PART 2

Regional Trends

7

Central Europe, 1550–1700

Howard Hotson

An Expanding Field

GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE

No area of Reformation studies has witnessed such profound transformation during the past fifteen years as the region of central Europe. One might even say that when the previous research guide was conceived, “central Europe” did not even exist. In the late 1980s as for decades previously, Europe was sharply divided down the middle by a political, ideological, military, and physical barrier into “eastern Europe” and “western Europe.” Then, in the last few months of the decade, these barriers vanished with astonishing speed. By the time the previous research guide was published in 1992, the Berlin Wall had crumbled, East and West Germany had precipitously reunited, the Warsaw Pact had been dissolved, and the Soviet Union had collapsed. As this volume was in the making, the European Union was radically enlarged in 2004 by the accession of a swath of countries reaching from the Baltic to the Adriatic, most of which did not even exist as independent states fifteen years earlier. With the once razor-sharp distinction between “eastern” and “western” Europe thereby rendered permanently anachronistic, a fresh conception of “central Europe” has emerged in its place, with the subcategory of east central Europe conveniently reserved—for the time being at least—for the new accession countries.

The repercussions of these dramatic developments for the study of the equally momentous events of the Reformation period, though by no means instantaneous, promise over the longer term to be profound. For almost half a century during which western historical scholarship was transformed, eastern and western Europe were separated by the most significant political and ideological barrier in the world. While ideology distorted historiography, particularly on the eastern side of that barrier, the barrier itself distorted historiography on the western side. For evidence of the latter distortion, one need look no further than the previous two research guides, where no room was found for a chapter on the Reformation in Germany’s eastern neighbors: Poland, Bohemia, or Hungary.¹

A distortion that was half a century in the making will take decades to correct, but this process is now well under way.² As a new generation of historians from this region revisits neglected aspects of their own history and absorbs recent developments in western historiography, “eastern” and “western” scholars have more and more to communicate with one another. As the linguistic orientation of east central Europe shifts from Russian to German and English, scholarly communication across the Slavic language barrier is being enhanced. As the European Union embraces east central Europe, west European scholars are bound to take a greater interest in east central European history. Already, chapters on this region have become obligatory in collaboratively authored surveys of the Reformation era.³ More recently, histories of the reformations in Poland,⁴ the Czech lands,⁵ and Hungary⁶ have begun to appear in English and German, superseding or supplementing the isolated works that afforded access to these subjects for decades previously.⁷ General surveys of most of these regions in the early modern period have also begun to appear,⁸ which, together with similar works on Austria,⁹ now provide unprecedented access by non-Slavicists to basic information on east central Europe in the early modern period. A series of massive volumes has also undertaken to survey the cultural history of many of these regions,¹⁰ while the ten-volume series Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas, published between 1993 and 1999, has been something of a publishing sensation in Germany.¹¹ Yet while the potential harvest is plenteous, for the time being the laborers remain rather few. The richest crop of literature accessible to nonspecialists discusses those parts of east central Europe of most immediate concern to their German-speaking neighbors: the Bohemian kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire, the Hungarian dominions of the Austrian Habsburgs, and the extensive Pomeranian and Prussian territories on the southern shore of the Baltic. As a consequence, this essay will also focus on materials pertaining to Germany in the first instance, and to literature on its central European neighbors accessible to nonspecialists in the second.

CHRONOLOGICAL SCOPE

The opening of the eastern frontiers of German Reformation scholarship, however, is only the most dramatic respect in which historical research on this region has been transformed in the past fifteen years. The chronological as well as geographical scope of this field has also radically expanded. In the single chapter on this region in Ozment’s and Maltby’s previous guides to Reformation Europe, James M. Kittelson described the historiography of the latter sixteenth century in Germany as “a virtual wasteland.”¹² In the past fifteen years, however, the concentration of attention has palpably shifted. For the first time since modern study of the Reformation era began, the chronological focus of research on Germany has moved from the dramatic events of the early sixteenth century to the traditionally neglected processes of the subsequent period. In a general sense, this shift is in line with a broader European trend stemming from the Annales school, which has devoted increasing attention to the popular reception of the Reformation over the longer term (the very topic examined by Kittelson), and which has tended to regard Protestant and Catholic reforms as parallel rather than antithetical.¹³ Within Germany, this shift of emphasis and chronological focus has been stimulated in particular by the confessionalization thesis—a thesis of such widespread influence on the study of religion, society, and politics in post-Reformation Germany in recent years that it has rightly been afforded separate treatment in this volume. Noteworthy here is the fact that both the confessionalization thesis itself and the broader investigation of religious and confessional identities have spread to east central Europe as well.¹⁴

TOPICAL RANGE

This widening chronological scope has also helped create space for a commensurate expansion of thematic breadth. As even the title of this current guide to research suggests, this expansion is in keeping with broader European trends; but here again these have been reinforced by peculiarly German developments. The first half of the sixteenth century in Germany was undeniably dominated by the drama of the Reformation, the ramifications of which continued to unfold in the subsequent period. Yet when the early Reformation is placed in the context of early modern German history as a whole, a host of other issues and developments traditionally neglected by Reformation scholars immediately clamor for attention. Despite the fact that the shift in chronological focus was propelled by the restrictive agenda of the confessionalization thesis and focused on issues directly related to the Reformation, its longer-term effect has been progressively to enrich the range of themes being pursued in the field of early modern central European studies.

A first stage of this thematic expansion is clearly evident in an innovative historical project that has become a central fixture of historical education in Germany over the past fifteen years: the Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte (hereafter EDG).¹⁵ The EDG is not an encyclopedia of the traditional kind, but a series of about one hundred similarly structured volumes which collectively attempt to analyze the whole of German history in systematic fashion. The series as a whole divides German history into three traditional periods: medieval, early modern, and modern. Each period is then split into six major topics: society, economy, culture, religion, politics, and international relations. These topics are further subdivided into particular themes, and each theme is explored in a brief volume of about 150 pages consisting of three parts: an encyclopedic overview of the topic in question, a central historiographical discussion of basic problems and current research trends, and a systematically organized bibliography. The strengths of this approach are considerable. The basic format offers the researcher an extremely efficient introduction to a new field, further accelerated by the fact that the topics of each paragraph are identified by marginal headings. The individual volumes are quite up-to-date: of the thirty-three early modern volumes planned, twenty-eight have now been published (most during the early 1990s), while some are now in their second or even third impression. The division of all three periods into similar topics also facilitates the study of longer historical developments. The three volumes on the Jews, for instance, survey the troubled history of that community in medieval, early modern, and modern Germany. For researchers exploring specializations tangential to their own, whether at the undergraduate, graduate, or postdoctoral level, these volumes are an invaluable resource.

The extreme systematization of this approach, however, also has its drawbacks. The imposition of a uniform set of topics onto radically different periods inevitably distorts developments peculiar to individual epochs. There is little room in such a system, for instance, for the enormous proliferation of literature surrounding the Thirty Years’ War¹⁶ or witch-hunting in early modern Germany,¹⁷ to mention only two of the best-established topics in post-Reformation German history. Moreover, since the system of organization underlying the series was conceived in the 1980s, the distribution of emphasis within the series as a whole is more dated than the individual volumes that comprise it. In keeping with the social-scientific tendency of much previous postwar German historiography (including the confessionalization thesis itself), a dozen volumes—over a third of the entire early modern series—are devoted to society, including princely courts, the nobility, cities, the peasantry (two volumes), poverty and marginal groups, women and gender, the Jews, riot and revolt, military developments, demography, and the environment. Ten further volumes are devoted to economic history (including the agrarian economy, manufacturing, and commerce) and the political and constitutional topics previously dominant (the constitution of the Reich and its constituent parts, and its place within the evolving international state system).¹⁸ Surprisingly, this leaves only four volumes for religion and church: one on the Reformation itself, another on confessionalization, a third on church, state, and society in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and a fourth on religious movements. Only half a dozen volumes are reserved for “Kultur, Alltag, Mentalitäten,” and half of these are on well-established topics (“Bildung und Wissenschaft” and the Enlightenment), leaving only three volumes for the more innovative subjects of media, and the everyday lives and cultures of urban elites and of the lower social orders respectively.

Needless to say, traditional narrative history (long spurned by serious German historians) has virtually no place within this encyclopedia at all. More importantly still, a huge range of topics and approaches fit uncomfortably within this rigid conceptual matrix and have been marginalized within the EDG or excluded altogether. Moreover, if one is to judge from the more compact introduction to early modern history published by the same press and coauthored by a large number of mostly younger German historians, German historiography is rapidly moving beyond the structuralist assumptions underlying the EDG.¹⁹ After the exhausting labors of attempting, with the help of tools and methods from the social sciences, to reach generalizations about parallel developments within the innumerable political entities of the Holy Roman Empire, a younger generation of historians appears to have embraced microhistory as a fresh approach to old problems that liberates them from the necessity of reaching generalized conclusions.

The proliferation of fresh topics and approaches in early modern central European studies, it therefore appears, is an ongoing process that is still gaining ground. Unlike the confessionalization thesis and the broader structuralist historiography of which it is a part, this thematic expansion is not being driven by any one interpretive paradigm and is therefore far too variegated to be adequately surveyed here. Using as a touchstone the extension and expansion of a few topics related to previous Reformation historiography will nevertheless provide some impression of its scope and potential importance. Protestant Scholasticism, for instance, once universally decried as a degeneration from the evangelical insights of the great reformers, is now being rehabilitated as a flexible and creative intellectual tradition, especially among historians of Reformed theology.²⁰ Renaissance humanism, once pronounced dead with the death of Erasmus, is now seen by many scholars as undergoing a final flourishing in the decades around 1600, though a consensus regarding its vitality has as yet proved elusive.²¹ The irenical, conciliatory strands of contemporary thought and practice—formerly associated with humanism and seemingly running counter to the confessional imperatives of the age—have also attracted a surge of recent work,²² due not least to the expansion of the field to include the outstanding examples of ethnic and confessional pluralism provided by east central Europe in this period.²³ Far from being marginal to the period, moreover, much of the most influential irenicism has been traced to the courts of successive Habsburg emperors Maximilian II and Rudolf II.²⁴ In Rudolfine Prague in particular, universalist and irenical strivings were part and parcel of an extraordinarily rich mannerist culture that can be profusely documented in many of the other leading princely courts of the empire as well.²⁵ Alongside courts, the innumerable cities of the empire have become the focus of a scholarly industry.²⁶ The intense competition of these archipelagoes of free cities, princely courts, and religious houses produced an extraordinary proliferation of artistic and architectural traditions in this region, relatively free from the dominance of a single court style experienced in more centralized monarchies to the west.²⁷ In the intellectual sphere, this same competition was reflected in the foundation of numerous universities and immediately sub-university gymnasia illustria in early modern Germany, which—while still deplored by many as mere indices of confessional disunity, territorial fragmentation, and incipient princely absolutism—are also increasingly regarded as the seedbeds of pedagogical and philosophical developments of great intrinsic richness and international importance.²⁸ This dense network of competing and collaborating courts and universities also gave rise to all manner of philosophical currents, including those such as alchemy, astrology, spiritualism, Paracelsianism, and Rosicrucianism which challenge and complicate the characterization of this period as a static and sterile era of orthodoxy.²⁹ Many of these themes are related in important respects to a fresh set of topics that emerged from the mid-seventeenth century onwards: the international community of pansophists and universal reformers inspired above all by the great Moravian pedagogue and pansophist Jan Amos Comenius, the movement of religious revival known in Germany as Pietism, and the extraordinary synthesis of the greatest German philosophical mind of the era, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.³⁰

Clearly, the field described here is not only far larger geographically and chronologically than the older unit of Reformation Germany; it also embraces a far more diverse set of themes and traditions. Equally clearly, much of this rapidly developing field lacks clear synthetic statements and a great deal of exploration is still waiting to be done. But already it is possible to grasp the lineaments of a fresh and synoptic account of the religious, intellectual, and cultural history of central Europe, emancipated from nationalist and confessional historiographies, and relishing the enormous cultural variety created by the very territorial fragmentation that previous historians have so often deplored.

POLITICAL CONTEXT

This enhanced awareness of the rich variety of cultural trends simultaneously present in the innumerable polities of central Europe is, in turn, part of a fourth major development: the growing appreciation of the sprawling political entity that united so many of them, the Holy Roman Empire. Here too, the historiographical tide is responding to profound tectonic shifts in late twentieth-century German history. The empire began its early modern history as the most prestigious political institution in Christendom, at least as far as the formalities of international diplomacy were concerned. Yet as the confessional fragmentations issuing from the Reformation consolidated existing political divisions within the empire, and as these divisions entered into imperial law provisionally in 1555 and permanently in 1648, this formal status rang increasingly hollow. For almost three centuries after 1648, a tradition of historical and political thinkers emanating especially from Prussia portrayed the empire’s political, confessional, and cultural fragmentation as an unmitigated national disaster; and this view, codified in the mid-nineteenth century, remained dominant until the Second World War. Militarily, the nationalist historians complained, this fragmentation left Germany unable to resist the depredations of centralized and unified states like Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus and especially France under Louis XIV and Napoleon. Politically, this fragmentation diverted Germany from the high road to modernization taken by centralized nation states to the west. And since the nation state was regarded as the bearer of cultural as well as political and economic progress, political fragmentation was equated not only with political backwardness, but with cultural and intellectual backwardness as well.

Here too, relatively recent historical experiences have altered perceptions of the German past in ways that are still working themselves out. The disastrous consequences of German nationalism and militarism in the first half of the twentieth century destroyed the axiomatic association of national unification with political, cultural, and intellectual progress. The devolution of authority to individual Länder in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany represented, in a sense, a return to regional patterns of government deeply grounded in German history. Finally, the process of European unification in recent decades has provided a fresh perspective on the Holy Roman Empire as an enduring, supranational, multiethnic political institution that kept the peace in central Europe better than any other until the advent of the European Union. Against this backdrop, a wide range of specialists have begun to perceive politically sound and culturally fertile aspects of the Holy Roman Empire overlooked by previous generations of historians.

Even within Germany, this reassessment is still very much ongoing, and as yet relatively little of this new perspective has worked its way into English. For the basic institutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire and its evolution over the early modern period, Peter Wilson has provided an ideal brief introduction.³¹ More detail can conveniently be found in Gerhard Oestreich’s contribution to the previous edition of Gebhardt, the relevant volume of the EDG, and a number of recent, brief German introductions.³² Further introductory resources (although now somewhat dated) are the dictionary and thematically organized annotated bibliography compiled by Jonathan Zophy.³³ The proceedings of a conference held in Oxford in 2006 to mark the two-hundredth anniversary of the demise of the Old Reich should shortly provide a convenient conspectus of this emerging perspective in English.³⁴ In the longer term, the volume on the Holy Roman Empire between 1495 and 1806 being prepared for the Oxford History of Modern Europe series by Joachim Whaley promises to provide expert guidance.

Improved Tools

Propelled by fundamental historical as well as historiographical processes, the geographical, chronological, and thematic expansion and reassessment of this field over the past fifteen years has opened up a vast field for exploration and analysis. If, as Kittelson rightly claimed in 1982, “Germany in the second half of the sixteenth century [was] a land of golden opportunity for students of the Reformation,”³⁵ then central Europe in the latter sixteenth and seventeenth centuries represents an even more remarkable opportunity for students of early modern studies a quarter-century later. The prospects for efficiently exploring this still poorly mapped territory have been radically improved, moreover, by a fifth and—from a scholarly point of view—even more fundamental transformation of this field: the radical improvement during the past two decades of the basic instruments of interdisciplinary research on early modern central Europe in general and on Germany in particular. As a result of Germany’s long history of national fragmentation (reaching back to the Reformation era itself) and the repeated political dislocations of the past century, historians of early modern Germany have, until recently, had to work with a set of basic tools inferior in many respects to those of their neighbors to the east as well as to the west. Thanks to the technological as well as political revolutions of the past fifteen years, this situation is also rapidly changing for the better. Since these tools are, in effect, the preconditions for a proper exploration of this still poorly understood cultural world, the most immediate task of this essay is to bring a new generation of graduate students and nonspecialists up to date with the latest basic tools of the trade in this area of early modern studies.

NATIONAL LIBRARIES

No tools of interdisciplinary scholarship are more fundamental than national libraries; and a comparative sketch of the national libraries in central Europe is indicative of the broader histories of scholarly infrastructure in Germany and her eastern neighbors. The Czech national library—the Národní knihovna R in Prague—was founded in 1777 on the basis of collections dating back to the foundation of the Charles University in 1348. The roots of the Austrian national library—the Österreichische National-bibliothek in Vienna—can be traced back to the collections that Duke Albrecht III began to assemble in 1349. The origins of the Polish national library, like Polish history generally, are more complicated. The Biblioteka Narodowa in Warsaw derives from the library donated by the noble family of Zaluski in 1747; but it shares some of its functions as a national library with the Biblioteka Jagielloska in Kraków, which has evolved continuously since the foundation of the university there in 1364. Without an ancient university or continuously resident native dynasty of its own, Hungary owes its national library—the Országos Széchényi Könyvtár in Budapest—to the bequest in 1802 of the Hungarian aristocrat whose name it bears, Count Ferenc Széchényi.³⁶

The history of the German national library contrasts markedly with those of its neighbors to the east and this for several obvious reasons. As the birthplace of western printing, Germany witnessed a greater flood of early print than anywhere else in Europe. Territorial fragmentation simultaneously multiplied the number of early printing centers, while depriving Germany of national institutions to collect the books produced by them. Not until 1913, in fact, was a single institution—the Deutsche Bibliothek in Leipzig—assigned the task of collecting and cataloguing every book henceforth published in Germany. After the division and reunification of Germany, this function is now divided, in the best federal fashion, between institutions in Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main, and Berlin, which have collectively been rechristened the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek as recently as 2006.

In order to coordinate the collection of specialized, international academic literature on an ongoing basis, Germany has created a still more devolved national library system known as WEBIS (an acronym formed by combining “web” with BibliotheksInformationsSystem). WEBIS divides the whole of learning into 121 subject areas and geographical regions and then assigns to some forty libraries distributed all over Germany the task of assembling the most comprehensive collections possible of German and foreign literature in those areas. Thus, for instance, theology and religious studies are the responsibility of Tübingen, while the history of science and medicine is collected in Leipzig. Collecting literature on Britain and North America is Göttingen’s task, while material on general and German history goes to Munich. As well as describing this system in detail, the central WEBIS website provides opportunities for browsing through it by subject, region, and library. The individual library websites collected there also contain lists of recent acquisitions in their subject areas, and collaborate with one another to create broader information gateways to those subject areas.³⁷

More challenging still was the task of retrospectively assembling and cataloguing German books published before 1913, a difficulty which the disasters that engulfed Germany after 1914 did nothing to alleviate. Given the impossibility of bringing a full retrospective collection together in one place, the alternative solution was proposed in 1983 of sharing this responsibility among five different collections. In 1989, these entities came together to form a “virtual national library” known as the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sammlung Deutscher Drucke (AGSDD). This division of labor bestows a special status on three especially rich German collections of early modern printed books: the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (BSB) in Munich, which is now, in effect, the German national library for books printed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; the Herzog August Bibliothek (HAB) in Wolfenbüttel, which holds the same status for the seventeenth century; and the Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek (SUB) in Göttingen for the eighteenth. Together with three other libraries charged with collecting German imprints from 1800 to the present, their joint objective is to assemble, record, preserve, and make publicly available the most comprehensive collection possible of all printed works published in German-speaking countries. Partly for this reason, a good deal of the scholarly infrastructure of early modern studies in Germany now centers around these three institutions.

RETROSPECTIVE NATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES

The task of assembling and cataloging a comprehensive national library goes hand in hand with that of producing one of the most fundamental tools of historical research: a retrospective national bibliography. Within central Europe, those countries with access to representative collections of national imprints naturally led the way in creating basic research tools of this sort. In Poland, for instance, the director of the Jagiellonian Library, Karol Estreicher, began in 1868 the compilation of a Bibliografia Polska: a retrospective bibliography of Polish imprints that remains the standard work today.³⁸ Contemporaneously, enk Zíbrt, a professor at the Charles University working under the auspices of the Royal Academy in Prague, compiled the Bibliografie eské historie, a retrospective bibliography of sources and literature for Czech history up to 1679. In 1923, shortly after the founding of Czechoslovakia, the decision was taken to compile a more detailed catalog of all imprints in the Czech language before 1800. An enhanced version is now available on the Internet, where it will eventually be joined by a catalog of early modern Latin imprints from the Bohemian lands, extending the earlier work of Josef Hejnic and Jan Martínek.³⁹ By 1900, likewise, leading members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences had compiled a comprehensive retrospective national bibliography (Régi Magyar Köyvtar), comprising not only 1800 titles published in Hungarian (part 1) and 2500 titles in other languages published in Hungary from 1473 to 1711 (part 2), but also over 4800 works by native Hungarians published in other languages outside Hungary (part 3). Further additions and corrections were added in 1906 and 1912.⁴⁰ All of this work is now being superseded by a chronologically organized bibliography, including photographs of title pages and detailed bibliographical descriptions (Regi Magyarországi Nyomtatványok). Both versions are now available on CD-ROM and on the Internet (Elektronikus Régi Magyar Könyvtár), together with a further list of Hungarica published outside Hungary in languages other than Hungarian.⁴¹

In Germany, however, the compilation of a retrospective national bibliography, like the creation of a virtual national library, was a task postponed until the later twentieth century. Since 1969 the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft has funded a full-scale assault on this problem aimed at creating a complete retrospective bibliography of all German-language books and of all the works in whatever language printed or published in the historically German-speaking regions of Europe. The first product of this work appeared in twenty-two large volumes between 1983 and 1995 (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Druckschriften des XVI. Jahrhunderts, or VD16), comprising a bibliography of some 75,000 sixteenth-century German imprints, assembled in Munich with collaboration from Wolfenbüttel and (since 1990) from the Landes- und Forschungsbibliothek in Gotha. To this basic alphabetical listing were added an index of editors, commentators, translators, and contributors in 1997, and an index of places of publication, printers, publishers, and years of publication in 2000. Based as it is on only a small group of leading early modern collections, VD16 inevitably remains far from comprehensive, but further work on the project continues. More that 25,000 new titles from additional libraries in and outside Germany have been added to the database in Munich, which was made available on a CD-ROM accessible over the Internet in December 2005, and was converted into a web-mounted database in 2006. In 1996, moreover, work commenced simultaneously on a similar catalog for the seventeenth century (Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts, or VD17). In this case, however, the database has been published online from the outset and is growing incrementally. Digital technology has also made possible refinements unthinkable in the previous catalog: the over 200,000 imprints currently cataloged in VD17 are accompanied by over 630,000 “key pages”—that is, title pages, dedications, major section titles, colophons, and printers’ marks—designed to facilitate the individuation of editions and imprints.

CATALOGS AND GUIDES TO HISTORICAL BOOK COLLECTIONS

While these bibliographies and collections are gradually being perfected over coming decades, the student will need to supplement them from catalogs and collections elsewhere. Further bibliographical information can now be obtained with previously unimaginable ease thanks to yet another technological wonder: the online Karlsruher Virtueller Katalog, which allows the simultaneous searching of hundreds of independent libraries inside and outside Germany.

If, in the creation of a national retrospective bibliography, Germany has trailed behind many of its neighbors, in mapping out the historical dispersion and current preservation of book production in Germany since the invention of printing, it has leapt into the lead with the creation of an immense and unique work of reference, the tripartite Handbuch der Historischen Buchbestände edited by Bernard Fabian. The first two multivolume series offer regionally organized surveys of all the printed matter (including books, periodicals, newspapers, music, maps, and ephemera) published between 1450 and 1900 and preserved in some 1500 German (series 1) and 300 Austrian (series 2) libraries of every kind (national, regional, municipal, academic, ecclesiastical, monastic, or specialized). The third series surveys only material printed in the German language or in German-speaking countries preserved in selected libraries in seventeen countries in western, central, and eastern Europe. The entry for each library contains a brief history and detailed analysis of its holdings (organized chronologically, linguistically, and topically, with particular attention to special collections), as well as listings of published and unpublished catalogs, archival records, and other published descriptions of the collections. The first two series, and the individual volumes of the third, conclude with indexes of persons and subjects. Originally published in forty-seven large volumes between 1992 and 2001, all three series were republished in 2002 on a single CD-ROM. The resulting work offers a comprehensive survey of German book production, a massive documentation of its international dissemination, and a detailed guide to research collections both in and outside Germany itself.⁴²

A major ongoing Hungarian resource in this field, Bibliotheca Eruditionis: The History of Reading Databank (1500–1708), aims to document in unprecedented detail the reading culture of the Carpathian basin in the early modern period. At the heart of the project is a set of interconnected databases collecting information on (1) 1,750 book inventories and other archival sources, (2) the roughly 200,000 copies of some 60,000 Hungarian and foreign works listed in them, (3) extant copies of these books in contemporary Hungarian collections, and (4) specialized literature on the inventories, previous possessors, contemporary collections, and some individual works. While the databases themselves have not yet been published, four series of publications generated by the project have been appearing steadily for twenty-five years. The first series provides detailed descriptions of the inventories and related documents upon which the entire project rests; the second publishes the inventories themselves, with lengthy historical introductions and detailed indexes; the third attempts the full reconstruction of important library collections; while the fourth, a supplemental series, publishes more synthetic studies that derive from the project.⁴³ Many of these volumes are written or summarized at length in major languages of international scholarship.

DIGITIZED SOURCE COLLECTIONS WITH UNRESTRICTED ACCESS

Given the state of the German historical bibliography, it will be some time before a collection for Germany can be assembled that is equivalent to Early English Books Online, which makes virtually every English book published in the early modern period available at the click of a mouse. Yet something of this kind is already in prospect. A discreet notice on the website of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (BSB) in Munich announces the commencement of a project to digitize and publish on the Internet all the library’s holdings listed in VD16.⁴⁴ As a pilot project, the BSB proposes to begin by digitizing all its sixteenth-century holdings in the pre-Reformation period. Inevitably, however, the digitization even of the portion of sixteenth-century imprints currently listed in VD16 would require the cooperation of many different libraries. The general strategy of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), therefore, is to divide this huge task into priority areas and assign these to individual institutions best equipped to pursue them, thereby collectively comprising a “Verteilte Digitale Forschungsbibliothek.” With this strategy in mind, the DFG program for the “Retrospektive Digitalisierung von Bibliotheksbeständen” has already supported a large number of projects across the whole range of humanistic research, including many of those mentioned in this article.⁴⁵ While the default option in the Anglo-American sphere was to leave such developments to the private sector (who then sell them back to those institutions wealthy enough to afford them), in Germany the objective is apparently to fund this work publicly, and eventually to put the German-speaking world’s entire literary heritage in the public domain, free of charge to the end user.

Pioneering examples of these DFG-funded efforts are the joint projects CAMENA and TERMINI, pursued since 1999 at the universities of Mannheim and Heidelberg. CAMENA stands for Corpus Automatum Multiplex Electorum Neolatinitatis Auctorum, and its aim is to build a digital library of the central European neo-Latin respublica litterarum during the period 1500 to 1770. The first collection, Poemata, has digitized some 60,000 pages of printed Latin poetry composed by German authors during this period, which is reproduced both as images and as machine-readable texts. A second collection, Thesaurus eruditionis, is assembling the kinds of reference works that scholarly central Europeans would have had at their elbows during the early modern era. It currently contains over sixty-five works on an encyclopedic range of subjects totaling more than 58,000 pages, accompanied by machine-readable transcriptions of either entire works or their summaries and indexes alone.⁴⁶ The TERMINI Project effectively provides a cumulative index of this Thesaurus eruditionis that allows the user to search the entire collection simultaneously. Since 2004 a third collection of Latin historical and political works published in early modern Germany has been added to CAMENA; this collection currently contains ninety-eight works and over 48,000 pages, accompanied by electronically searchable summaries and indexes. The most recent project, entitled CERA or Corpus Epistolicum Recentioris Aevi, aims to digitize ninety printed collections of Latin learned correspondence from central Europe in the period 1530 to 1770.⁴⁷

Pursuing the digitization of Germany’s literary heritage on such a devolved basis raises the obvious necessity of coordinating efforts and collecting results so that users can readily find and use what they need most. In response to this situation, the AGSDD, together with several partner organizations and the support of the DFG, published on the Internet in 2005 a central listing of digitized publications in Germany, the Zentrale Verzeichnis Digitalisierter Drucke. The first phase of this project to be realized involved assembling links (with brief descriptions) to digital collections and digital libraries. Currently encompassing some 150 collections organized alphabetically by the institutions that host them, this listing ranges far beyond the field of early modern central Europe; but it also lists many collections invaluable to this field (some of them mentioned in this essay) and will only get richer with the passage of time. In due course, this basic list of collections will be complemented by a detailed listing of individual printed works digitized in their entirety to a high standard and available without cost over the Internet.

Private initiatives have also played an important role here, not least due to the specialized and international nature of many aspects of this field. Dana F. Sutton of the University of California–Irvine, for instance, has assembled the invaluable Analytical Bibliography of On-Line Neo-Latin Titles, which is freely available on the Internet without subscription charges or access restrictions. First posted in 1999, this listing currently approaches 22,000 records relevant to many aspects of early modern studies in and beyond central Europe.

COMMERCIAL COLLECTIONS: MICROFILM, DIGITAL, AND PRINT

In introducing the first Reformation research guide in 1982, Steven Ozment observed that “the marvels of modern technology have provided scholars with ever expanding textual resources.” Within that same volume, he accordingly dedicated his own essay to the “Pamphlet Literature on the German Reformation,” which was then being made readily accessible on microfilm for the first time. In this respect as well, technology has continued its astonishing advance and has consequently changed both the tools and the content of research in this field.

Pride of place must go to the German Flugschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts, whose advent on microfilm in 1979 prompted Ozment’s remarks. The first series (1979–87), containing some 5,000 German and Latin pamphlets printed in the empire between 1501 and 1530, is now complete. Thematically, it is naturally focused on the early Reformation itself, the associated disruption of the Peasants’ War, and further conflicts both within western Europe and against the Turks. The second series (1990–), which will eventually include a similar number of pamphlets from the remainder of the sixteenth century, deals with a broader range of topics, including (as the catalog states) “the Turkish wars, the revolt of the Netherlands, the persecution of French Protestants, the status of Calvinists and Zwinglians in the Holy Roman Empire, the Council of Trent, the Anabaptist Kingdom of Münster, the Schmalkaldic War and the Interim, propaganda against the papacy and the Jesuits, intra-Protestant theological quarrels, the building of confessional networks, witch-hunting, anti-Jewish polemics and more.” Hans Joachim Kohler’s invaluable bibliography of this extraordinary resource (Bibliographie der Flugschriften des 16. Jahrhundert) unfortunately remains stalled midway through the first series.

Meanwhile, old-media publication in this field has continued to demonstrate its value. The influential series of nine volumes on The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, published in the later 1970s, is now being complemented by two equally ambitious, related projects.⁴⁸ John Roger Paas is producing The German Political Broadsheet, 1600–1700, a ten-volume catalog of seventeenth-century German political broadsheets in chronological order.⁴⁹ And Wolfgang Harms is creating Deutsche illustrierte Flugblätter des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts, a systematic and extensively annotated catalog of major library collections of German sixteenth- and seventeenth-century illustrated pamphlets, which relate thematically not merely to religion and politics but to all areas of contemporary discourse and debate, notably ethics, physics, and history. The BSB in Munich is also preparing digital editions of similar material, while the pioneering Czech work in this field focuses on the turbulent decades of the Thirty Years’ War.⁵⁰

The provision of unprecedentedly large collections of printed sources on microfiche and the Internet has not, of course, been restricted to popular ephemera. Scholarly disciplines have also been receiving their share of attention. As befits the confessional age, theology has been particularly well served in this regard, thanks largely to pioneering microfiche publications from IDC. A microfiche series, The Catholic Reformation (edited by Paul Blum), contains a large amount of central European material and includes separate sections on philosophy, theology, controversies, biographies, and foreign missions. William S. Maltby’s collection of 362 sources on the Lutheran Reformation has been supplemented by Timothy J. Wengert’s Philipp Melanchthon, a collection of thirty-one early editions designed to complement the more recent collections of Melanchthon’s works. The parallel collection of 269 titles on Reformed Protestantism in the Netherlands and Germany has been complemented by two collections on Heidelberg—the first treating the first and second reformations there between 1536 and 1576, the second resuming the story between the reconversion of the Palatinate from Lutheranism in 1583 and the sack of Heidelberg in 1622.⁵¹ A further series on the Hungarian Reformation will appear shortly under the editorial supervision of Graeme Murdock.

A still more recent development is the provision since 2001 of two related international collections of theological texts from the Reformation era in digitized form. By far the larger of the two is the Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts, which currently contains over 1200 texts by over 300 authors from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with a marked preference for English divinity (over 500 titles) and the Reformed tradition (ca. 475 titles). The parallel Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation is intended to grow to a similar size, though it is currently much smaller (272 titles by 112 authors, most from the sixteenth or early seventeenth centuries). According to the promotional material, the planned collection will include “papal and synodal decrees, catechisms and inquisitorial manuals, biblical commentaries, theological treatises and systems, liturgical writings, saints’ lives, and devotional works.” In addition to digital facsimiles of the original editions used, this database provides electronic texts in modernized spelling to facilitate searching, and a very user-friendly electronic index analyzing each complete corpus into some 150 standard topics.

Two other large collections have expanded the disciplinary range of this material beyond theology. From 1990 onward, a huge selection of German-language texts of a generally literary nature has been made available on microfiche in the Bibliothek der Deutschen Literatur published by K. G. Saur. This massive series—containing over 10 million pages of text from 17,225 works by 2500 authors—is overwhelmingly dominated, as one might expect, by the later periods; but the modest sections on Humanismus/Reformation (ca. 1450–1600, eighteen authors), and the somewhat richer one on the Barock (ca. 1600–1720: ca. 175 authors) can be purchased separately. The best guide is the hard-copy bibliography and index by Axel Frey, which does not, however, include the works included in the second supplement.⁵² In 2002 a pan-European collection on Philosophy and the Liberal Arts in the Early Modern Period, edited by J. S. Freedman et al., began to appear from IDC. Eventually, it will include thousands of texts on philosophical disciplines (metaphysics, physics, ethics, politics), liberal arts (logic, rhetoric, grammar, poetics, history), mathematical disciplines, and printed curricula for individual schools and universities.⁵³

MANUSCRIPTS

At the opposite end of the spectrum of user-friendliness from machine-readable digital sources are the Urquellen themselves: unedited manuscripts. Needless to say, the system of archives in Germany is complex, but reliable guidance can be found in the fifteenth edition of Archive in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz, updated in 1995 to take account of German reunification. A catalog of the extensive collection of inventories and finding aids for archives in the three countries assembled at the German Historical Institute in Washington, DC, was placed on the Internet in 1995, and further web-based guidance is available in a more recent guide to German archives compiled by Andreas Hanacek.⁵⁴ For regularly updated information, the Archiveschule Marburg (the leading German institution of its kind) hosts a neatly organized listing of German, European, and worldwide archives, as well as information on other gateways to relevant information. At a far greater level of detail, the Kalliope database provides an updated, digitized version of the union catalog of autographs and collections of literary papers in German collections. Though already consisting of some 1.2 million records, it is currently restricted, for the most part, to papers held in German libraries. Plans for a second phase will extend it to include collections in archives and museums as well. A similarly conceived Repertorium der handschriftlichen Nachlässe in den Bibliotheken und Archiven der Schweiz exists for Switzerland, though it is far from complete. In the absence of such tools, the special collections pages of the national libraries discussed above are typically a good starting point in searching for manuscript material. The website of the Hungarian National Archives (Magyar Országos Levéltár) lists their collections and holdings in reasonable detail.

QUELLENKUNDE: BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF SOURCES AND LITERATURE

Aside from bibliographical information on and practical access to original source material, the historian’s second need is for similar access to secondary literature. Here, two kinds of bibliography are indispensable: retrospective bibliographies, which list the most important previously published sources and literature, and cumulative bibliographies, which regularly list recently published material in the field.

Retrospective Bibliographies

The standard, thematically organized, retrospective bibliography of major sources and literature for the whole of German history—Dalmann and Waitz’s Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte—has now appeared in a tenth revised edition, in ten large volumes, continuing a tradition dating back to 1830. The end of volume 6 and the whole of volume 7 deal with the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Also useful for early modernists are the first section (dealing with general issues and research tools) and the second section (arranged geographically) in the first volume, and the index that concludes the entire series. Handier and slightly more recent are the volumes on Quellenkunde zur deutschen Geschichte der Neuzeit edited by Winfried Baumgart, which list only primary sources. Winfried Becker’s volume on the period 1618 to 1715 is primarily useful for major collections of source material on German political and constitutional history, and international relations.⁵⁵ Historians of the lands now comprising Austria are more fortunate to have a thoroughly up-to-date survey of the archival and published sources that devotes over one thousand pages to the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.⁵⁶ Recent and voluminous retrospective bibliographies are also readily available for Czech and Slovak history and for German-Polish relations.⁵⁷

Cumulative Bibliographies

The basic ongoing cumulative bibliography on German history remains the Jahresberichte für deutsche Geschichte (JDG). Continuing a tradition dating back to 1880, and compiled annually since 1952 by the Deutsche (now Berlin-Brandenburgische) Akademie der Wissenschaften, these hefty volumes list recently published primary and secondary literature in any language pertaining (for the early modern period) to all the territories included in the Holy Roman Empire (in some cases, until the period of their permanent secession). Three years ago, listings since 1985 were made available in searchable form on the Internet. Updated daily, the online version currently contains some 326,000 entries, which also include links to the German Zeitschriftendatenbank and the Karlsruher Virtueller Katalog, as well as to book reviews and full-text publications available online.⁵⁸ The Österreichische historische Bibliographie (ÖHB) lists all historical literature (for whatever country) produced in Austria since 1945. Since 2004 it has been expanded to include a selective bibliography of work on Austrian history published outside the country between 1990 and 1995.⁵⁹ For regions further east, an equally invaluable aid is the series Bibliographien zur Geschichte und Landeskunde Ostmitteleuropas, published regularly by the Herder Institute in Marburg, many of them in bilingual and trilingual editions compiled in collaboration with east central European partner institutions. Included in this metaseries are bibliographies on the histories of the Bohemian lands and Slovakia, Silesia, Pomerania, East and West Prussia, Great Poland, and the Baltic countries, as well as separate volumes on the history of German-Polish relations. This too is now available online: the entire database—including 400,000 titles (mostly from about 1990 onward) collected from 780 west European and North American periodicals and a similar number of east central European publication series—is also furnished with a splendid set of search facilities.⁶⁰

These geographically organized resources can be usefully supplemented by interdisciplinary cumulative bibliographies, published in periodical form. The well-known “Literaturbericht,” published annually as a supplement to the Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, provides brief reviews of a wide selection of pertinent literature, especially on the sixteenth century. The thematically organized “Bibliographie zur Barockliteratur” published in the Wolfenbütteler Barock-Nachrichten is extensive and richly interdisciplinary for the seventeenth century. The literature surveys on the early modern period periodically published in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht naturally place their emphasis squarely on history. Another invaluable resource for keeping up to date is the Internet version of German books in print, the Verzeichnis Lieferbarer Bücher.

BIOGRAPHICAL BASICS

The prosopographer, like the bibliographer, has hitherto labored under particular difficulties in Germany. Shortly after unification in 1871, Germany led the way in Europe in the compilation of a massive national biography (the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, or ADB) containing 26,500 entries in fifty-six volumes. Since 1953 a replacement has been in preparation (the Neue deutsche Biographie), which is intended to include 25,500 entries in twenty-eight volumes when completed around 2017.⁶¹ As these statistics indicate, a large number of persons and families treated in the earlier work have been cut from the later one in order to make room for significant figures from the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries; so the newer work by no means entirely supersedes the older one. In a similar fasion, the work begun in the gargantuan eighteenth-century German encyclopedia of J. H. Zedler and the contemporary biographical dictionary of C. G. Jöcher (continued by Adelung, Rotermund, and Günther) contain brief entries on many individuals not listed in the ADB.⁶² These all build, in turn, on a plethora of earlier biographical dictionaries for individual German territories, which often contain far more information that any other single source (an outstanding example is Strieder, Grundlage an einer hessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftsteller-Geschichte). Ready access to a comprehensive selection of such literature is rare within Germany, and nonexistent outside it, making research into the communities of less well-known German historical figures very cumbersome.⁶³

In this case too, technology has recently transformed the situation, at least for those able to access the expensive results. In the 1970s, the publishing firm of K. G. Saur Verlag grasped this particular nettle and set out to conflate a huge collection of biographical reference works into a single, immense scrapbook. Their project aimed, in effect, to cut out the articles on individual figures from a whole library of biographical reference works, to paste them into a single alphabetical series, and then to publish the results on microfiche. The first and, for present purposes, most useful result was the original Deutsches biographisches Archiv (DBA I), which includes 480,000 articles on 213,000 individuals, collected from 265 sources published between 1707 and 1913 (published in installments between 1982 and 1986 with a hardbound index: the Deutscher biographischer Index or DBI).⁶⁴ Subsequent years have seen the publication of similar archives for all the regions of Europe and many countries outside it—most notably, for present purposes, the Baltic countries, Poland, the Czech and Slovak Republics, and Hungary. Within the past few years, digitized versions of all the western and central European biographical archives have been made available (by subscription) on the Internet, and the plan is to add all the other archives to the online version by 2009 to create a World Biographical Information System Online (WBIS Online). The resulting work still falls short of the ideal in several significant respects. The lack of page numbers makes it impossible to cite the original works precisely without recourse to hard copies. While local biographical dictionaries are included aplenty, topical ones—such as Melchior Adam’s lives of leading sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century German philosophers, theologians, lawyers, and medical doctors—are strangely lacking.⁶⁵ Also inevitably missing are a host of more recent works that are still in copyright. Such regrets notwithstanding, some forms of exploratory prosopographical and biographical research will be transformed by the ability to search some 10 million entries on 5 million people collected from 8,600 reference works in forty languages, not only by name, but by gender, occupation, year of birth or death, and country as well. Even this does not exhaust the biographical material readily available on the Internet, however. Still more extensive sources of contemporary biographical information can be located, for instance, via the catalog of German-language funeral sermons compiled since 1974 by the Forschungsstelle für Personalschriften in Marburg.⁶⁶

Technological advances such as these notwithstanding, traditional national biographies remain indispensable and are being refurbished for some countries in central Europe. The Swiss, for instance, after generations of coping with an inadequate national biography (Historisch-Biographische Lexikon der Schweiz), are now assembling a new historical lexicon (Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz), which by 2014 will include some 40,000 articles on people, families, places, and other historical topics in fourteen volumes. Despite the simultaneous appearance of this dictionary in German, French, and Italian, the publishing timetable is ticking away like a Swiss watch, with the fifth annual volume appearing in 2006. Better still, over half the full dictionary is now available in the (trilingual) Internet version, where articles are being published as soon as they are finished. The Czech situation is similar. Here too, eighteenth-century Latin and German biographical dictionaries retain some utility; but historians still turn for further biographical information to the voluminous Czech encyclopedia published at the turn of the century and to an excellent and more recent handbook limited to neo-Latin authors.⁶⁷ All this is now changing with the appearance in 2004 of the first volume of a state-of-the-art biographical dictionary of Czech and Slovak lands being produced by the Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Science (Biografický slovník eských zemí). For the German reader, a four-volume biographical dictionary of the Czech lands is now nearly complete; while a similar work for southeastern Europe is also available.⁶⁸ Along with the Polish national biography (currently forty volumes and still creeping its way to completion), a compact German-language biography is available for Prussian territories.⁶⁹ The Hungarian national biography (now available online) can be supplemented in the field of Reformation studies by the clerical biographies included in a dictionary of Hungarian Protestant ecclesiastical history.⁷⁰

Aside from these geographically organized bibliographical dictionaries, other valuable works provide detailed information on various categories of figures active in early modern central Europe. For the humanist background, Bietenholz and Deutscher’s three-volume dictionary of Contemporaries of Erasmus is convenient and authoritative. Four volumes of biographical entries prefaced to the ongoing edition of Melanchthon’s Briefwechsel will serve a similar function. For major figures and issues of the Reformation period itself, the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation (edited by Hillerbrand) is a convenient point of reference. Minor figures can also be found in Bautz and Bautz’s Biographisch-bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, republished at almost double its previous size since 1990 and now also available on the Internet. A further dictionary edited by Erwin Iserloh surveys fifty-two leading Catholic theologians of the Reformation period (in and outside Germany) in six up-to-date volumes, with substantial discussions of life and works, and bibliographies of primary and secondary sources.⁷¹ For the entire theological context, the steadily published volumes of the Theologische Realenzyclopädie provide compelling grounds for any researcher in this field to acquire at least a rudimentary reading knowledge of German. Basic biographical and extremely rich bibliographical information on German writers of the baroque period (that is, on those who published their chief literary works in the seventeenth century) is conveniently available thanks to Gerhard Dünnhaupt’s Personalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock.

TOPOGRAPHICAL NECESSITIES

The territorial fragmentation of Germany underlying these biographical and bibliographical problems previously created almost insuperable difficulties for the empirically grounded study of early modern German history more generally. As decades of research on the Reformation in the cities clearly demonstrated, any meaningful generalization regarding the reception of the Reformation in Germany must be based on the comparative study of myriad semi-independent political and ecclesiastical entities.⁷² More recently, the confessionalization thesis posed precisely the same problem for Germany’s principalities: the hypothesis that fundamental similarities underlie the evolution of even confessionally antagonistic territories could only be validated by the comparative analysis of the histories of reformations in numerous individual territories. The desire to facilitate this research produced yet another of the key new reference works that have appeared during the past fifteen years: a seven-volume overview of the territories of the Holy Roman Empire in the era of Reformation and confessionalization (that is, roughly between 1500 and 1650).⁷³ Each of the sixty-two independently authored chapters of this invaluable handbook summarizes the basic information on one or more key imperial territories. At the outset of each chapter, a basic map is provided together with an outline of the territory’s ruling house, its divisions and reunifications, and its position within the constitutional hierarchy and geographical matrix of the empire. The bulk of each chapter is then devoted to narrating the political and ecclesiastical situation around 1500, the key dynastic and confessional developments of the next half-century, the consolidation or continued disruption of confessional churches in the latter sixteenth century, and the impact of the Thirty Years’ War, before concluding with selective bibliographies of sources and secondary literature. Above and beyond the issue of confessionalization itself, these volumes provide an invaluable orientation to anyone seeking the basic mastery of this extraordinarily complex and fluid landscape which is a prerequisite for filling the vital middle ground between detailed studies of individual territories and vague generalizations about the history of the empire as a whole.

Inevitably, not all of the Holy Roman Empire’s hundreds of territories could be treated in adequate detail even in this substantial collaborative work. Digitized collections of historical maps are proliferating on the Internet,⁷⁴ but since most of these maps are relatively recent and the collections lack the systematic character of an integrated atlas, searching for information in these collections can be frustrating. Even more voluminous is the national database of old maps (IKAR) assembled since 1985 in Berlin and available online since 1991. Of over 230,000 old maps cataloged in this database, fewer than 1500 are currently provided with links to digital images. One category of smaller territories—those ruled by some thirty religious orders and monastic communities active in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Germany—is currently being mapped in a complementary three-volume atlas, which will also complement the biographical dictionary of Catholic theologians mentioned above.⁷⁵ The history of cities in Germany has become a major industry, serviced by a massive three-volume bibliography of sources and literature.⁷⁶ For other small imperial territories—as well as for more information on significant places within larger ones—one can turn to a number of useful reference works. Gerhard Köbler’s historical lexicon of German lands, updated for the third time in 1999, provides brief overviews and bibliographies for some 5000 geographical entities. Köbler’s bibliographical information can be supplemented by Reinhard Oberschelp’s concise and up-to-date bibliography of basic research tools in German regional historiography.⁷⁷ More detailed topographical information can be found in the regionally organized volumes of the constantly evolving Handbuch der historischen Stätten Deutschlands, which provide detailed information on cities, towns, markets, monasteries, castles, princely and noble residences, and other historically significant sites.⁷⁸ For the more obscure place names, one can consult Müllers Grosses Deutsches Ortsbuch, now in its twenty-ninth edition. For Latin place names, Graesse’s wonderful Orbis Latinus is now available on the Internet. The Latin names of places too insignificant for inclusion in Graesse can often be identified in the indexes to the contemporary matriculation register of a nearby university.⁷⁹ A handy guide for locating cities in Germany and east central Europe on basic maps, and for unscrambling the variety of early modern and contemporary designations for them, is the Thesaurus Locorum, maintained in Marburg. Less a necessity for the student, perhaps, than a delight for the connoisseur is the reprint of Matthaus Merian’s wonderful seventeenth-century Topographia Germaniae—with its irresistible engravings of innumerable German cities, towns, and Schlösser comprising an image of the Empire in the mid-seventeenth century.

For more easterly regions, excellent historical maps can be found in the standard ten-volume history of Hungary. The polyglot lists of place-names appended to it can be supplemented by the valuable list of Hungarian names of places outside modern Hungary’s borders compiled by László Sabok.⁸⁰ Another outstanding resource is the historical atlas of Czech towns, which combines surveys of archaeological, historical, geographical, political, economic, and cultural information with reproductions of old maps and town plans, specially commissioned historical maps, and comprehensive bibliographies.⁸¹

LINGUISTIC AIDS

Linguistic help is also now readily available on the web. The immense historical dictionary of the German language—begun by the Brothers Grimm in 1838 and finished thirty-three volumes later in 1971 (Das Deutsche Wörterbuch)—was republished on CD-ROM in 2004 and is now available online. No sooner was the first edition finished, than work began on a second and more homogenous revision.⁸² An even more welcome innovation for the student of neo-Latin literature is Johann Ramminger’s modestly titled Neulateinische Wortliste, which charts the development of Latin between roughly 1300 and 1700 under the influence of humanism, the invention of printing, and the needs of early modern culture. Far from a mere word list, it concentrates on and illustrates the usage of new, rare, and noteworthy terms that can be browsed in thematic groupings as well as in alphabetical and reverse-alphabetical order. Those bold enough to venture into Hungarian materials may need to know that the standard English-Hungarian dictionaries are those edited by László Országh and Tamás Magay. Also noteworthy is the five-volume German-Czech dictionary compiled on historical principles by Josef Jungmann in the nineteenth century and recently reprinted.

GATEWAYS

Last but by no means least are a set of research tools that have not merely been improved but invented de novo in the past fifteen years: the multipurpose gateways. The oldest of these—the WWW Virtual Library—was established in 1991, one year before the previous research guide to Reformation Europe was published. Such has been the enthusiasm for assembling collections of Internet links that, for most of the intervening period, historians have been confronted with an increasingly bewildering proliferation of alternative portals for entry into this field. Yet as web-mounted digital resources have multiplied exponentially, so too has the labor required to catalog them in a professional manner. In the field of early modern German history, at least, this fertile but increasingly anarchic start-up phase has now been superseded by a more rationalized system of subject gateways, funded, yet again, by the DFG and superimposed on the national system of subject libraries described above (WEBIS).⁸³

The all-embracing Internet gateway for historical study in the German-speaking world is Clio-online, sponsored by the DFG and hosted at the Humboldt University in Berlin. Like the discipline it serves, this gateway is inevitably huge, complex, and multifaceted, and the user is advised to begin exploring it via the site map off the home page. Moreover, since early modern central Europe is only a tiny fraction of the historical discipline as a whole, the researcher will often find it more profitable to visit more specialized gateways, particularly while browsing as opposed to searching. One pair linked to Clio-online is InformationsWeiser Geschichte/History Guide. History Guide has been developed by Göttingen since 1995 as part of its responsibility for organizing information on Anglo-American history. Since 2001, it has been combined with InformationsWeiser Geschichte, developed in Munich as part of its responsibility for German and general history. This project was then enlarged within Clio-online in 2003 into an official Network Subject Gateway for history. The purpose of this gateway is to assemble, organize, and thereby ease access to digital publications on the Internet in a manner analogous to JDG for print media. The DFG-funded gateway to Internet resources for Europe east of Germany and Austria is the Virtuelle Fachbibliothek Osteuropa.

Most of these geographically defined gateways allow searches to be restricted to early modern materials. Nevertheless, they can be usefully complemented by gateways devoted to early modern material that can be delimited geographically. Within the WWW Virtual Library, for instance, early modern German history is still ably served by the Virtual Library Frühe Neuzeit, based in the Historisches Centrum Hagen. An especially valuable register of resources recovering the entire interdisciplinary field of early modern studies, with a particular focus on German-language resources, is Frühe Neuzeit Digital (FND), maintained by the Herzog August Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel. In addition to the predictable categories (digital sources, editions, catalogs, and databases), FND also collects links to institutions in Germany and elsewhere which foster early modern studies, and links to other gateways in the field. A gateway of a rather different sort is H-German, “a daily Internet discussion forum focused on scholarly topics in German history,” and dedicated to “serving professional historians of Germany around the world.” Although dominated by modernists, it also broadcasts medieval and early modern book and exhibition reviews, historiographical debates, and conference reports via email, which are archived on its website along with course syllabi, an extensive links page, and other resources.

Given the rate at which digital resources are proliferating in this field, fresh material will certainly appear on these lists while this volume is in press. Hence the need to conclude with reference to the tools best adapted to keeping abreast of future developments. Yet three general conclusions substantiated by this essay may not so rapidly be rendered obsolete. The first is that obtaining a synthetic, interdisciplinary appreciation of the history, thought, and culture of central Europe in the post-Reformation era will require a generation and more of energetic, international, and interdisciplinary effort. A second is that political conditions have never been more favorable and scholarly tools never more adequate to this demanding task. And from these two a third and most general conclusion naturally follows: the task of mapping out central Europe in the post-Reformation period offers one of the greatest challenges anywhere in the field of early modern studies to the next generation of intellectually adventurous researchers.

Bibliography

GATEWAYS

Clio-online: http://www.clio-online.de.

Frühe Neuzeit Digital: http://www.hab.de/bibliothek/fachinfo/fnd/index.htm.

H-German: http://www.h-net.org/~german.

History Guide: http://www.historyguide.de/index.php.

InformationsWeiser Geschichte: http://mdz2.bib-bvb.de/hist/index.php.

Karlsruher Virtueller Katalog: http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/kvk.html.

Virtual Library Frühe Neuzeit: http://www.historisches-centrum.de/index.php?id=66.

Virtuelle Fachbibliothek Osteuropa (ViFaOst): http://www.vifaost.de.

WWW Virtual Library: http://vlib.org.

INSTITUTIONAL WEBSITES

Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sammlung Deutscher Drucke: http://www.ag-sdd.de.

Archivschule Marburg: http://www.archivschule.de/content.

Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich: http://www.bsb-muenchen.de.

Biblioteka Jagielloska, Kraków: http://www.bj.uj.edu.pl.

Biblioteka Narodowa / National Library, Warsaw: http://www.bn.org.pl.

Deutsche Comenius-Gesellschaft: http://www.deutsche-comenius-gesellschaft.de.

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft: http://www.dfg.de/en/.

Deutsche Nationalbibliothek: http://www.d-nb.de.

German Historical Institute, Washington, DC: http://www.ghi-dc.org.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek (formerly Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek), Hannover: http://www.gwlb.de/Leibniz.

Herder Institute, Marburg: http://www.herder-institut.de.

Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel: http://www.hab.de.

Historische Kommission zur Erforschung des Pietismus: http://www.pietismuskommission.de.

Magyar Országos Levéltár / Hungarian National Archives, Budapest: http://www.mol.gov.hu.

Národní knihovna eské republiky / National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague: http://www.nkp.cz.

Országos Széchényi Könyvtár / National Széchényi Library, Budapest: http://www.oszk.hu.

Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna: http://www.onb.ac.at/about/index.htm.

Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Göttingen: http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de.

WEBIS—WEB BibliotheksInformationsSystem: http://webis.sub.uni-hamburg.de.

BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARIES AND RELATED AIDS

Adam, Melchior. Vitae. Heidelberg, 1615, 1620. 5 parts: Vitae Germanorum philosophorum, qui seculo superiori, et quod excurrit, philosophicis ac humanioribus literis clari floruerunt (1615); Vitae Germanorum medicorum…(1620); Vitae Germanorum iureconsultorum etpoliticorum (1620); Vitae Germanorum Theologorum (1620); Decades Duæ Continentes Vitas Theologorum Exteriorum Principum (1653). Available online at http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/adam.html.

Adelung, Johann Christoph. Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon: Fortsetzung und Ergänzungen zu Christian Gottlieb Jöchers allgemeinem Gelehrten-Lexico, continued by Heinrich Wilhelm Rotermund (vols. 3–6) and Otto Günther (vol. 7). 7 vols. Leipzig: Gleditsch, 1784–1897.

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. 56 vols. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1875–1912. Facsimile reprint, Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1967–71. Also available online at http://mdz1.bib-bvb.de/~ndb.

Balbín, Bohuslav. Bohemia Docta. 3 vols. Prague: Hagen, 1776–80.

Bautz, F. W., and T. Bautz, eds. Biographisch-bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon. 2nd enlarged ed. 25 vols. Hamm, Westphalia [later Nordhausen]: Bautz, 1990–2005. Also available online at http://www.bautz.de/bbkl .

Bernath, Mathias, and Felix von Schroeder, eds. Biographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Südosteuropas. 4 vols. Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1974–81.

Biografický slovník eských zemí. Edited by P. Vošhlíková et al. Currently 4 vols. covering A-Bez. Prague: Historický ústav AV R-Libri, 2004–.

Bietenholz, Peter G., and Thomas B. Deutscher, eds. Contemporaries of Erasmus: A Biographical Register of the Renaissance and Reformation. 3 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985–87.

Deutscher biographischer Index. Edited by Willi Gorzny. 4 vols. Munich: Saur, 1986.

Deutsches biographisches Archiv: Eine Kumulation aus 254 der wichtigsten biographischen Nachschlagewerke für den deutschen Bereich bis zum Ausgang des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts. Edited by Bernhard Fabian. 1421 microfiches. Munich: Saur, 1982–86.

Gesamtkatalog deutschsprachiger Leichenpredigten. Online at http://web.uni-marburg.de/fpmr//html/db/gesainfo.html.

Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz. Edited by Heinrich Türler et al. 7 vols. plus supplement. Neuenburg: Administration des Historisch-Biographischen Lexicons der Schweiz, 1921–34.

Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. Edited by the Stiftung Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. 13 vols. planned; currently 6 vols. Basle: Schwabe, 2002–. Also available online at http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/index.php.

Iserloh, Erwin, ed. Katholische Theologen der Reformationszeit. 6 vols. Münster: Aschendorff, 1984–2004.

Jöcher, Christian Gottlieb. Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1750–51.

Kenyeres, Ágnes, ed. Magyar életrajzi lexikon [Hungarian Biographical Dictionary]. 2 vols. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967–69. Supplement issues, 1981, 1994. Available online at http://mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/egyeb/lexikon/eletrajz/html/index.html.

Krollmann, Christian, ed. Altpreußische Biographie. 2 vols. Königsberg: Grafe und Unzer, 1941–67.

Neue deutsche Biographie. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1953–. Index available online at http://mdz1.bib-bvb.de/~ndb.

Pelzel, Franz Martin. Abbildungen böhmischer und märischer Gelehrten und Künstler. 4 vols. Prague: Gerle, 1773–82.

Polski sownik biograficzny. Edited byWadysaw Konopczynski et al. Currently 40 vols. Kraców: Skad gówny w ksieg. Gebethnera i Wolffa, 1935–.

Strieder, F. W. Grundlage an einer hessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftsteller-Geschichte. 21 vols. Göttingen and Marburg, 1781–1868.

Studnicka, Frantisek Josef, and Jaromir Celakovsky, eds. Ottv slovník nauný: Illustrovana encyklopaedie obecnych vedomosti. 28 vols. Prague: J. Otto, 1888–1909.

Sturm, Heribert, et al., eds. Biographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte der böhmischen Länder. 4 vols. Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1974–.

World Biographical Information System Online: Online at http://www.saur.de/wbis-online/index.htm.

Zedler, J. H., ed. Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon. 64 vols. Halle and Leipzig, 1732–54. Also available online at http://www.zedler-lexikon.de.

Zoványi, Jen, and Sándor Ladányi. Magyarországi protestáns egyháztörténeti lexikon [Lexicon of Hungarian Church History]. 3rd rev. ed. Budapest: Magyarországi Református Egyház Zsinati Irodajánák Sajtóosztálya, 1977.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND GUIDES TO PRIMARY SOURCES

Apponyi, Alexander. Hungarica: Ungarn betreffende im Auslande gedruckte Bücher und Flugschriften. 4 vols. Munich: Jacques Rosenthal, 1903, 1925–27. Reprint, Nendelm/Liechtenstein: Kraus-Reprint, 1969; Budapest: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár, 2005.

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Baumgart, Winfried, ed. Quellenkunde zur deutschen Geschichte der Neuzeit von 1500 bis zur Gegenwart. Vol. 1, Das Zeitalter der Glaubensspaltung 1500–1618, edited by Winfried Dotzauer (1987); Vol. 2, Dreißigjäriger Krieg und Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV. 1618–1715, edited by Winfried Becker (1995). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1987, 1995.

Bibliotheca Eruditionis: The History of Reading Databank (1500–1708). Available online at http://www.eruditio.hu.

Dahlmann, F. C., and Georg Waitz. Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte: Bibliographie der Quellen und der Literatur zur deutschen Geschichte. 10th ed. by Hermann Heimpel and Herbert Geuss. 12 vols. Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1965–99.

Dünnhaupt, Gerhard. Personalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock. 2nd rev. ed. 6 vols. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1990–93.

Elektronikus régi magyar könyvtár (eRMK). Edited by Országos Széchényi Könyvtár. 1 CD-ROM. Budapest: Arcanum Adatbázis, 2001. Available online at http://www.arcanum.hu/oszk.

Estermann, Monika, ed. Verzeichnis dergedruckten Briefe deutscher Autoren des 17. Jahrhunderts. Part 1, Drucke zwischen 1600 und 1750. 4 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992–93.

Estreicher, Karol, ed. Bibliografia Polska. 34 vols. Kraków: Nakladem Spólkiksi, egarzy polskich, 1870–1939. Reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1964–65.

——, ed. Bibliografja Polska XV.–XVI stólecia. Kraków, 1875. Reprint, Warsaw: WAiF Reprint, 1978.

Fabian, Bernhard, ed. Handbuch der Historischen Buchbestände. Series 1, Deutschland, 27 vols. in 28 (1992–2000); Series 2, Österreich, edited by the Österreichische National-bibliothek under the direction of Helmut W. Lang, 4 vols. (1994–97); Series 3, Europa, 12 vols. in 15 (1997–2001). Series 1–3, CD-ROM version (2002). Hildesheim: Olms, 1992–2002.

Frey, Axel. Bibliothek der Deutschen Literatur: Bibliographie und Register. 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged. Munich: K. G. Saur, 1999.

Hanacek, Andreas. Archive in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1995–2000). Online at http://home.bawue.de/~hanacek/info/darchive.htm.

Hejnic, Josef, and Jan Martínek, eds. Rukovt’ humanistického básnictví v echách a na Morav / Enchiridion renatae poesis Latinae in Bohemia et Moravia cultae. 5 vols. Prague: Academia, 1966–82.

IKAR—Altkartendatenbank. Online at http://ikar.sbb.spk-berlin.de.

Kalliope: Zentraler Nachweis von Nachlässen und Autographen in Deutschland. Online at http://kalliope.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de.

Karlsruher Virtueller Katalog. Online at http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/kvk.html.

Kohler, Hans Joachim. Bibliographie der Flugschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts. Part 1, Das frühe 16. Jahrhundert (1501–1530), Vols. 1–3, Druckbeschreibungen A-S. Tübingen: Biblioteca Academica, 1991–.

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Monok, István, ed. A Kárpátmedence Koraújkori Könyvtárai/Libraries in the Carpathian Basin in the Early Modern Age. Szeged: Scriptum, 1996–. Currently 3 titles in series, listed at http://www.eruditio.hu/kkk_eng.html.

——, ed. Könyvtártörténeti Füzetek/Bibliographies of 16th- to 18th-Century Library History. Szeged: Scriptum, 1981–. Currently 11 titles in series, listed at http://www.eruditio.hu/ktf_eng.html.

Pauser, Josef, Martin Scheutz, and Thomas Winkelbauer, eds. Quellenkunde der Habsburgermonarchie. 16.–18. Jahrhunderte: Ein exemplarisches Handbuch. Vienna: Oldenbourg, 2004.

Régi Magyar Könyvtár (RMK) [Old Hungarian Library]. 3 parts. Parts 1–2 by Károly Szabó; Part 3 by Árpád Hellebrant. Budapest: Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia, 1879–98. Enhanced version in eRMK at http://www.arcanum.hu/oszk.

Régi Magyarországi Nyomtatványok, 1473–1600: Res Litteraria Hungariae Vetus Operum Impressorum. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1971–. Available online in eRMK at http://www.arcanum.hu/oszk.

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Tobolka, Z. V. , and František Horák, eds. Knihopis eskoslovenských tisk od doby nejstarší až do konce 18. století. Part 1, Incunables, edited by Z. V. Tobolka. Prague: Knihkupectví Fr. Topie, 1925. Part 2, 1501–1800, edited by Z. V. Tobolka and F. Horak, 9 vols. Prague: Komise pro knihopisný soupis eských a slovenských tisk, 1936–67. Also available online at http://www.knihopis.org/index.eng.asp.

Ulrike Skorsetz, Janine Micunek, and Luzie Nahr. Guide to Inventories and Finding Aids at the German Historical Institute, Washington, D.C. (1995). Online at http://www.ghi-dc.org/publications/ghipubs/rg/rg005/index.html.

Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich ershienenen Druckschriften des XVI. Jahrhunderts (VD 16). 25 vols. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1983–2000. Enhanced version available at http://gateway-bayern.bib-bvb.de/aleph-cgi/bvb_suche?sid=VD16. See also http://www.vd16.de.

Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts (VD 17). Online at http://www.vd17.de.

Zentrales Verzeichnis Digitalisierter Drucke/Central Index of Digitized Imprints. Online at http://www.zvdd.de.

Zíbrt, . Bibliografie eské historie [Bibliography of Czech History]. 5 vols. Prague: Nákladem eské akademie cisae Franktiška Josefa pro vdy, slovesnost a umí, 1900–1912.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND GUIDES TO SECONDARY SOURCES

“Bibliographie zur Barockliteratur.” In Wolfenbütteler Barock-Nachrichten. Hamburg: E. Hauswedell & Co.; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1974–. Originally semi-annual, quarterly since 1988.

Bibliographien zur Geschichte und Landeskunde Ostmitteleuropas. Marburg: Verlag Herder Institut. Full list available online at http://www.herder-institut.de/index.php?lang=de&id=3118&band=16. Database, Literaturdokumentation zur Geschichte Ostmitteleuropas, available online at http://www.herder-institut.de/index.php?lang=de&id=3193.

Chrisman, Miriam U. “Cities in the Reformation.” In William S. Maltby, ed., Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research II, 105–27. St Louis, MO: Center for Reformation Research, 1992.

Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht. Stuttgart: E. Klett, 1950–.

Jahresberichte für deutsche Geschichte (JDG). Neue Folge, Herausgegeben von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1952–. Available online at http://jdgdb.bbaw.de/cgi-bin/jdg.

Kaufmann, Thomas DaCosta, with Heiner Borggrefe and Thomas Fusenig. Art and Architecture in Central Europe, 1550–1620: An Annotated Bibliography. Marburg: Jonas, 2003.

Keyser, Erich. Bibliographie zur Städtegeschichte Deutschlands. Cologne: Böhlau, 1969.

Kittelson, James M. “The Confessional Age: The Late Reformation in Germany.” In Steven Ozment, ed., Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research, 361–81. St. Louis, MO: Center for Reformation Research, 1982.

Kovtun, George J., ed. Czech and Slovak History: An American Bibliography. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1996.

Lawaty, Andreas, and Wiesaw Mincer, eds. Deutschpolnische Beziehungen in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Bibliographie, 1900–1998. 4 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000.

Literaturbericht. Annual supplement, Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1972–.

Oberschelp, Reinhard. Die Bibliographien zur deutschen Landesgeschichte und Landeskunde. 3rd rev. ed., Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1997.

Österreichische historische Bibliographie: Austrian Historical Bibliography. Graz: Neugebauer; Santa Barbara, CA: Clio Press, 1967–. Available online at http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/oehb.

Stoob, Heinz, ed. Bibliographie zur deutschen historischen Städteforschung. 3 vols. Cologne: Bohlau, 1986–96.

Verzeichnis Lieferbarer Bücher. Online at http://www.buchhandel.de.

Zophy, Jonathan. An Annotated Bibliography of the Holy Roman Empire. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.

OTHER REFERENCE WORKS

Bosl, Karl, ed. Handbuch der Geschichte der böhmischen Länder. 4 vols. Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1967–74.

Conze, Werner, and Volker Hentschel, eds. Ploetz, deutsche Geschichte: Epochen und Daten. Freiburg: Ploetz, 1996; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1998.

Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm. Neubearbeitung. Edited by W. Braun et al. Pro duced by the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin in collaboration with the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Leipzig [now Stuttgart]: S. Hirzel Verlag, 1965–.

Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte. ca. 100 vols. Munich: Oldenburg, 1988–. For details, see http://www.oldenbourg.de/verlag/lehrbuch-prospekt.

Graesse, Johann Georg Theodor. Orbis Latinus: Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, edited by Helmut Plechl and Sophie-Charlotte Plechl. 3 vols. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1972. Also available online at http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/Graesse/contents.html.

Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm (founders). Das Deutsche Wörterbuch. 33 vols. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1854–1971. Facsimile reprint, Gütersloh: Bertelsmann-Club, 1991. Digitized version edited by Kompetenzzentrum für Elektronische Erschließfiungs und Publikationsverfahren in den Geisteswissenschaften, University of Trier. 2 CD-ROMs. Frankfurt am Main: Zweitausendeins, 2004. Also available online at http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/DWB.

Handbuch der historischen Stätten Deutschlands. Stuttgart: Alfred Kröner Verlag, 1958–. Complete series listed at http://www.kroener-verlag.de.

Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. 4 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Jungmann, Josef. Slovník esko-nmecký, edited by Jan Petr. 5 vols. Prague: Fetterlowá, 1835–39. Reprint, Prague: Academia, 1989–90.

Jürgensmeier, Friedhelm, and Regina E. Schwerdtfeger, eds. Orden und klösterliche Gemeinschaften im Zeitalter von Reformation und katholischer Reform 1500–1700. 3 vols. Münster: Aschendorff, 2005–.

Köbler, Gerhard. Historisches Lexikon der deutschen Länder. 6th ed. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1999.

Müller, Michael G., ed., Handbuch für Geschichte Polens. Stuttgart: Hiersemann-Verlag, 2007.

Muller, Richard A. Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms, Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1996.

Müllers Grosses Deutsches Ortsbuch. 29th rev. ed. Munich: Saur, 2005.

Országh, László, and Tamás Magay, eds. Angol Magyar nagyszótár/English-Hungarian Dictionary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, Klasszikus Nagyszótárak, 1998.

——, eds. A Concise English-Hungarian dictionary. 10th rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Pach, Pál Zsigmond, ed. Magyarország története [History of Hungary]. 10 vols., esp. Vol. 3, 1526–1686, edited by Agnes Várkonyi (1987). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1976–.

Ramminger, Johann. Neulateinische Wortliste: Ein Wörterbuch des Lateinischen von Petrarca bis 1700. Online at http://www.neulatein.de.

Schindling, Anton, and Walter Ziegler, eds. Die Territorien des Reichs im Zeitalter der Reformation und Konfessionalisierung: Land und Konfession 1500–1650. 7 vols. Münster: Aschendorff, 1989–97.

Sebok, László, ed. Magyar neve? Határokon túli helységnév-szótár [Hungarian Name? Dictionary of Place-Names beyond Hungary’s Borders]. N.p.: Arany Lapok, 1990.

Semotanová, Eva, Robert Šimnek, and Josef Zemlika, eds. Historický atlas mst eské republiky [Historical Atlas of Towns in the Czech Republic]. Currently 14 vols. Prague: Historický ústav Akademie ved CR, 1995–. Description available online at http://www.hiu.cas.cz/atlas.

Thesaurus Locorum: Datenbank frühneuzeitlicher Ortsnamen. Online at http://www.personalschriften.de/datenbanken/thelo.html.

Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Edited by G. Krause and G. Müller. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1976–.

Zophy, Jonathan. The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980.

PRIMARY SOURCES

Alexander, Dorothy, and Walter L. Strauss. The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1600–1700. 2 vols. New York: Abaris, 1977.

Balke, Willem, and W. van ‘t Spijker, eds. Reformed Protestantism 3: The Netherlands and Germany. 269 titles on 2550 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, n.d.

Bibliothek der deutschen Literatur: Mikrofiche-Gesamtausgabe nach den Angaben des Taschengoedeke; Eine Edition der Kulturstiftung der Länder. Edited by Axel Frey and Leopold Hirshberg. Hauptwerk and 2 supplements. Ca. 17,225 works by ca. 2500 authors on 22,810 microfiches. Munich: Saur, 1990–2005.

Blum, Paul Richard, ed. The Catholic Reformation. 2950 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, 1987.

Bohatcová, M. Irrgarten der Schicksale: Einblattdrucke vom Anfang des dressigjährigen Krieges. Translated by Peter Aschner. 2 vols. in 1. Prague: Artia, 1966.

Corpus Automatum Multiplex Electorum Neolatinitatis Auctorum. Online at http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenahtdocs/camena.html.

Comenius, Jan Amos. Opera omnia. Prague: Academia, 1969.

Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts. Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press. See http://alexanderstreet.com/products/tcpt.htm.

Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation. Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street Press. See http://alexanderstreet.com/products/dlcr.htm.

Flugschriften des frühen 16. Jahrhunderts. 1956 microfiches. Zug, Switzerland: Inter Documentation Co., 1979–87.

Flugschriften des späteren 16. Jahrhunderts, 1531–1600. Leiden: IDC, 1990–.

Freedman, J. S., et al., eds. Philosophy and the Liberal Arts in the Early Modern Period. Currently 5 installments including 547 titles on 2100 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, 2002–.

Geisberg, Max. The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1500–1550. Revised and edited by Walter L. Strauss. 4 vols. New York: Hacker, 1974.

Gunnoe, Charles, ed., and Richard A. Muller, advisor. Reformation in Heidelberg. 2 parts. Pt. 1, 99 titles on 252 microfiches; Pt. 2, 78 primary and 23 secondary titles on 524 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, 1999–.

Harms, Wolfgang, ed. Deutsche illustrierte Flugblätter des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts. Currently 6 vols. Vols. 1–3, Die Sammlung der Herzog August-Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel; Vol. 1, Ethica, Physica (1985); Vol. 2, Historica (1980, enlarged ed. 1997); Vol. 3, Theologica, Quodlibetica (1989); Vol. 4, Die Sammlungen der Hessischen Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek in Darmstadt (1987); Vol. 5, Die Sammlung Hermann in der Bibliothèque Nationale et Universitaire in Strassburg (forthcoming); Vols. 6–7, Die Sammlung der Zentralbibliothek Zürich (1997–2005). Munich: Kraus, 1980; continued Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1985–2005.

Keserû, Bálint, ed. Adattár XVI–XVIII. századi szellemi mozgalmaink történetéhez/Contributions to the history of the intellectual and cultural movements in the Carpathian basin in the 16–18 centuries. Szeged: Scriptum, 1983–. Currently 38 vols. in series, listed online at http://www.eruditio.hu/adatt_eng.html.

Maltby, William, ed. Lutheran Reformation: Sources, 1500–1650. 362 works on 1,667 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, n.d.

Melanchthon, Philipp. Melanchthons Briefwechsel: Kritische und kommentierte Gesamtausgabe, edited by Heinz Scheible. First Series (17 vols. planned; 14 vols. completed): Vols. 1–8, Register of Letters; Vol. 9, Addenda and Concordance; Vol. 10, Index of Places and Itinerary; Vols. 11–14, Biographical Register; Vols. 15–17, Catalogue of Manuscripts. Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, 1977–. Second Series: Texts (30 vols. planned; 5 vols. completed). Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, 1991–.

Merian, Matthäus. Topographia Germaniae. 17 vols. 1642–55. Facsimile reprint in 8 vols., Braunschweig: Archiv Verlag, 2005.

Paas, John Roger. The German Political Broadsheet 1600–1700. 10 vols. planned. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1985–.

Selderhuis, H. J., ed. Irenical Theology: Heidelberg 1583–1622. 142 titles on 596 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, 2007.

Strauss, Walter L. The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1550–1600. 3 vols. New York, Abaris, 1975.

Toepke, Gustav. Die Matrikel der Universität Heidelberg, 1386–1662. 3 vols. Heidelberg, 1884–89. Available online at http://www.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/helios/digi/unihdmatrikel.html.

Wengert, Timothy, ed. Philipp Melanchthon, Theologian and Humanist. 31 works on approx. 200 microfiches. Leiden: IDC, 2001.

SECONDARY SOURCES

Andor, Eszter, and István György Tóth, eds. Frontiers of Faith: Religious Exchange and the Constitution of Religious Identities, 1400–1750. Budapest: Central European University/European Science Foundation, 2001.

Asch, Ronald G. The Thirty Years War: The Holy Roman Empire and Europe, 1618–1648. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.

Bahlcke, Joachim. Regionalismus und Staatsintegration im Widerstreit: Die Länder der Böhmischen Krone im ersten Jahrhundert der Habsburgerherrschaft (1526–1619). Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994.

——, ed. Konfessionalisierung in Ostmitteleuropa: Wirkungen des religiösen Wandels im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert in Staat, Gesellschaft und Kultur. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1999.

——, Karen Lambrecht, and Hans-Christian Maner, eds. Konfessionelle Pluralität als Herausforderung: Koexistenz und Konflikt in Spätmittelalter und Früher Neuzeit. Leipzig: Leipziger Universitäts-Verlag, 2006.

Beckmann, Sabine, and Klaus Garber, eds. Kulturgeschichte Preuens königlich polnischen Anteils in der Frühen Neuzeit. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 2005.

Benedict, Philip. Christ’s Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.

Bietenholz, Peter G. Daniel Zwicker, 1612–1678: Peace, Tolerance and God the One and Only. Florence: Olschki, 1997.

Borggrefe, Heiner, Vera Lüpkes, and Hans Ottomeyer, eds. Moritz der Gelehrte: Ein Renaissancefürst in Europa. Eurasberg: Minerva, 1997.

Bossy, John. Christianity in the West, 1400–1700. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Brady, Thomas A., Jr., Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy, eds. Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994–95; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.

Bucsay, Mihály. Der Protestantismus in Ungarn, 1521–1978. 2 vols. Vol. 1, Im Zeitalter der Reformation, Gegenreformation und katholischer Reform (1977). Cologne: Böhlau, 1977–79.

Bußman, Klaus, and Heinz Schilling, eds. 1648: War and Peace in Europe. 3 vols. Munich: Bruckmann, 1998.

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