and Luther Digest (since 1993) publish bibliographies and summaries of Reformation research, including Luther research. These are indispensable aids for finding and locating current research on Luther. Also helpful are searches in the online ATLA Religion Index and OCLC’s WorldCat FirstSearch. Both of these indices are widely available at academic and seminary libraries and support key word and Boolean logic searches. The previous research guides include comprehensive lists of Luther research review articles; those since 1990 are included in this bibliography.
Other important aids to Luther research include Kurt Aland’s Luther Deutsch (commonly called Lutherlexicon), which provides German definitions of some key Luther terminology. A more exhaustive dictionary is Philipp Dietz’s Wörterbuch zu Dr. Martin Luthers deutschen Schriften. Heinrich Vogel’s Cross Reference and Index to the Contents of Luther’s Works provides cross-references between the Weimar Ausgabe, Luther’s Works, and older American and German editions of Luther’s writings. Georg Buchwald’s Luther Kalendarium (1929) is very dated and can be inaccurate at times, but also provides a snapshot of what Luther was working on at a given time. Sachiko Kusukawa’s Wittenberg University Library Catalogue of 1536 gives a shelf list of the university library available to Luther and Melanchthon and provides, therefore, a wealth of information about not only what texts were available but what may not have been, what was valued and what may have been ignored. For example, John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion was there, even though they were only published earlier in 1536. What was missing? Erasmus’ De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, for one. The shelf list provides only shorthand references to works, but Kusukawa has helpfully added the full title with publication city and date in an adjacent column. Beutel’s Luther Handbuch provides a very up-to-date summary of Luther research in Germany. Hilfsbuch zum Lutherstudium presents a comprehensive list of Luther’s writings, first compiled and edited by Kurt Aland. The most recent (1996) updated edition is broken into five parts:
Josef Benzing’s Lutherbibliographie is a complete list of all publication runs for Luther’s works by various printers up to 1546. Benzing is most useful when one is trying to determine how quickly or widely a particular treatise was published. For a sense of the full bibliographic importance of a work, one should also consult Das Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich ershienenen Druckschriften des XVI. Jahrhunderts, usually called VD16. This resource exists in book form (currently twenty-five volumes), as well as on CD-ROM and online (www.vd16.de). The bibliographic information in VD16 was assembled by looking at the existing catalogs of German libraries. In 2006, it was also incorporated into the much larger Hand Press Book Database (HPBD), now part of OCLC. The HPBD contains searchable bibliographic information on works published in Europe during the handpress era (ca. 1455–1830). Searchable by author, title, imprint, or key word, it is constantly being updated, and currently consists of fifty databases from around the world.22 The VD16 is helpful in determining bibliographic information for Luther or Melanchthon within the Holy Roman Empire; the HPBD allows one to look at all of Europe. Both online sources allow the user to email selected records; HPBD allows the user to download records directly into bibliographic software like Endnote. Finally, for an excellent examination of the role of printing in the spread of Luther’s ideas, see Mark Edwards’s Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther.
Philipp Melanchthon
Philipp Melanchthon was one of Luther’s closest colleagues at the University of Wittenberg and the most important of his followers. Born in Bretten in 1497 as Philipp Schwartzerdt, he changed his name (following a humanist practice) to the Hellenized equivalent, Melanchthon (meaning “black earth”). Melanchthon received a university education first at Heidelberg (1509–12) and then Tübingen (1512–18). In 1518, a recommendation from the famous humanist Johannes Reuchlin, his relative by marriage, led to a teaching position in Greek at the University of Wittenberg. Thus he arrived at the very time Luther was launched onto the world stage. Melanchthon and Luther would come to be close theological allies. Though they did not agree always, Melanchthon can be counted as the systematizer and synthesizer of Luther’s thought. When the imperial ban of 1521 prevented Luther from attending the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, Melanchthon was entrusted with writing the statement of faith on behalf of the Evangelicals. He was the chief drafter for both the Latin and German versions of the Augsburg Confession and in 1531 was the author of its defense, The Apology of the Augsburg Confession.23
Following the death of Luther in 1546 and the defeat of the Schmalkaldic League in 1547, Melanchthon was among the first to attack the Augsburg Interim. However, he also sought to mitigate its severity through negotiation with the newly appointed Roman bishop. This attempt at mitigation, though it prevented the dissolution of the University of Wittenberg and the revocation of Luther’s reforms in total, won him few friends and a number of enemies (many drawn from his former students). Despite the fact that the political future of the Evangelical churches was assured after Princes’ Rebellion of 1552 and the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, Melanchthon continued to be embroiled in theological controversy throughout the 1550s. He died in 1560 and is buried next to Martin Luther in the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
Melanchthon’s most important work is the Loci communes rerum theologicarum (The Commonplaces of Theological Matters). This systematic presentation of Lutheran theology is based on the Epistle to the Romans and was written as a guide to scripture. The loci format was a popular early modern device for theological explication and biblical explanation. Melanchthon first published his Loci in 1521, but continued to work, shape, and revise the Loci in editions of 1535 and 1543. In 1555, he published a German edition. In his revisions, Melanchthon added and subtracted text and sections to match and respond to the wider theological context of the developing Reformation.
Although Melanchthon was an important theologian of the Reformation, he was first and foremost a biblical scholar. Important work has been done in the last three decades on Melanchthon the exegete; Timothy Wengert’s scholarship does more to advance our understanding of Melanchthon than does anyone else’s. The bibliography for this chapter lists six works written or edited by Wengert that are essential reading for those who hope to understand Melanchthon and his contribution to the Lutheran tradition. Other key authors include Heinz Scheible, Günter Frank, Karin Maag, John Schofield, John Schneider, William Hammer, and James Estes.
The works of Melanchthon are collected in the Corpus Reformatorum: Philippi Melanchthonis opera quae supersunt omnia. Eighteen of the most important works by Melanchthon (including a complete edition of the 1546 Loci published in Basel) are available in ASP’s Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts discussed above, and a smaller collection of essential texts is available in Melanchthons Werke in Auswahl (Studienausgabe), edited by Robert Stupperich. Melanchthon’s correspondence is being published under the editorship of Heinz Scheible, Melanchthons Briefwechsel: Kritische und kommentierte Gesamtausgabe; eighteen volumes are in print with the final editing of the letters expected by 2030. The most comprehensive list of sixteenth-century publications of Melanchthon’s works is available in the VD16. As with Luther, one should also consult the HPBD.
Music
When Martin Luther published the first Evangelical hymnal in 1524, the Reformation was already being carried across the countryside by music. Robert Scribner helped launch a revolution in the understanding of the Reformation through his attention to the ways in which the Reformation affected the common people. Until Scribner, it can be safely argued, the history of Lutheran music focused on elite representations of music, and the scholars of such music were almost exclusively musicologists. But what of the music sung by the common person? What contributions can music make to our understanding of history? Rebecca Wagner Oettinger notes that singing was ubiquitous among the common folk during the early modern era and that songs were used to advance social and political agendas (she has a disturbing account of anti-Jewish songs used to support the expulsion of Jews).24 What made the Reformation important was that ecclesiastical music started serving a different purpose. It became not merely devotional but persuasive, a tool for conversion rather than a tool solely for prayer. Christopher Boyd Brown argues convincingly that music can be a very helpful tool in the assessment of the Reformation’s impact.25 Alexander Fisher offers just such an appraisal in Music and Religious Identity in Counter-Reformation Augsburg. Fisher’s work has the added benefit of looking at music’s influence in a multiconfessional context. The study of music as an entrée into historical inquiry, rather than the “history of music,” is a field that has barely begun to be fully explored. Thus, Oettinger has looked at music’s role in the Schmalkaldic War and Brown at the influence of hymnal publication, while Fisher offers a detailed examination of its influence upon one city. Many other detailed studies of cities, the use of hymns within other communities of faith and expression, and the role of music in the propaganda campaigns of the sixteenth century will help provide a more fully rounded understanding of this important but understudied aspect of the Reformation.
The Evangelical Princes
Philip the Magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse, was present at every major diet of the Holy Roman Empire from the Diet of Worms to the 1555 Diet of Augsburg. He was a major force in the advancement of the Reformation, the Schmalkaldic League and War, and the Peace of Augsburg. To date, however, there is not a single major scholarly biography of Philip in any language.26 Perhaps Philip is an exception to the norm? Most people assume that the Evangelical princes who protected and helped spread the Reformation have already been studied in detail, but the contrary is actually true. While brief details of all the major princes are well known, the intricacies of their lives and engagements with the Reformation remain a dark alley of early modern scholarship. A major debate among scholars is the degree to which the princes advanced the Reformation out of political or religious ends; this question cannot be answered without a thorough review of the correspondence and records of the individual princes. Biographies are sometimes not considered important or sufficiently impressive, but they are necessary and they need to be well written by those who know the field the best. Perhaps the time has come to take biographies seriously.
Despite the devastation of far too many wars, the archives and even scholarly editions of the writings and correspondence of many of the princes survive. Scholarly editions can be found in many major university libraries. Archival materials are found in the state archives of the individual German states and in some cases the cities that were the seats of the princes before later consolidation. These archives can yield enormously rich material. For example, Ocker’s study of church property confiscations (Church Robbers and Reformers) is an excellent new addition to this field and depends on just such archival research.
Bibliography
ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Corpus Reformatorum, Melanchthon volumes (Google Books has digitized most of these volumes; they can be downloaded). A link to the individual volumes is available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Reformatorum
Die Bibel, Martin Luther translation (full-text edition): http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/luther/
The Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts (digitized editions of Protestant texts with full text searching): http://solomon.tcpt.alexanderstreet.com/
Herzog August Bibliothek (contains a vast collection of Reformation-era primary sources): http://www.hab.de
Kessler Reformation Collection, Emory University (vast collection of sixteenth-century imprints; a definite focus on the Lutheran Reformation): http://www.pitts.emory.edu/SpecColl/kesslercoll.cfm
Luther Center, Wittenberg (digitized primary source documents on and by Luther): http://www.luther-zentrum.de/
Luther’s Gesammelte Werke, CD-ROM (may be purchased at http://www.theologische-buchhandlung.de/luther-deutsch-inhaltsverzeichnis.htm)
Luthers Werke Online (full-text searchable edition of the Weimar Ausgabe): http://luther.chadwyck.co.uk/
Luther’s Works, American Edition, CD-ROM (may be purchased at http://www.logos.com/products/details/1663)
Thrivent Reformation Library, Luther Seminary (huge collection of microfiched Reformation era imprints): http://staupitz.luthersem.edu/?m=60
Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts (VD16) (bibliography of materials published in Germany in the 16th century; the “Digital VD16” catalogs those works in the VD16 that are available, free of charge, in digital format): http://www.vd16.de
PRINTED SOURCES
Aland, Kurt. Hilfsbuch zum Lutherstudium, 4th ed. Bielefeld: Luther-Verlag, 1996.
——. Luther Deutsch: Die Werke Martin Luthers in neuer Auswahl für die Gegenwart. Stuttgart: Ehrenfried Klotz Verlag, 1957 (commonly called Lutherlexicon).
Althaus, Paul. The Ethics of Martin Luther. Translated by Robert C. Schultz. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972. Originally published as Ethik Martin Luthers (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1965).
——. The Theology of Martin Luther, trans. Robert C. Schultz. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1966. Originally published as Theologie Martin Luthers (Gütersloh: Mohn, 1962).
Arand, Charles. P. That I May Be His Own: An Overview of Luther’s Catechisms. St. Louis, MO: Concordia, 2000.
Aulén, Gustav. Christus Victor. Translated by A. G. Hebert. London: SPCK, 1945.
Bagchi, David. Luther’s Earliest Opponents: Catholic Controversialists, 1518–1525. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1991.
Bagchi, David, and David Steinmetz, eds. Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Bainton, Roland H. Here I Stand. New York: Abingdon, 1950.
Bayer, Oswald. Living by Faith: Justification and Sanctification. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003.
——. Martin Luthers Theologie: Eine Vergegenwärtigung. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.
——. Promissio: Geschichte der reformatorischen Wende in Luthers Theologie. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971.
Bell, Theo. Divus Bernhardus: Bernhard von Clairvaux in Martin Luthers Schriften. Mainz: Zabern, 1993.
Benzing, Josef. Lutherbibliographie: Verzeichnis der Gedruckten Schriften Martin Luthers bis zu dessen Tod. Baden-Baden: Heitz, 1966.
Beutel, Albrecht. Martin Luther: Eine Einführung in Leben, Werk und Wirkung. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlags, 2005.
——, ed. Luther Handbuch. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005.
Bizer, Ernst. Fides ex auditu: Eine Untersuchung über die Entdeckung der Gerechtigkeit Gottes durch Martin Luther. Neukirchen: Erziehungsverein, 1958.
Bornkamm, Heinrich. Luther and the Old Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969.
Brady, Thomas. “Luther and the State: The Reformer’s Teaching in Its Social Setting.” In Luther and the Modern State in Germany, edited by James D. Tracy, 31–44. Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1986.
Bratten, Carl, and Robert Jenson, eds. Union with Christ: The New Finnish Interpretation of Luther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998.
Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. Translated by James L. Schaaf. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93. Originally published as Martin Luther (Stuttgart: Institut für Auslandbeziehungen, 1981–87).
Brown, Christopher. Singing the Gospel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
Buchwald, Georg, and Gustav Kawerau. Luther-Kalendarium. Leipzig: M. Heinsius Nachfolger, Eger & Sievers, 1929.
Cahill, Richard Andrew. Philipp of Hesse and the Reformation. Mainz: Zabern, 2001.
Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
Cranz, F. Edward. An Essay on the Development of Luther’s Thought on Justice, Law and Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.
Die Bekenntnisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, 11th ed. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992. Translated by Robert Kolb and Timothy J. Wengert as The Book of Concord (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2000).
Dietz, Philipp. Wörterbuch zu Dr. Martin Luthers deutschen Schriften. Hildesheim: G. Olm, 1870, 1961.
Dingel, Irena. Concordia controversa: Die öffentlichen Diskussionen um das lutherische Konkordienwerk am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts. Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 1996.
Dost, Timothy. Renaissance Humanism in Support of the Gospel in Luther’s Early Correspondence: Taking All Things Captive. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2001.
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