Bibliographic Note
Francis Loewenheim, the diplomatic historian, once remarked to me that it was unlikely historians would discover something significant about the past unless it had also been noticed by contemporaries. That proved to be my experience in writing this book. I read widely in letters, journals, and memoirs, concentrating on those that described frontier conditions. Many if not most of the themes of this book were suggested, confirmed, elaborated, or qualified by eyewitness accounts.
These accounts were sometimes found in archives and special collections—I owe the staff of Chicago's Newberry Library a special debt—but I was pleasantly surprised by the richness of the published primary sources. The writings of major frontier figures, and a good many minor ones, are easily available in book form. Works like The World Rushed In: The California Gold Rush Experience, J. S. Holliday's superbly edited version of the forty-niner William Swain's diary and correspondence, provided much of the foundation for the historical chapters of this book.
I have also benefited from the recent outpouring of accounts of life on the inner-urban frontier, ranging from memoirs like Sanyika Shakur's Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member to ethnographic studies like Terry Williams's Crackhouse: Notes from the End of the Line. Works of closely observed journalism such as David Simon's Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets were another source of insight and detail, as were my own interviews of inner-city residents.
As indispensable as eyewitness accounts are, it is necessary to fit the raw matter of human experience into an intelligible pattern. To do this I have drawn on the literatures of anthropology, biology, criminology, demography, epidemiology, psychology, sociobiology, sociology, and social history. I have found the work of researchers who employ evolutionary insights, such as Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, to be particularly suggestive. Robert Wright's "The Biology of Violence," New Yorker 71 (13 March 1995): 68-77, offers a thoughtful précis of the evolutionary account of male violence. Readers interested in scientific and social scientific accounts of a more detailed or technical nature will find several listed in the notes for the first two chapters.
Introduction: The Historical Pattern
1. I am keenly aware that the word "frontier" is controversial and freighted with triumphalist connotations, and that nowadays many historians prefer to avoid using it. Jettisoning the word, however, seems to me both cumbersome and anachronistic. Rather, following the example of the historian William McNeill, I retain and employ the term in a neutral, ecological sense to describe a shifting zone of interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous populations. For reasons of simplicity and historical consistency, I also refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas as Indians.
1. Biological and Demographic Roots
1. Roger Lane, Violent Death in the City: Suicide, Accident, and Murder in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1979), 29, 37, 100-101.
2. Lawrence R. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870-1910 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1981), 108.
3. U.S. Census Office, Report on Crime, Pauperism, and Benevolence in the United States . . . 1890, part 2 (1895), 173, 207. James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), 110, updated by U.S. Dept. of Justice, Uniform Crime Reports, 1990 (1991), 191; U.S. Dept. of Justice, Historical Corrections Statistics . . . 1850-1984 (Rockville, Md.: Westat, 1986), 19; Jack Levin and James Alan Fox, Mass Murder: America's Growing Menace (New York: Berkley, 1991), 46-47.
4. Paul C. Holinger, "Violent Deaths as a Leading Cause of Mortality," American J. of Psychiatry 137 (1980): 474; Austin L. Porterfield, "Traffic Fatalities, Suicide, and Homicide," ASR25 (1960): 897-901.
5. Wilson and Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature, 110, and U.S. Dept. of Justice, Uniform Crime Reports, 1994 (1995), 224; U.S. Dept. of Justice, Historical Corrections Statistics, 66.
6. James Patterson and Peter Kim, The Day America Told the Truth: What People Really Believe about Everything That Really Matters (New York: Prentice Hall, 1991), 108-109.
7. E.g., Morton Hunt, Sexual Behavior in the 1970s (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1974), 150, 258, 261; Donald Symons, The Evolution of Human Sexuality (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1979), chs. 6-7; Patterson and Kim, The Day America Told the Truth, 77, 81.
8. Quetelet, A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties, intro. Solomon Diamond (Gainesville, Fl.: Scholars' Facsimiles and Reprints, 1969), 90-95; Nelson, Contributions to Vital Statistics . . ., 3rd ed. (London, 1857), 391, 392 (combining divisions 1 and 2); Durkheim, Suicide, A Study in Sociology, trans. John A. Spaulding and George Simpson (New York: Free Press, 1951), 71; James Buchanan Given, Society and Homicide in Thirteenth-Century England (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1977), 134; Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, Homicide (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1988), 146-149,202-203.
9. Roy G. D'Andrade, "Sex Differences and Cultural Institutions," in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. Eleanor E. Maccoby (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1966), 198, 201; Daly and Wilson, Homicide, 144; Erik Trinkaus and M. R. Zimmerman, "Trauma among the Shanidar Neandertals," American J. of Physical Anthropology 57 (1987): 72; Leonard Krishtalka, Richard K. Stucky, and K. Christopher Beard, "The Earliest Fossil Evidence for Sexual Dimorphism in Primates," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87 (1990): 5223-5226.
10. E.g., A. Joan Klebba, "Homicide Trends in the United States, 190074," PHR 90 (1975): 198-199; F. Landis MacKellar and Machiko Yanagishita, "Homicide in the United States," Population Trends and Public Policy, no. 21 (Feb. 1995): 4-5.
11. Allen D. Sapp et al., A Report of Essential Findings from a Study of Serial Arsonists, National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (1994), 4-5; Robert E. May, "Young American Males and Filibustering in the Age of Manifest Destiny," JAH 78 (1991): 861, 86 3; Otto Kerner et al., Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam, 1968), 7; William M. Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 215, 264; U.S. Dept. of Justice, Uniform Crime Reports, 1990, 186-189.
12. Erich Goode, Drugs in American Society, 3rd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1989), 86, 89, 140-142; Mark A. R. Kleiman, Against Excess: Drug Policy for Results (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 95-96.
13. Stanley H. Schuman et al., "Young Male Drivers: Impulse Expression, Accidents, and Violations," JAMA 200 (1967): 1026-1030; H. M. Simpson, D. R. Mayhew, and R. A. Warren, "Epidemiology of Road Accidents Involving Young Adults," Drug and Alcohol Dependence 10 (1982): 45.
14. David T. Lykken, The Antisocial Personalties (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1995), 93; Derral Cheatwood and Kathleen J. Block, "Youth and Homicide," Justice Quarterly 7 (1990): 268; Herrnstein and Wilson, "Are Criminals Made or Born?" New York Times Magazine, 4 Aug. 1985, 32.
15. Edward O. Wilson, Sotiobiology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1975), 242-243; Wilson and Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature, ch. 7; Eleanor Emmons Maccoby and Carol Nagy Jacklin, The Psychology of Sex Differences (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1974).
16. Harry Holbert Turney-High, Primitive War: Its Practice and Concepts, 2nd ed. (Columbia: U. of South Carolina Press, 1971), 158-159; David P. Barash, Sotiobiology and Behavior (New York: Oxford, 1977), chs. 6-9; Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, Sex, Evolution, and Behavior: Adaptations for Reproduction (North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press, 1978), ch. 4; idem, Homicide, chs. 6-8; Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (New York: Bantam, 1982), 114-119; Lionel Tiger, Men in Groups, 2nd ed. (London: Marion Boyars, 1984), 43-44; Robert Wright, The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life (New York: Pantheon, 1994), pt. 1.
17. Symons, Evolution of Human Sexuality, 180-181, 203-205; idem, "Darwinism and Contemporary Marriage," in Contemporary Marriage: Comparative Perspectives on a Changing Institution, ed. Kingsley Davis (New York: Russell Sage, 1985), 133-155.
18. James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993), 168-170; David M. Buss, The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating (New York: Basic Books, 1994), chs. 1-3.
19. Auke Tellegen et al., "Personality Similarity in Twins Reared Apart and Together," J. of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 10311039; Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. et al., "Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart," Science 250 (1990): 223-228.
20. Frederick Naftolin, "Understanding the Bases of Sex Differences," Science 211 (1981): 1263-1264; Simon LeVay, The Sexual Brain (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1993), chs. 2, 10.
21. John Gunn, Violence (New York: Praeger, 1973), 28-29, 52; Kenneth E. Moyer, "Sex Differences in Aggression," in Sex Differences in Behavior, ed. Richard C. Friedman et al. (New York: Wiley, 1974), 344-346, 363-366; Daly and Wilson, Sex, Evolution, and Behavior, 193-202.
22. Michael Elias, "Serum Cortisol, Testosterone, and Testosterone-Binding Globulin Responses to Competitive Fighting in Human Males," Aggressive Behavior 7 (1981): 215-224; Robert Pool, Eve's Rib: The Biological Roots of Sex Differences (New York: Crown, 1994), 179; Theodore D. Kemper, Social Structure and Testosterone: Explorations of the Socio-Bio-Social Chain (New Brunswick: Rutgers U. Press, 1990), chs. 1-2.
23. Alan Booth and D. Wayne, "The Influence of Testosterone on Deviance in Adulthood," Criminology 31 (1993): 93-117.
24. C. Barker Jorgensen, John Hunter, A. A. Berthold, and the Origins of Endocrinology (Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 1971), 16; June Machover Reinisch, "Prenatal Exposure to Synthetic Progestins Increases Potential for Aggression in Humans," Science 211 (1981): 1171-1173; Stephanie Van Goozen, Nico Frijda, and Nanne Van de Poll, "Anger and Aggression in Women: Influence of Sports Choice and Testosterone Administration," Aggressive Behavior 20 (1994): 213222 (James Dabbs called this and other sources to my attention).
25. Richard Strauss, "Anabolic Steroids," in Drugs and Performance in Sports, ed. Richard Strauss (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1987, 64; Dorothy E. Dusek and Daniel A. Girdano, Drugs: A Factual Account, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), 171; William N. Taylor, Hormonal Manipulation: A New Era of Monstrous Athletes (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1985), 16-24; Gary I. Wadler and Brian Hainline, Drugs and the Athlete (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1989), 56, 61, 65.
26. Paul Fredric Brain, "Hormonal Aspects of Aggression and Violence," UPV, vol. 2, 226, 228; Kelly L. Burrowes, Robert E. Hales, and Edward Arrington, "Research on the Biologic Aspects of Violence," Psychiatric Clinics of North America 11 (1988): 499-508; Kemper, Social Structure and Testosterone, 30-35.
27. Robert V. Wells, Revolutions in Americans' Lives: A Demographic Perspective on the History of Americans, Their Families, and Their Societies (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 30-31, 50-51, 80-83; Donald J. Bogue et al., The Population of the United States: Historical Trends and Future Projections, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1985), 15-16, 40-44.
28. Virginia Bernhard, '"Men, Women and Children' at Jamestown," JSH 58 (1992): 603, 616; Herbert Moller, "Sex Composition and Correlated Culture Patterns of Colonial America," WMQ 2 (1945): 113-153.
29. Marcia Guttentag and Paul F. Secord, Too Many Women? The Sex Ratio Question (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), 15; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, pt. 1 (1975), 9.
30. See Moller, "Sex Composition"; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, A Place in Time: Explicatus (New York: Norton, 1984), 180182; A. Roger Ekirch, "Bound for America: A Profile of British Convicts Transported to the Colonies, 1718-1775," WMQ42 (1985): 194195; David Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1981), 3-4, 25.
31. Betty Lee Sung, Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 115-121, 320; Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 40 (quotation); Judy Yung, Chinese Women of America: A Pictorial History (Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 1986), 14.
32. Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1983), 28-35; Wells, Revolutions, 105, 184.
33. Charles Issawi, "The Costs of the French Revolution," American Scholar 58 (1989): 372; Jean-Jacques Becker, The Great War and the French People, trans. Arnold Pomerans (New York: St. Martin's, 1986), 330; Maris A. Vinovskis, "Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War?" JAH 76 (1989): 37-38; History of World War II, ed. A. J. P. Taylor and S. L. Mayer (London: Octopus, 1974), 278-279; William Petersen, Population, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 660-665; Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics, pt. 1, 9.
34. Vinovskis, "Social Historians," 43n21 (World War I estimate based on comparison of 1911-1914 with 1915-1918 U.S. immigration figures); William M. Fowler Jr., Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783-1815 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), 148-149.
35. Wells, Revolutions, 82, 182-183; Galenson, White Servitude, 100; Kenneth Morgan, "The Organization of the Convict Trade to Maryland: Stevenson, Randolph and Cheston, 1768-1775," WMQ 42 (1985): 221; Robert William Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Econometrics of American Negro Slavery (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 75-77.
2. Cultural and Social Roots
1. Beatrix A. Hamburg, "The Psychobiology of Sex Differences: An Evolutionary Perspective," in Sex Differences in Behavior, ed. Richard C. Friedman et al. (New York: Wiley, 1974), 375-376.
2. Mead, Male and Female: A Study of the Sexes in a Changing World (New York: William Morrow, 1949), 160.
3. Lois A. Fingerhut and Joel C. Kleinman, "International and Interstate Comparisons of Homicide among Young Males," JAMA 263 (1990): 3294; Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, Homicide (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1988), 284-286.
4. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1982), chs. 2, 13, 14; Edward L. Ayers, "Honor," Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1989), 1483; Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1990), 12-14; Elliott J. Corn, "'Gouge and Bite, Pull Hair and Scratch': The Social Significance of Fighting in the Southern Backcountry," AHR 90 (1985): 36, 42.
5. David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1989), 765; Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 130; Richard Maxwell Brown, No Duty to Retreat: Violence and Values in American History and Society (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1991).
6. Bernard Bailyn with Barbara DeWolfe, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1986), 506 (quotation); Terry G. Jordan and Matti Kaups, The American Backwoods Frontier (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1989), chs. 1-4; Grady McWhiney, Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South (Tuscaloosa: U. of Alabama Press, 1988), ch. 6; Fischer, Albion's Seed, 618-639, 759-771.
7. Myra C. Glenn, Campaigns against Corporal Punishment: Prisoners, Sailors, Women and Children in Antebellum America (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984), 48-49; Ownby, Subduing Satan, 16; William D. Valentine Diaries, vol. 2, 20 April 1838, Southern History Collection, U. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
8. Roland Oliver, The African Experience (New York: Icon, 1992), ch. 10; Ayers, "Honor," 1484 (fallout metaphor); Richard E. Nisbett, "Violence and U.S. Regional Culture," American Psychologist 48 (1993): 441-449; Michael Nyenhuis, "Southern Violence," Florida TimesUnion, 18 April 1993, Cl; Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: District Attorney's Office, 1992), 34, 54-56, 63-64.
9. Wilson, On Human Nature (New York: Bantam, 1982), 122-123; Johan M. G. van der Dennen, "Ethnocentrism and In-Group/Out-Group Differentiation," and Robin I. M. Dunbar, "Sociobiological Explanations and the Evolution of Ethnocentrism," in The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism, ed. Vernon Reynolds et al. (Athens: U. of Georgia Press, 1987), 18-20; 56.
10. Ian Vine, "Inclusive Fitness and the Self-System," in Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism, ed. Reynolds et al., 74.
11. Hylan Lewis, Blackways of Kent (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1955), 67-72, 203-221; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: BlackWhite Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1984), 57-59, 212.
12. Enrico Ferri, Criminal Sociology (New York, 1898), 117; Laurence Jolidon, "Sands Dry, Troops Dry, Crime Blotter Dry," USA Today, 11 Dec. 1990, 5 A.
13. Judith Roizen, "Issues in the Epidemiology of Alcohol and Violence," Kai Pernanen, "Alcohol-Related Violence: Conceptual Models," Alan R. Lang, "Alcohol-Related Violence: Psychological Perspectives," and Philip J. Cook and Michael J. Moore, "Economic Perspectives," in Alcohol and Interpersonal Violence: Fostering Multidisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Susan E. Martin, NIAAA Research Monograph no. 24 (Rockville, Md.: National Institutes of Health, 1993), 3-36; 37-69; 121-147; 193-218.
14. James J. Collins, "Alcohol Use and Expressive Interpersonal Violence," David Levinson, "Social Setting, Cultural Factors, and AlcoholRelated Aggression," and Richard E. Boyatzis, "Who Should Drink What, When, and Where if Looking for a Fight," in Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Aggression, ed. Edward Gottheil et al. (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1983), 5-25; 41-58; 314-329; Klaus A. Miczek, Elise M. Weerts, and Joseph F. DeBold, "Alcohol, Aggression, and Violence: Biobehavioral Determinants," in Alcohol and Interpersonal Violence, ed. Martin, 83-119; Mark A. R. Kleiman, Against Excess: Drug Policy for Results (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 215-216.
15. Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1986), 223; Robert M. Utley, High Noon in Lincoln: Violence on the Western Frontier (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1987), 176; Elliott West, The Saloon on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 19-21.
16. Levinson, "Social Setting," 43; Erdoes, Saloons, 206; Richard W. Slatta, "Comparative Frontier Social Life: Western Saloons and Argentine Pulperias," Great Plains Quarterly 1 (1987): 155-165.
17. See Philip Greven, The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Child-Rearing, Religious Experience, and the Self in Early America (New York: Meridian, 1977), esp. pts. 1-2.
18. Philip Greven, Spare the Child: The Religious Roots of Punishment and the Psychological Impact of Physical Abuse (New York: Knopf, 1991), pt. 3.
19. Ellison, "Are Religious People Nice People? Evidence from the National Survey of Black Americans," Social Forces 72 (1992): 411-430.
20. Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1990), 270.
21. E.g., Mary Maples Dunn, "Saints and Sisters: Congregational and Quaker Women in the Early Colonial Period," 27, 35-37, 46, and Gerald F. Moran, "Sisters in Christ: Women and the Church in Seventeenth-Century New England," 48-53, 56-57, 63, both in Women in American Religion, ed. Janet James Wilson (Philadelphia: U. of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Ownby, Subduing Satan, 129-133; Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776-1900: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick: Rutgers U. Press, 1992), 33-35, 66-71. Quotations: Land of Their Choice: The Immigrants Write Home, ed. Theodore C. Blegen (Minneapolis: U. of Minnesota Press, 1955), 382-383; "A Trader in the Rocky Mountains: Don Maguire's 1877 Diary," ed. Gary Topping, Idaho Yesterdays 27 (Summer 1983): 12; E. C. "Teddy Blue" Abbott, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), 33.
22. The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant, ed. Richard J. Hooker (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1953), xxvi-xxvii, 16-17, 45; Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher, ed. W. P. Strickland (New York, 1856), 50-51, 90-92, 132-133, 376-381.
23. Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt," WMQ 31 (1974): 345-368; Greven, Protestant Temperament, pts. 1, 2, and 4; Ownby, Subduing Satan, pt. 3; Paul E. Johnson, A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978), chs. 2, 5, and afterword; Roger Lane, Violent Death in the City: Suicide, Accident, and Murder in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1979), 103-104; Lender and Martin, Drinking in America (New York: Free Press, 1982), chs. 2-3; John C. Burnham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History (New York: New York U. Press, 1993), chs. 1, 3.
24. E.g., Kenneth A. Lockridge, A New England Town: The First Hundred Years: Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636-1736, exp. ed. (New York: Norton, 1985), pt. 1.
25. Robert V. Hine, Community on the American Frontier (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1980), 212-216; Horace Greeley, Recollections of a Busy Life, vol. 2 (rpt. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1971), 373; Augustus L. Chetlain, Recollections of Seventy Years (Galena, Ill., 1899), 22, 24; Algeline Jackson Ashley diary entry, 23 June 1852 (TS copy of original in San Diego Public Library), Ayer Collection no. 32, Newberry; Jules Remy and Julius Brenchley, A Journey to Great-SaltLake City, vol. 2 (London, 1861), 170.
26. "If neglected there," Webster prophetically continued, "it will hardly exist in society." "On the Education of Youth in America," in A Collection of Essays and Fugitiv[e] Writings (Boston, 1790), 16.
27. Ross W. Beales Jr., "The Reverend Ebenezer Parkman's Farm Workers, Westborough, Massachusetts, 1726-82," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 99, pt. 1 (1989): 121-149; Johnson, Shopkeeper's Millennium, 38-48, 139-140; W. J. Rorabaugh, The Craft Apprentice: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1986), 209; Allan Stanley Horlick, Country Boys and Merchant Princes: The Social Control of Young Men in New York (Lewisburg: Bucknell U. Press, 1975), ch. 9.
28. See, e.g., Margaret K. Bacon, Irvin L. Child, and Herbert Barry III, "A Cross-Cultural Study of the Correlates of Crime," J. of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963): 291-300; Isidor Chein et al.. The Road to H: Narcotics, Delinquency, and Social Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1964), 271-275; Jerald G. Bachman, Patrick M. O'Malley, and Jerome Johnston, Youth in Transition, vol. 4 (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, 1978), 26; James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), chs. 8, 9; Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, A General Theory of Crime (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1990), 97-105; Deborah A. Dawson, "Family Structure and Children's Health and Well-Being," JMF 53 (1991): 573-584; Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles, 18-21; Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, "Dan Quayle Was Right," Atlantic Monthly 27 (April 1993): 66, 70, 72, 77, 82; David W. Murray, "Poor Suffering Bastards," Policy Review 68 (1994): 9-15; David Blankenhorn, Fatherless America (New York: Basic Books, 1995), ch. 2.
29. Frances E. Kobrin and Linda J. Waite, "Effects of Childhood Family Structure on the Transition to Marriage," JMF 46 (1984): 807-816; Durkheim, Suicide, A Study in Sociology, trans. John A. Spaulding and George Simpson (New York: Free Press, 1951), 270-271.
30. Burlend, A True Picture of Emigration; or Fourteen Years in the Interior of North America . . . (London, 1848), 27-28; Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 219-225, 240-245; quotation 221.
31. Levy-Strauss, "The Family," in Man, Culture, and Society, ed. Harry L. Shapiro (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1960), 269; Esmond Wright, Franklin of Philadelphia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1986), 43.
32. The dead: e.g., Diary, 1843-1852, of James Hadley, Tutor and Professor of Greek in Yale College, 1845-1872, ed. Laura Hadley Moseley (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1951), 255. Segregation: Emily P. Burke, Reminiscences of Georgia (Oberlin, 1850), 63-64; Andrew F. Rolle, The Immigrant Upraised: Italian Adventurers and Colonists in an Expanding America (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 175-176; Sherlock Bristol, The Pioneer Preacher: An Autobiography (New York, 1887), 291; Robert Louis Stevenson, Across the Plains, With Other Memoirs and Essays (New York, 1892), 26-27. Medicine: Shana Alexander, "They Decide Who Lives, Who Dies," Life 53 (9 Nov. 1962): 102-127; Martin S. Pernick, A Calculus of Suffering: Pain, Professionalism and Anesthesia in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Columbia U. Press, 1985), 181, 191-195.
33. Robert F. Schoeni, "The Earnings Effects of Marital Status," Research Report no. 90-172, Population Studies Center, U. of Michigan (March 1990); William Moraley, The Infortunate: The Voyage and Adventures of William Moraley, an Indentured Servant, ed. Susan E. Klepp and Billy G. Smith (1743; rpt. University Park: Pennsylvania State U. Press, 1992), 103; "Bypaths of Kansas History," Kansas Historical Quarterly 9 (1940): 100; George Gilder, Naked Nomads: Unmarried Men in America (New York: Quadrangle, 1974), 152; Sidney L. Harring, "Class Conflict and the Suppression of Tramps in Buffalo, 1892-1894," Law and Society Review 11 (1977): 903; Martin Cherniack, The Hawk's Nest Incident: America's Worst Industrial Disaster (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1986), 67; John J. McCook, "The Tramp Problem," Lend a Hand 15 (1895): 170; Cartwright, Autobiography, 18.
34. Cowboy: Nannie T. Alderson and Helena Huntington Smith, A Bride Goes West (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1969), 55-56; Internalizing: Gilder, Naked Nomads, 151-152.
35. U.S. Census Office, Report on Crime, Pauperism, and Benevolence in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, pt. 2 (1895), 350 (based on 73,362 prisoners of known marital status); U.S. Dept. of Justice, Historical Corrections Statistics ... 1850-1984 (Rockville, Md.: Westat, 1986), 98; Donald J. Bogue et al., The Population of the United States: Historical Trends and Future Projections, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1985), 148.
36. "State Lunatic Hospital at Worcester, Mass.," Boston Medical and Surgical J. 12 (1835): 78; [Edward Jarvis,] "Matrimonial Statistics," Botanico-Medical Recorder 11 (1842-43): 74; Durkheim, Suicide, 260-268; Dewey Shurtleff, "Mortality among the Married," J. of the American Geriatrics Society 4 (1956): 654-666; Walter R. Gove, "The Relationship between Sex Roles, Marital Status and Mental Illness," Social Forces 51 (1972): 34-45, and idem, "Sex, Marital Status, and Mortality," AJS 79 (1973): 45-67; Bachman, O'Malley, and Johnston, Youth in Transition, 195-197; George I. Bliss, "The Influence of Marriage on the DeathRate of Men and Women," Publications of the American Statistical Association 14 (March 1914): 54, 57.
37. See Walter R. Gove, Carolyn Briggs Style, and Michael Hughes, "The Effect of Marriage on the Weil-Being of Adults," J. of Family Issues 11 (1990): 4-35.
38. U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, "Guns for Sale in U.S.," ATP Facts (Washington, Nov. 1994), A3.
39. Bruce L. Benson, "Guns for Protection and Other Private Sector Responses to the Fear of Rising Crime," and Don B. Kates Jr., "Conclusion," both in Firearms and Violence: Issues of Public Policy, ed. Don B. Kates Jr. (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1984), 351; 529-531.
40. Eugene W. Hollon, Frontier Violence (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), 109, 115-116; Robert M. Ireland, "Homicide in Kentucky," Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 81 (1983): 137; Frederick L. Hoffman, The Homicide Problem (Newark: Prudential Press, 1925), 4, 79; H. C. Brearley, Homicide in the United States (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1932), 74.
41. Hoffman, Homicide Problem, 60-61; Brearley, Homicide in the United States, 70-71.
42. Mark Twain, Roughing It (New York: Library of America, 1984), 781; Julian Ralph, "A Talk with a Cowboy," Harper's Weekly 36 (16 April 1892): 376; Erdoes, Saloons, 72, 76-77, 87.
43. Bell I. Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (rpt. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State U. Press, 1978), ch. 10, quotation 247; Burnham, Bad Habits, 25, 185, 188-190, 216, 263; Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1985), 54-55.
44. Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Education of a Politician (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 105-116; idem, Nixon: Ruin and Recovery, 1973-1990 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 328-329. Nixon excelled at poker but not profanity. His cursing was never as brazen or unselfconscious as that of Dwight Eisenhower, John Kennedy, or Lyndon Johnson—career soldier, man-about-town, and native Texan, respectively.
45. R. Wayne Eisenhart, "You Can't Hack It Little Girl: A Discussion of the Covert Psychological Agenda of Modern Combat Training," J. of Social Issues 31 (1975): 18.
46. Elizabeth Bacon Custer, Tenting on the Plains or General Custer in Kansas and Texas (1895 rev. ed., rpt. Williamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1973), 250-255; Richard Slotkin, The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (New York: Atheneum, 1985), 431.
47. Washington to Alexander Hamilton, 22 April 1783, in The Writings of George Washington, vol. 26, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (rpt. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1970), 350-351; James M. Denham, "'Some Prefer the Seminoles': Violence and Disorder among Soldiers and Settlers in the Second Seminole War, 1835-1842," Florida Historical Quarterly 70 (1991): 39-44, 51, 54; The News from Brownsville: Helen Chapman's Letters from the Texas Military Frontier, ed. Caleb Coker (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1992), 55; Lee quoted in Robert Wooster, Soldiers, Sutlers, and Settlers: Garrison Life on the Texas Frontier (College Station: Texas A&M U. Press, 1987), 58.
48. Quotation: "Police Commissioners' Report," NYT, 5 Jan. 1866, 4. Edith Abbot, "Crime and the War," and Betty B. Rosenbaum, "The Relationship between War and Crime in the United States," in J. of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 9 (1918-1919): 4143 and 30 (1939-1940): 725; Michael Stephen Hindus, "The Contours of Crime and Justice in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 17671878," American J. of Legal History 21 (1977): 224; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Business, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 119-123. Postwar crime waves are not simply the result of returning veterans. Wars also legitimate violence in the general civilian population, as argued in Dane Archer and Rosemary Gartner, Violence and Crime in Cross-National Perspective (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1984), ch. 4.
3. The Geography of Gender
1. Recall that this ratio is conventionally given as the number of males per 100 females. Also known as the sex ratio, this measure is now commonly (though not universally) referred to as the gender ratio.
2. J. H. Benton Jr., Early Census Making in Massachusetts, 1643-1765 (Boston: Charles E. Goodspeed, 1905); letter to [Thomas A.] Merrill, The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster: Private Correspondence, vol. 1 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1903), 116; Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Joint Special Committee of the House and Senate, Emigration of Young Women, Senate Report no. 156 (29 March 1865), 3.
3. The Frontier in American History (rpt. Tucson: U. of Arizona Press, 1986), 259-260, 275.
4. Charles Miner, History of Wyoming, in a Series of Letters... (Philadelphia, 1845), 135, 138, 164, 208.
5. George R. Carroll, Pioneer Life in and around Cedar Rapids, Iowa, from 1839 to 1849 (Cedar Rapids, 1895), 13; Memoirs of Joshua Lacy Wilson (MS, n.d.). Box 4, Folder 1, Joshua Lacy Wilson Papers, Durrett Collection, U. of Chicago Library, 4-5; Christian Cackler, Recollections of an Old Settler (Kent, Ohio, 1874), 15-16, 24-25; Everett Dick, The Sod-House Frontier, 1854-1890 (rpt. Lincoln, Neb.: Johnsen Publishing, 1954), 232.
6. E. Gould Buffum, Six Months in the Gold Mines . . . (Philadelphia, 1850), 132; Journal of Richard Ness, 29 July 1849, 33, WAC, Beinecke; Rodman W. Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition, 1859-1900 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 123-124.
7. Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Plains (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1981), 505-506; John Mack Faragher, Women and Men on the Oregon Trail (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1979), 183-186; Craig Miner, West of Wichita: Settling the High Plains of Kansas, 1865-1890 (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1986), 150-154. Parenthetical quotation: letter from H. S. Herriet to Eclecta Herriet, 5 June 1851, WAC, Beinecke, referring to the trip across the Isthmus of Panama. A typical memoir: Miriam Davis Colt, Went to Kansas; Being a Thrilling Account of an lll-Fated Expedition to that Fairy Land, and Its Sad Results... (Watertown, N.Y., 1862). Helper: The Land of Gold: Reality versus Fiction (Baltimore, 1855), 21-22. Napheys: The Physical Life of Woman: Advice to the Maiden, Wife, and Mother, 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1870), 127.
8. Diary of David How (Cambridge, Mass., 1865), xi; "Diary of Mrs. Elizabeth Dixon Smith Geer," Transactions of the Oregon Pioneer Association (1907): 165-166; Julia Etta Parkerson, Etta's Journal, Jan. 2, 1874-July 25. 1875, ed. Ellen Payne Paullin (Canton, Conn.: Lithographics, 1981), 13n8.
9. Elizabeth Bacon Custer, Tenting on the Plains or General Custer in Kansas and Texas (rpt. Williamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1973), 391-393.
10. "American Women and the American Character," in History and American Society: Essays of David M. Potter, ed. Don E. Fehrenbacher (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1973), 284; Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton, Population Trends in the United States (rpt. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1969), 186-192.
11. What Shall We Do with Our Daughters? Superfluous Women and Other Lectures (Boston, 1883), 138-139.
12. Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988), 78, 83; Hans von Hentig, "The Criminality of the Negro," J. of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 30 (1939-1940): 670-671; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1984), 58-59, 212-213.
13. Constant: David Herlihy and Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, Tuscans and Their Families: A Study of the Florentine Catasto of 1427 (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1985), 157, 217. Cities and towns: Joan M. Jensen and Darlis A. Miller, "The Gentle Tamers Revisited: New Approaches to the History of Women in the American West," PacHR 49 (1980): 193, 196, 211.
14. E. A. Hammel, Sheila R. Johansson, and Caren A. Ginsberg, "The Value of Children during Industrialization: Sex Ratios in Childhood in Nineteenth-Century America," JFH 8 (1983): 346-366; idem, "The Value of Children during Industrialization: Childhood Sex Ratios in Nineteenth Century America," Program in Population Research Working Paper no. 8, U. of California at Berkeley (Aug. 1982); Caren Anne Ginsberg, "Sex-Specific Child Mortality and the Economic Value of Children in Nineteenth Century Massachusetts" (Ph.D. diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1984).
15. E.g., John Snow, "On the Comparative Mortality of Large Towns and Rural Districts and the Causes by Which It Is Influenced," Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London 1 (1855): 24; Mary Anne Warren, Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), ch. 2.
16. Land of Their Choice: The Immigrants Write Home (Minneapolis: U. of Minnesota Press, 1955), ed. Theodore C. Blegen, 337. See also David T. Courtwright, "The Neglect of Female Children and Childhood Sex Ratios in Nineteenth-Century America," JFH 15 (1990): 313-323.
17. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1975), 317-318; Robert G. Edwards, Conception in the Human Female (London: Academic Press, 1980), 9; Michael S. Teitelbaum, "Factors Associated with the Sex Ratio in Human Populations," in The Structure of Human Populations, ed. G. A. Harrison and A. J. Boyce (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 90-109.
18. C. O. Carter, "Sex Differences in the Distribution of Physical Illness in Children," Social Science and Medicine 12B (1978): 163-166; Walter F. Willcox, "The Distribution of the Sexes in the United States in 1890," AJS 1 (1896): 736-737.
19. William Forrest Sprague, Women and the West: A Short Social History (New York: Arno Press, 1972), 66.
20. Marilyn Irvin Holt, The Orphan Trains: Placing Out in America (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1992), 2-3, 64-65.
21. Michael Zuckerman, "Pilgrims in the Wilderness: Community, Modernity, and the Maypole at Merry Mount," New England Quarterly 50 (1977): 25 5-277; T. H. Breenand Stephen Foster, "Moving to the New World," WMQ 30 (1973): 194; idem, "The Puritans' Greatest Achievement," JAH 60 (1973): 5-22; Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975), 235, 407-408; R. Thompson, "Seventeenth-Century English and Colonial Sex Ratios," Population Studies 28 (1974): 155-161.
22. Richardson and Wells Counties: Federal Writers' Project American Guide Series, Nebraska: A Guide to the Cornhusker State (New York: Viking, 1939), 9, 56, 276, and North Dakota: A Guide to the Northern Prairie State (Fargo: Knight Printing Co., 1938), 6-7, 69, 273. Robert Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Knopf, 1968), 247-248; Odie B. Faulk, Dodge City: The Most Western Town of All (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1977), vii-viii, ch. 2; Carroll D. Clark and Roy L. Roberts, People of Kansas: A Demographic and Social Study (Topeka: Kansas State Planning Board, 1936), 111-112.
23. Paul, Far West, 24; Walter Nugent, "Frontiers and Empires in the Late Nineteenth Century," Western Historical Quarterly 20 (1989): 393-408; Compendium of the Ninth Census (1872), 546; James E. Davis, Frontier America, 1800-1840: A Comparative Demographic Analysis of the Settlement Process (Glendale, Ca.: Arthur H. Clark, 1977), 58-59.
24. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State U. Press, 1971), 299.
25. Hope T. Eldridge and Dorothy Swaine Thomas, Population Growth and Redistribution in the United States, 1870-1950 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1964); Edward L. Ayers, The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1992), 24; Michael Wallis, Route 66: The Mother Road (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), 9, 19; Jack Temple Kirby, "The Southern Exodus," JSH 49 (1983): 595-596.
26. George A. Devlin, South Carolina and Black Migration, 1865-1940 (New York: Garland Studies in Historical Demography, 1989), ch. 10, letters at 392-394; Eldridge and Thomas, Population, 90-93, 107, 125; Ayer, Promise, 149-151; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991), 3-7; Wells, Revolutions, 3-7; Sarah Deutsch, "Landscape of Enclaves: Race Relations in the West, 1865-1990," in Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America's Western Past, ed. William Cronon et al. (New York: Norton, 1992), 132.
27. Sheldon Hackney, "Southern Violence," in The History of Violence in America, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr (New York: Bantam, 1969), 505-527.
28. Jess Spirer, "Negro Crime," Comparative Psychology Monographs 16 (1940): 44; Keith D. Harries, The Geography of Crime and Justice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 34-35; Steven F. Messner, "Regional and Racial Effects on the Urban Homicide Rate," AJS 88 (1983): 997-1007; Lin Huff-Corzine, Jay Corzine, and David C. Moore, "Southern Exposure: Deciphering the South's Influence on Homicide Rates," Social Forces 64 (1986): 906-924; Richard E. Nisbett, "Violence and U.S. Regional Culture," American Psychologist 48 (1993): 441-449.
29. Sherman L. Ricards and George R. Blackburn, "The Sydney Ducks: A Demographic Analysis," PacHR 42 (1973): 24-25.
30. Ibid.; Richard A. Bartlett, The New Country: A Social History of the American Frontier (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), 439; E. C. "Teddy Blue" Abbott, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), 42.
31. The Life of John Wesley Hardin as Written by Himself, intro. Robert G. McCubbin (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 12-14; Dan L. Thrapp, "Billy the Kid," Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, vol. 1 (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1988), 113; Bill O'Neal, Encyclopedia of Western Gunfighters (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1979), 60-61; Custer, Tenting on the Plains, 387. Some think McCarty may have been closer to twenty-six when he died.
32. Barnes F. Lathrop, "Migration into East Texas, 1835-1860," Southwestem Historical Quarterly 52 (1948): 331; Ralph Mann, "The Decade after the Gold Rush: Social Structure in Grass Valley and Nevada City, California, 1850-1860," PacHR 41 (1972): 489; James C. Malin, The Grassland of North America (rpt. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1967), 289; Blegen, ed.. Land of Their Choice, 189-190.
33. Quotation: Blegen, ed., Land of Their Choice, 245. Charnel house: The California Diary of General E. D. Townsend, ed. Malcolm Edwards (Los Angeles: Ward Ritchie Press, 1970), 44.
34. Carl F. Reuss, "The Pioneers of Lincoln County, Washington: A Study in Migration," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 30 (1939): 60-62; Mann, "Decade after the Gold Rush," 488.
35. Catlin, Letters and Notes on the North American Indians, ed. Michael MacDonald Mooney (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975), 165.
36. E.g., Robert L. Meriwether, The Expansion of South Carolina, 1729-1765, (rpt. Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 1974), 15; Terry G. Jordan and Matti Kaups, The American Backwoods Frontier (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1989), 87-89; Fernando Henriques, Children of Conflict: A Study of Interracial Sex and Marriage (New York: Dutton, 1975), 44-45, 56-62. Quotation from Mountain Bill Rhodes in South Pass, 1868: James Chisholm's Journal of the Wyoming Gold Rush, ed. Lola M. Homsher (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1960), 125.
37. Rolfe: letter to Sir Thomas Dale, Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606-1625, ed. Lyon Gardiner Tyler (rpt. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966), 240. Johnson: Bernard Bailyn with Barbara DeWolfe, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1986), 576-582. Stuart: Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 160.
38. Gary B. Nash, Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1992), 105-107, 280-284; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1991), 60-75, 339-351, 368-396; Virgil J. Vogel, "Indian-White Intermarriage on the Frontier," in Transactions of the Illinois Historical Society, ed. Mary Ellen McElligott (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1989), 1; Horace Greeley, An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859, ed. Charles T. Duncan (New York: Knopf, 1964), 104, 132.
39. James M. McReynolds, "Family Life in a Borderland Community: Nacogdoches, Texas, 1779-1861" (Ph.D. diss., Texas Tech U., 1978), 117-128, 291.
4. The Altar of the Golden Calf
1. Winfred Blevins assisted by Ruth Valsing, Dictionary of the American West (New York: Facts on File, 1993), 148.
2. "Reminiscences of Joseph H. Boyd: An Argonaut of 1857," ed. William S. Lewis, Washington Historical Quarterly 15 (1924): 257.
3. J. S. Holliday, The World Rushed In: The California Gold Rush Experience (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 297, 354; Julius H. Pratt, "To California by Panama in '49," Century Magazine, n.s. 19 (1891): 914; J. Ross Browne and James W. Taylor, Reports upon the Mineral Resources of the United States (1867), 38; Mildred F. Stone, Since 1845: A History of the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company (New Brunswick: Rutgers U. Press, 1957), 36-38; Shepard B. Clough, A Century of American Life Insurance (rpt. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1970), 84-85.
4. Holliday, World Rushed In, 115, 372-373, 407; Charles Ross Parke, Dreams to Dust: A Diary of the California Gold Rush, 1849-1850, ed. James E. Davis (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1989); John Duffy, "Medicine in the West: An Historical Overview," J. of the West 21 (1982): 8-10.
5. "A Woman's Trip Across the Plains in 1849," in Women's Diaries of the Westward Journey, ed. Lillian Schlissel (New York: Schocken Books, 1982), 171.
6. Joseph R. Conlin, Bacon, Beans, and Galantines: Food and Foodways on the Western Mining Frontier (Reno: U. of Nevada Press, 1986), 69-87, 113-115; Anthony J. Lorenz, "Scurvy in the Gold Rush," J. of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 12 (1957): 473-510.
7. Diary of a Physician in California (New York, 1850), 9; Lorenz, "Scurvy," 492-493; Conlin, Bacon, 91.
8. Sherman, letter to Lt. E.O.C. Ord, 28 Oct. 1848, WAC, Beinecke; George Groh, "Doctors of the Frontier," American Heritage 14 (April 1963): 90. Wife: [Louise Clappe,] The Shirley Letters from the California Mines, 1851-1852, ed. Carl I. Wheat (New York: Knopf, 1970), 161. Observer: E. Gould Buffum, Six Months in the Gold Mines: From a Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California, 1847-8-9 (Philadelphia, 1850), 138.
9. J. F. B. Marshall, "Three Gold Dust Stories," Century Magazine, n.s. 19 (1891): 786; Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, Annals of San Francisco, intro. Richard H. Dillon (rpt. Palo Alto: Lewis Osborne, 1966), 495; Hinton Helper, The Land of Gold: Reality versus Fiction (Baltimore, 1855), 64.
10. Holliday, World Rushed In, 364; John Williamson Palmer, "Pioneer Days in San Francisco," Century Magazine, n.s. 21 (1892): 552; Hubert Howe Bancroft, California Inter Pocula (San Francisco, 1888), ch. 22; letters from Mrs. Jerusha (Deming) Merrill to Mr. and Mrs. Selden Deming, 28 Oct. 1849 and 8 Jan. 1851, WAC, Beinecke; Elliott West, The Saloon on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1979), 23.
11. Holliday, World Rushed In, 413; Mary Lee Spence, "Waitresses in the Trans-Mississippi West," in The Women's West, ed. Susan Armitage and Elizabeth Jameson (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 222; Donald Dale Jackson, Gold Dust (New York: Knopf, 1980), 137; Jacqueline Baker Earnhardt, The Fair but Frail: Prostitution in San Francisco, 18491900 (Reno: U. of Nevada Press, 1986), 25-39.
12. Holliday, World Rushed In, 303, 355; Joann Levy, They Saw the Elephant: Women in the California Gold Rush (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1990), 155.
13. The Journals of Alfred Doten, 1849-1903, vol. 1, ed. Walter Van Tilburg Clark (Reno: U. of Nevada Press, 1973), 52; Personal Memoirs ofU. S. Grant, vol. 1 (New York, 1885), 208; Richard Dunlop, Doctors of the American Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 115.
14. William H. McFarlin to Margaret McFarlin, 1 Jan. 1852, WAC, Beinecke. I have regularized some of the spelling.
15. Quoted in Holliday, World Rushed In, 373.
16. Bennett, The First Baby in Camp: A Full Account of the Scene and Adventures during the Pioneer Days of '49 (Salt Lake City, 1893), 37; [clapped Shirley Letters, 102-105, 136-137; Charles B. Gillespie, "A Miner's Sunday in Coloma," Century Magazine, n.s. 20 (1891): 260, 262; Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 147.
17. Gillespie, "Miner's Sunday," 260; Bennett, First Baby in Camp, 4; J. H. Post to Reverend H. Winslow, 5 Jan. 1853, WAC, Beinecke.
18. Land of Gold, 43, 44; Hugh C. Bailey, Hinton Rowan Helper: AbolitionistRacist (University, Alabama: U. of Alabama Press, 1965).
19. Gary G. Hamilton, "The Structural Sources of Adventurism: The Case of the California Gold Rush," AJS 83 (1978): 1469-1473; To the Land of Gold And Wickedness: The 1848-59 Diary ofLorena L. Hays, ed. Jeanne Hamilton Watson (St. Louis: Patrice Press, 1988), 233; Journal of Dr. George McCowen of Mining Experiences and Conditions in California in the Early Sixties (TS of original in private ownership, n.d.), Ayer Collection no. 541, Newberry, 22-23; [Clappe], Shirley Letters, 49; Journals of Alfred Doten, vol. 1, 322-323; Palmer, "Pioneer Days in San Francisco," 550.
20. Swain: Holliday, World Rushed In. L. M. Wolcott to B[eman] Gates, 20 Feb. 1851, in the appendix of Gold Rush Diary: Being the Journal ofElisha Douglass Perkins on the Overland Trail in the Spring and Summer of 1849, ed. Thomas D. Clark (Lexington: U. of Kentucky Press, 1967), 195.
21. The Diary of a Forty-Niner, ed. Chauncey L. Canfield (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), 112.
22. Land of Gold, 29, 36-37, 63-68, 153-154, 157, 170-171, 238-239; Soule, Gihon, and Nisbet, Annals, 256-257, 399; Robert H. Tillman, "The Prosecution of Homicide in Sacramento County, California, 1853-1900," Southern California Quarterly 68 (1986): 170-171.
23. Erwin G. Gudde, California Gold Camps: A Geographical and Historical Dictionary ... (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1975); Andrew F. Rolle, California: A History, 2nd ed. (New York: Crowell, 1969), 252; William Mead Muhler, "Religion and Social Problems in Gold Rush California: 1849-1869" (Ph.D. diss.. Graduate Theological Union, 1989), 344358; Richard Ness journal, WAC, Beinecke, 20, 28; letter from Mary B. Ballou to Selden Ballou, 30 Oct. 1852, WAC, Beinecke, 9-10; Buff um, Six Months in the Gold Mines, 83; Journals of Alfred Doten, vol. 1, 52; [clapped Shirley Letters, 96-97, 166-167.
24. Ness journal, 18-19; Harry Laurenz Wells, History of Nevada County, California (Oakland, 1880), 106; David A. Johnson, "Vigilance and the Law: The Moral Authority of Popular Justice in the Far West," American Quarterly 33 (1988): 575.
25. Johnson, "Vigilance and the Law," 562; Browne and Taylor, Reports, 20-21; Jackson, Gold Dust, 313-315, 327-328; [Rodman W. Paul], "Gold and Silver Rushes," Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, ed. Howard R. Lamar (New York: Thomas Crowell, 1977), 445-451.
26. An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859, ed. Charles T. Duncan (New York: Knopf, 1964), 105-106, 127-133; quotation 133.
27. Roughing It (New York: Library of America, 1984), chs. 29-31. Not every story told in Roughing It should be taken at face value, but this one is corroborated by correspondence. Margaret Sanborn, Mark Twain: The Bachelor Years (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 167, 464.
28. Roughing It, 839-840.
29. George F. Willison, Here They Dug for Gold (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1946), 173-174, 182; West, Saloon, 74, 121-122; U.S. Census Office, Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes . . . as Returned at the Tenth Census (1888), 568; Duane A. Smith, Rocky Mountain Mining Camps (Blooming: Indiana U. Press, 1967), 223. In computing these rates I have used a population figure of 20,000, which West argues is more realistic than the census count of 14,820.
30. [Michael A. Leeson,] History of Montana, 1739-1885 (Chicago, 1885), 296-297.
31. "A Trader in the Rocky Mountains: Don Maguire's 1877 Diary," ed. Gary Topping, Idaho Yesterdays 27 (Summer 1983): 7. I have inserted periods where indicated by Maguire's capitalization and corrected one misspelling.
32. Dunlop, Doctors of the American Frontier, 118.
33. Generosity: John H. Brown, Reminiscences and Incidents, of "The Early Days" of San Francisco . . . from 1845 to 1850 (San Francisco, 1886), chs. 3-4, 6; E. G. Waite, "Pioneer Mining in California," Century Magazine, n.s. 20 (1891): 133; Twain, Roughing It, 773-774. Resident quoted in Roger D. McGrath, "Violence and Lawlessness on the Western Frontier," in Violence in America, vol. 1: The History of Crime, ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage, 1989), 132.
34. Twain, Roughing It, 840; Johnson, "Vigilance and the Law," 563; Smith, Rocky Mountain Mining Camps, 47; Turner, "Contributions of the West to American Democracy," in The Frontier in American History (rpt. Tucson: U. of Arizona Press, 1986), 266.
35. Faro dealer quoted in Erdoes, Saloons, 126; Ray A. Billington, America's Frontier Culture (College Station: Texas A&M U. Press, 1977), 92.
36. McCowen TS journal, 19; Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Richard D. Heffner (New York: New American Library, 1956), 194; Hale, Log of a Forty-Niner, 120; [Leeson], History of Montana, 226, 266. In Owen Wister's classic western novel, The Virginian, the reader never learns the protagonist's name.
37. John Myers Myers, Doc Holliday (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), 1719, 39.
38. The Nevada County total of 98 murders includes 18 committed by Indians. Leadville: West, Saloon, 20, reports 14 homicides in the eight months' worth of newspapers he studied, which, by extrapolation, yields an annual total of 21. I am following West (121 and personal communication) in using a population denominator of 20,000. The Boston arrests were reported in such a way that it was not possible to distinguish between negligent (not intentionally criminal) and nonnegligent manslaughter. The true homicide rate for Boston for 18601882 is therefore lower than 5.8, likely somewhere in the range of 4 to 5 per 100,000.
39. James L. Tyson, Diary of a Physician in California (New York, 1850), 62-63; Roger D. McGrath, Gunfighters, Highwaymen, and Vigilantes: Violence on the Frontier (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1984), 54, 258; James J. Rawls, Indians of California: The Changing Image (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1984), 126-130, 171-201; Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 337-340.
40. McGrath, "Violence and Lawlessness."
41. "Rail Road Towns" (MS, n.d.), Box 1, Dodge Papers, Newberry; James McCague, Moguls and Iron Men: The Story of the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 187-189.
42. James Chisholm, South Pass, 1868: James Chisholm's Journal of the Wyoming Gold Rush, ed. Lola M. Homsher (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1960), 15-36, 100-101; Emmett D. Chisum, "Boom Towns on the Union Pacific: Laramie, Benton and Bear River City," Annals of Wyoming 53 (1981): 4, 7-9.
43. McGrath, Gunfighters, 261-271, is a balanced overview of the debate.
44. Orderville: Robert V. Hine, Community on the American Frontier: Separate but Not Alone (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1980), 212-216.
45. "Poor Men with Rude Machinery': The Formative Years of the Gold Hill Mining District, 1842-1853," and "The Miners World: Life and Labor at Gold Hill," North Carolina Historical Review 61 (1984): 1-35 and 62 (1985): 420-447.
5. The Cowboy Subculture
1. Nannie T. Alderson and Helena Huntington Smith, A Bride Goes West (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1969), 73; A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, vol. 11, ed. James D. Richardson (New York: Bureau of National Literature, n.d.), 4640-4641; "The Cow-Boys of the Western Plains and Their Horses," Cheyenne Daily Leader, 3 Oct. 1882, rpt. in Trailing the Cowboy: His Life and Lore as Told by Frontier Journalists, ed. Clifford P. Westermeier (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1955), 50.
2. Siberts with Walker D. Wyman, Nothing but Prairie and Sky: Life on the Dakota Range in the Early Days (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1954), 100-101; Wallace Stegner, "Who Are the Westerners?" American Heritage 38 (Dec. 1987): 36.
3. David Dary, Cowboy Culture: A Saga of Five Centuries (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1989), 276. My brief and much simplified description of the range cattle industry draws on Dary's work and on J. Frank Dobie, The Longhorns (rpt. Boston: Little, Brown, 1950); Joe B. Frantz and Julian Ernest Choate Jr., The American Cowboy (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1955); Edward Everett Dale, The Range Cattle Industry, rev. ed. (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1960); [Joe A. Stout], "Cowboy," Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, ed. Howard R. Lamar (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1977), 268-270; Richard W. Slatta, Cowboys of the Americas (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1990); Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Terry G. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1993).
4. E. C. "Teddy Blue" Abbott, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), 42.
5. TNT: Workin' on the Railroad: Reminiscences from the Age of Steam, ed. Richard Reinhardt (Palo Alto: American West Publishing, 1970), 95; [Stout], "Cowboy," 268; Philip Durham and Everett L. Jones, The Negro Cowboys (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1965), chs. 1-4. The one-seventh estimate for blacks may have been true in southeastern Texas in the years immediately after the Civil War, but if so the proportion shrank substantially during the 1870s. Cf. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 214-215. Texas rate: Robert M. Ireland, "Homicide in Nineteenth Century Kentucky," Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 81 (1983): 134.
6. Dary, Cowboy Culture, 107, 209; Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 33.
7. Augustus L. Chetlain, Recollections of Seventy Years (Galena, Ill., 1899), 130-131; John E. Baur, "Cowboys and Skypilots," in The American West and the Religious Experience, ed. William Kramer (Los Angeles: Will Kramer, 1974), 41-70.
8. Charles Askins, Texans, Guns and History (New York: Winchester Press, 1970), 3, 7; Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, 70-71, 72; George E. Goodfellow, "Cases of Gunshot Wound of the Abdomen Treated by Operation," Southern California Practitioner 4 (1889): 209-217; "The Fatal Six-Shooter Again," Caldwell Post, 20 July 1882, cited in Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, 117; Donald Curtis Brown, "The Great Gun-Toting Controversy, 1865-1910" (Ph.D. diss., Tulane U., 1983), 19, 89-91, 130, 152-153.
9. We Pointed Them North, 247, 31-32.
10. Workin' on the Railroad, ed. Reinhardt, 96.
11. We Pointed Them North, 251; Marvin E. Wolfgang, Patterns in Criminal Homicide (Philadelphia: U. of Pennsylvania Press, 1958), 188-192, 196-197.
12. Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, 25, 54; Cowboy Life: Reconstructing An American Myth, ed. William W. Savage Jr. (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1975), 158.
13. Joseph G. McCoy, Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwest (Kansas City, 1874), 138-142; Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 256-257; Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, ch. 5; W. C. Holden, "Law and Lawlessness on the Texas Frontier, 1875-1890," SHQ 44 (1940): 190-191; Dary, Cowboy Culture, 209.
14. Love quoted in John McPhee, Rising from the Plains (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1986), 89. Food: Joseph R. Conlin, "Grub and Chow," in The American West, as seen by Europeans and Americans, ed. Rob Kroes (Amsterdam: Free University Press, 1989), 131; McCoy, Cattle Trade, 137. Coffee: Winfred Blevins assisted by Ruth Valsing, Dictionary of the American West (New York: Facts on File, 1993), 9.
15. Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 145-146; Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 87, 89, 150-151.
16. Dary, Cowboy Culture, 217; Richard F. Selcer, "Fort Worth and the Fraternity of Strange Women," SHQ 96 (1992): 74; Neil Larry Shumsky, "Tacit Acceptance: Respectable Americans and Segregated Prostitution, 1870-1910," J. of Social History 19 (1986): 673-674.
17. Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1985), 31; Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1980), 68, 180nn5,6; Howard B. Woolston, Prostitution in the United States (rpt. Montclair, N.J.: Patterson Smith, 1980), 180, 187; Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher (New York: Viking, 1983), 32-34, 45-46.
18. Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, 33; Dary, Cowboy Culture, 258, 284.
19. Loaded dice: Philip D. Jordan, Frontier Law and Order (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1970), 54-55. Compulsive gambling: e.g., John Brown, Twenty-Five Years a Parson in the Wild West: Being the Experience of Parson Ralph Riley (Fall River, Mass., 1896), 55-56. Became gamblers: Julian Ralph, "A Talk with a Cowboy," Harper's Weekly 36 (16 April 1892): 375-376.
20. [Robert Schick], "Prostitution," Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, 973; Anne M. Butler, Daughters of Joy, Sisters of Misery: Prostitutes in the American West, 1865-90 (Urbana: U. of Illinois Press, 1985), 67-68; C. Robert Haywood, Victorian West: Class and Culture in Kansas Cattle Towns (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1991), 29-30.
21. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Knopf, 1968), 113, 142-148; Roger D. McGrath, "Violence and Lawlessness on the Western Frontier," in Violence in America, vol. 1: The History of Crime, ed. Ted Robert Gurr(NewburyPark, Ca.: Sage, 1989), 134-135; Robert TyrusCashion, "An Examination of Frontier Violence at Fort Griffin, Texas" (master's thesis, U. of Texas at Arlington, 1989), 17, 55. The most commonly cited source, Don H. Riggers, Shackelford County Sketches, ed. Joan Farmer (Albany and Fort Griffin: Clear Fork Press, 1974), 41, reports at least fifty-five killings, including twelve lynchings, at Fort Griffin over a period of twelve years. Cashion reports "a population of approximately one-thousand and almost as many transients." I have combined the two and rounded upward to two thousand for purposes of computing the rate. A work commonly cited to deny that the trail towns were especially violent is Frank Prassel, The Western Peace Officer: A Legacy of Law and Order (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1972). Prassel in turn cites statistics from U.S. Census Office, Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes... as Returned at the Tenth Census (1888), 566-574, to substantiate his claim that New York and other eastern cities were more violent than western towns (17). However, these data are either biased or simply wrong. Leadville officially reported no homicides in 1880, but Elliott West, as noted in Chapter 4, found fourteen in just eight months. Moreover, Prassel's table (260) contains a significant transcription error: 9,067 murders for New York in 1880 rather than 37, which is what the Census report shows.
22. Dary, Cowboy Culture, 201; Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 89-90.
23. Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 116-124, 131-132, 143; Cashion, "Frontier Violence," 36.
24. Butler, Daughters of Joy, 102-103; Selcer, "Strange Women," 65-67; Carol Leonard and Isidor Wallimann, "Prostitution and Changing Morality in the Frontier Cattle Towns of Kansas," Kansas History 2 (Spring 1979): 41.
25. [AlfredT. Andreas,] History of the State of Kansas (Chicago, 1883), 1574; Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 127-128, 257-259; Leonard and Wallimann, "Prostitution," 39-40.
26. Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 128-131; C. Robert Haywood, "Cowtown Courts: Dodge City Courts, 1876-1886," Kansas History 11 (1988): 24, 31-32; Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 31.
27. Robert M. Utley, High Noon in Lincoln: Violence on the Western Frontier (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1987), 172-173; C. C. Rister, "Outlaws and Vigilantes on the Southern Plains," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 19 (1933): 544.
28. Richard Maxwell Brown, "The American Vigilante Tradition," in Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr (New York: Bantam, 1969); Joe B. Frantz, "The Frontier Tradition: An Invitation to Violence," ibid., 140-143.
29. Cashion, "Frontier Violence," 63; Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1975), 246-251.
30. David H. Breen, The Canadian Prairie West and the Ranching Frontier, 1874-1924 (Toronto: U. of Toronto Press, 1983), 85-86; Carlos A. Schwantes, "Perceptions of Violence on the Wageworkers' Frontier: An American-Canadian Comparison," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 77 (1986): 54-56.
31. Brown, "Gun-Toting Controversy," 17; Clark C. Spence, "The Livery Stable in the American West," Montana 36 (1986): 39.
32. Yankee marshals: Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 28.
33. Brown, "Gun-Toting Controversy," 152-164, quotations 163-164.
34. Ibid., 435-440.
35. Joseph Nimmo Jr., "The American Cow-Boy," Harper's New Monthly Magazine 57 (1886): 880-884; Abbott, We Pointed Them North, 231.
36. Don Russell, The Lives and Legends of Buffalo Bill (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1960), 21-32; John G. Blair, "Buffalo Bill and Sitting Bull: The Wild West as Media Event," in The American West, as seen by Europeans and Americans, ed. Rob Kroes (Amsterdam: Free U. Press, 1989), 262-281; Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992), ch. 2; Dary, Cowboy Culture, 333.
37. George N. Fenin and William K. Everson, The Western: From Silents to the Seventies, expanded ed. (New York: Grossman, 1973); Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres (New York: Random House, 1981), 46-47; Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation, chs. 7-9.
38. Garth S. Jowett, "The Concept of History in American Produced Films," J. of Popular Culture 3 (1970): 813; Fenin and Everson, The Western, ch. 16; Robert G. Athearn, The Mythic West in Twentieth-Century America (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1986), 183; Elliott West, "Shots in the Dark: Television and the Western Myth," Montana 38 (1988): 72-73; Dary, Cowboy Culture, 335.
39. John H. Lenihan, Showdown: Confronting Modern America in the Western Film (Urbana: U. of Illinois Press, 1980), ch. 7; Schatz, Hollywood Genres, 53-54, 58-63; Michael Wood, America in the Movies or "Santa Maria, It Had Slipped My Mind" (New York: Delta, 1975), 42-43.
40. See James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), ch. 13.
41. John L. Caughey, Imaginary Social Worlds: A Cultural Approach (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1984); Stegner, "Who Are the Westerners?" 39.
42. The John Wayne cult is discussed in Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation, 51211.
43. Paraphrasing Michael Herr, Dispatches (New York: Knopf, 1977), 209. Language from Herr and Charles Mohr, "U.S. Special Forces: Real and on Film," New York Times, 20 June 1968, 49; S. L. A. Marshall, Crimsoned Prairie: The Wars between the United States and the Plains Indians during the Winning of the West (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972), 155; Philip D. Beidler, American Literature and the Experience of Vietnam (Athens: U. of Georgia Press, 1982); Dictionary of the Vietnam War, ed. James S. Olson (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1988); Gregory R. Clark, Words of the Vietnam War (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1990); Christopher Robbins, The Ravens: The Men Who Flew in America's Secret War in Laos (New York: Crown, 1987); and personal communication with John Olson, Lydia Fish, and Larry Wright.
44. "Festive Cowboy," in Trailing the Cowboy, ed. Westermeier, 53.
45. Odie B. Faulk, Dodge City: The Most Western Town of All (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1977), 85.
6. The Ecology of Frontier Violence
1. The Human Condition: An Ecological and Historical View (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 6-8.
2. The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, 2nd ed., ed. William M. Denevan (Madison: U. of Wisconsin Press, 1992), xvii-xxix; David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1992), 261-268; John D. Daniels, "The Indian Population of North America in 1492," WMQ49 (1992): 298-320.
3. James H. Merrell, The Indians' New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1989), 18-23, 192-195; Michael A. Leeson, History of Montana, 1739-1885 (Chicago, 1885), 117; George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the North American Indians, ed. Michael MacDonald Mooney (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975), chs. 11, 23; Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1983), 271-274.
4. Richard A. Bartlett, The New Country: A Social History of the American Frontier, 1776-1890 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), 17-18; Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (rpt. Tucson: U. of Arizona Press, 1986), 16-17; Harold S. Bender and C. Henry Smith, Mennonites and Their Heritage, rev. ed. (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1964), 93; Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1984), 79; Everett Dick, The Sod-House Frontier, 1854-1890 (Lincoln: Johnsen Publishing, 1954), 173.
5. John G. Bourke, "General Crook in the Indian Country," Century Magazine, n.s. 19 (1891): 652; Frank Gilbert Roe, The Indian and the Horse (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1955), 192-195.
6. Attack villages: e.g., Colin G. Galloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1995). Wounded Knee: Robert M. Utley and Wilcomb E. Washburn, Indian Wars (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 299; S. L. A. Marshall, Crimsoned Prairie: The Wars between the United States and the Plains Indians during the Winning of the West (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972), 243.
7. Sherburne F. Cook, The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1976), combining tables 4 and 5, 357, 361; James J. Rawls, Indians of California: The Changing Image (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1984), chs. 6-7; Lou Conway Roberts, A Woman's Reminiscences of Six Years in Camp with Texas Rangers (Austin: Von Boeckmann-Jones, 1928), 27; James B. Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, ed. M. M. Quaife (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1976), 19.
8. Joseph Nimmo Jr., "The American Cow-Boy," Harper's New Monthly Magazine 57 (1886): 881; Baylis John Fletcher, Up the Trail in '79, ed. Wayne Card (rpt. Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 50-54.
9. Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866-1891 (New York: Macmillan, 1973), 23-28; Robert Wooster, Soldiers, Sutlers, and Settlers: Garrison Life on the Texas Frontier (College Station: Texas A&M U. Press, 1987), 59; D. Alexander Brown, The Galvanized Yankees (Urbana: U. of Illinois Press, 1963); Philip Weeks, Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820-1890 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1990), 92.
10. Elizabeth Burt, Indians, Infants and Infantry: Andrew and Elizabeth Burt on the Frontier, ed. Merrill J. Mattes (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1988); E. S. Topping, The Chronicles of the Yellowstone, ed. Robert A. Murray (rpt. Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1968), 7-8; James Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial America (Oxford: Oxford U. Press, 1981), 217-218; Richard White, "The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," JAM 65 (1978): 321-322; Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800 to 1850," JAM 78 (1991): 475.
11. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1981), ch. 10.
12. On atrocities see, e.g., John H. Brown, Reminiscences and Incidents, of "The Early Days" of San Francisco, Actual Experience of an Eye-Witness, from 1845 to 1850 (San Francisco, 1886), ch. 1; J. C. Long, Lord Jeffrey Amherst: A Soldier of the King (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 186-187; Topping, Chronicles of the Yellowstone, 69, 111, 116, 119; Land of Their Choice: The Immigrants Write Home, ed. Theodore Blegen (Minneapolis: U. of Minnesota Press, 1955), 226; James L. Tyson, Diary of a Physician in California (New York, 1850), 62-63; report of Lt. Charles G. Hubbard, 20 June 1862, in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, ser. 1, vol. 50, pt. 1 (1897), 74. Venisse, letter of 20 June 1856, in Documents of California Catholic History (1784-1963), ed. Francis J. Weber (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1965), 72.
13. E.g., Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1991), 376-377, 388; Virginia Bergman Peters, The Florida Wars (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1979), 150-151; Duane Schultz, Month of the Freezing Moon: The Sand Creek Massacre, November 1864 (New York: St. Martin's, 1990), 134-135; Raphael Pumpelly, Across America and Asia (New York, 1870), 16-17, 34; Richard Dodge's Black Hills MS diary, 1 June 1875, Dodge Papers, Newberry; A Cannoneer in Navajo Country: Journal of Private Josiah M. Rice, 1851, ed. Richard H. Dillon (Denver: Denver Public Library, 1970), 38-39; Evan S. Connell, Son of the Moming Star (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1984), 19,254-255, 333.
14. On Indian atrocities and desecrations see, e.g., Samuel J. Crawford, Kansas in the Sixties (Chicago, 1911), 265-272; Craig Miner, West of Wichita: Settling the High Plains of Kansas (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1986), chs. 2, 9; Mary A. Maverick and George Madison Maverick, Memoirs of Mary A. Maverick (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1989), 30-31, 38, 42; Charles H. Springer, Soldiering in Sioux Country: 1865, ed. Benjamin Franklin Cooling III (San Diego: Frontier Heritage Press, 1971), 46, 50, 52; Narratives of Captivity among the Indians of North America . . . (Chicago: Newberry Library, 1912). Rumor: e.g., Land of Their Choice, ed. Blegen, 426.
15. Robert M. Utley, High Noon in Lincoln: Violence on the Western Frontier (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1987), 173-174; Greeley, An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859, ed. Charles T. Duncan (New York: Knopf, 1964), 99.
16. Pranksters: Mollie: The Journal of Mollie Dorsey Sanford in Nebraska and Colorado Territories, 1857-1866, ed. Donald F. Danker (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1959), 151-152; Dick, Sod-House Frontier, 170-171; C. C. Rister, "Outlaws and Vigilantes on the Southern Plains," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 19 (1933): 541.
17. Edwin Capron to Amelia Capron, 28 May 1865, Capron letters, Graff collection no. 579, Newberry. I have made a few minor changes in punctuation and one in spelling.
18. Cited in Connell, Son of the Morning Star, except for redskined Deavels, which is in "The Letters of John Ferguson, Early Resident of Western Washington County," Kansas Historical Quarterly 12 (1943): 345.
19. Frantz, "The Frontier Tradition: An Invitation to Violence," in The History of Violence in America, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr (New York: Bantam, 1969), 147; Connell, Son of the Morning Star, 258-259.
20. Axtell, The European and the Indian, chs. 2, 8; Dodge, Our Wild Indians: Thirty-three Years' Personal Experience among the Red Men of the Great West (Hartford, 1883), 517; E. C. "Teddy Blue" Abbott, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), 204.
21. Letter of 17 March 1865 to Amelia Capron, Newberry.
22. John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York: Henry Holt, 1992), 22. By war: Agnes Wright Spring, Caspar Collins: The Life and Exploits of an Indian Fighter in the Sixties (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1969), 167. No sense: Homer W. Wheeler, Buffalo Days (rpt. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1990) 143. Suicide boys: Bill O'Neal, Fighting Men of the Indian Wars (Stillwater. Ok.: Barbed Wire Press, 1991), 108.
23. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1983), 167-168.
24. Sandra L. Myres, Westering Women and the Frontier Experience (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1982), 64; Glenda Riley, Frontierswomen: The Iowa Experience (Ames: Iowa State U. Press, 1981), 179-180. Savage Other: e.g., Anne Ellis, The Life of an Ordinary Woman (rpt. New York: Arno Press, 1974), 11-12. Friendships: Glenda Riley, Women and Indians on the Frontier, 1825-1915 (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1984), esp. ch. 5.
25. "Recollections of Benjamin Franklin Bonney," ed. Fred Lockley, Oregon Historical Society Quarterly 24 (1923): 50-51.
26. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1982).
27. Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 340.
28. Sherman Day, Historical Collections of the State of Pennsylvania .. . (Philadelphia, 1843), 274, 277-281, 398-400; Solon J. Buck and Elizabeth Hawthorn Buck, The Planting of Civilization in Western Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh: U. of Pittsburgh Press, 1939), 111-113.
29. The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799, vol. 34, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington: G.P.O., 1940), 391; John C. Miller, The Federalist Era, 1789-1801 (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), 183.
30. Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years: The Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts, 1790-1834 (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1962), 49-50, 190-203, 275-277; Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Knopf, 1978), 147-148.
31. See Gregory H. Nobles, "Breaking into the Backcountry: New Approaches to the Early American Frontier, 1750-1800," WMQ 46 (1989): 659-664, 668-669.
32. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York: Norton, 1975), bks. 3-4.
33. Alexander Hamilton, "Report . . . relative to the inexecution of the Excise Law in certain Counties of Pennsylvania," in Proceedings of the Executive of the United States, Respecting the Insurgents, 1794 (Philadelphia, 1795), 99-124; Bartlett, New Country, 139.
34. Edmund S. Morgan, The Challenge of the American Revolution (New York: Norton, 1976), 192-193.
35. "Letters of John Ferguson," 339, 342-345; Rodman W. Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 154.
36. Faragher, Daniel Boone, 20.
37. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 99-100, 168-169; Peter C. Mancall, "Drinking and Sobriety in Indian Villages in Colonial America" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Chicago, April 1992), 4, 12-14; Winfred Blevins assisted by Ruth Valsing, Dictionary of the American West (New York: Facts on File, 1993), 133.
38. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 253-254.
39. Clyde N. Dollar, "The High Plains Smallpox Epidemic of 1837-38," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (1977): 27.
40. Flores, "Bison Ecology," 483, 485; Roosevelt, Hunting Trips of a Ranchman: Sketches of Sport on the Northern Cattle Plains (New York, 1886), 260.
41. Sheridan quoted in John R. Cook, The Border and the Buffalo: An Untold Story of the Southwest Plains (rpt. New York: Citadel Press, 1967), 163-164; Paul, Far West and Great Plains, 196-197, 209, 212, 223.
42. Dick, Sod-House Frontier, 155, 157; Flores, "Bison Ecology," 481-482.
43. Crawford, Kansas in the Sixties, 9, 13-14.
44. Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 50; The White House: An Historic Guide, 17th ed. (Washington: National Geographic Society, 1991), 58, 142.
45. Percy G. Ebbutt, "Emigrant Life in Kansas," in The Heritage of Kansas, ed. Everett Rich (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1960), 113; John S. Collins, Across the Plains in '64 (Omaha, 1904), 120; Don Russell, The Lives and Legends of Buffalo Bill (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1960), 295-296; A. W. Schorger, The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1973).
46. Connell, Son of the Morning Star, 159; Springer, Soldiering in Sioux Country, 67-70.
47. The Memoirs of Henry Heth, ed. James L. Morrison Jr. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974), 84.
48. O'Neal, Fighting Men, 97; Collins, Across the Plains in '64. 117-118.
49. Dictionary of the American West, 147.
50. Craig MacAndrew and Robert B. Edgerton, Drunken Comportment: A Social Explanation (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), 88, 130-134, 140-147.
51. Cook, Conflict, 268-273, 336-339; Albert L. Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1988), ch. 9.
52. Cook, Conflict, 85-90.
53. Harry Laurenz Wells, History of Nevada County, California (Oakland, 1880), 105-106.
54. Ronald C. Woolsey, "Crime and Punishment: Los Angeles County, 1850-56," Southern California Quarterly 61 (1979): 82-84, 91-92; Hurtado, Indian Survival, 160-161.
55. Turner, Frontier in American History, 4; Robert Bachman, Death and Violence on the Reservation: Homicide, Family Violence, and Suicide in American Indian Populations (New York: Auburn House, 1992), 7, 23-24; Thomas Young, "Alcohol Use and Misuse among Native Americans," Social Pharmacology 3 (1989): 272-275. I do not mean to suggest that all contemporary Indian problems are echoes of frontier contact. The high rates of homicide, suicide, and alcoholism are affected by poverty and unemployment as well as social disorganization, local customs, and other factors that vary between and even within tribes. Stephen J. Kunitz, Disease and Social Diversity: The European Impact on the Health of Non-Europeans (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1994), 137-140, 163-168.
56. William H. McNeill, The Great Frontier: Freedom and Hierarchy in Modern Times (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1983), 16; Kunitz, Disease and Social Diversity, 178.
7. Women and Families
1. Sally McMillen, "Pregnancy and Childbirth on the Southern Frontier" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, March 1990), 5.
2. Richard Dodge MS diary, 21 July 1875, Richard Irving Dodge Papers, Newberry.
3. Quoted in John Mack Faragher, Women and Men on the Overland Trail (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1979), 184.
4. Typed transcription of a letter from Mary B. Ballou to Selden Ballou, 30 Oct. 1852, WAC, Beinecke, 8; The Journal ofMollie Dorsey Sanford in Nebraska and Colorado Territories, 1857-1866, ed. Donald F. Danker (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1959), 135; Joseph R. Conlin, Bacon, Beans, and Galantines: Food and Foodways on the Western Mining Frontier (Reno: U. of Nevada Press, 1986), 156.
5. E. S. Topping, The Chronicles of the Yellowstone, ed. Robert A. Murray (rpt. Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1968), 28; E. C. "Teddy Blue" Abbott, We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1939), 222; John McPhee, Rising from the Plains (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1986), 86.
6. The Records of the Virginia Company of London, vol. 3, ed. Susan Myra Kingsbury (Washington: G.P.O., 1933), 493-194; Mildred Campbell, "Social Origins of Some Early Americans," in Seventeenth-Century America, ed. James Morton Smith (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1959), 74; Herbert Moller, "Sex Composition and Correlated Culture Patterns of Colonial America," WMQ 2 (1945): 140-141; David Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America: An Economic Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1984), 24-25, 234n4.
7. Etta's Journal, Jan. 2, 1874-July25, 1875, ed. Ellen Payne Paullin (Canton, Conn.: Lithographics, 1981), 32. Gender ratio from 1870 census data for Riley County, Kansas.
8. Eugene Albertson helped me extract this data from manuscript census returns for Fort Larned (1870) and Forts Sisseton and Russell (1880).
9. Oliver Knight, Life and Manners in the Frontier Army (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1978); Larry A. Toll, "The Military Community on the Western Frontier, 1866-1898" (Ph.D. diss., Ball State U., 1990), chs. 2-4; The News from Brownsville: Helen Chapman's Letters from the Texas Military Frontier, 1848-1852, ed. Caleb Coker (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1992), 27; Holman Hamilton, Zachary Taylor (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951), 25-26, 136.
10. The Colonel's Lady on the Western Frontier: The Correspondence of Alice Kirk Grierson, ed. Shirley A. Leckie (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1989), 75-76, 80, 96-97; Knight, Life and Manners in the Frontier Army, 40, 67-68, 222; Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784-1898 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1986), 105, 311-314; Jerry L. Nixon, "Women on the Kansas Military Frontier" (Ph.D. diss., U. of Notre Dame, 1989), ch. 6.
11. Crockett at Two Hundred: New Perspectives on the Man and the Myth, ed. Michael A. Lofaro and Joe Cummings (Knoxville: U. of Tennessee Press, 1989), xxi; David Crockett, A Narrative of The Life of David Crockett of the State of Tennessee, ed. James A. Shackford and Stanley J. Folmsbee (Knoxville: U. of Tennessee Press, 1973 facsimile ed.), 52-55; Blaine T. Williams, "The Frontier Family," in Essays on the American West, ed. Harold M. Hollingsworth and Sandra L. Myres (Austin: U. of Texas Press, 1969), 53.
12. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York: Norton, 1975), 165-170.
13. Alexander Keyssar, "Widowhood in Eighteenth-Century Massachusetts," Perspectives in American History 8 (1974): 89-116; John Carr, Early Times in Middle Tennessee (Nashville, 1857), 231.
14. T-tests show all relationships to be significant at p < .01. Data from Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton: Princeton U. Press, 1975), 74-76, 93-95.
15. Scott J. South and Katherine Trent, "Sex Ratios and Women's Roles: A Cross-National Analysis," AJS 93 (1988): 1096-1115.
16. Virginia Bernhard, "'Men, Women, and Children' at Jamestown: Population and Gender in Early Virginia, 1607-1610," JSH 58 (1992): 603, 616; Lois G. Carr and Lorena S. Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland," in Colonial America, 3rd ed., ed. Stanley N. Katz and John M. Murrin (New York: Knopf, 1983), 115; Evan S. Connell, Son of the Morning Star (San Francisco: North Star Press, 1984), 191; Keith Burgess-Jackson, "Violence on the Michigan Frontier," Detroit in Perspective 7 (1983): 56; Martineau, Society in America, vol. 3 (London, 1837), 120; Percy G. Ebbutt, "Emigrant Life in Kansas," in The Heritage of Kansas: Selected Commentaries on Past Times, ed. Everett Rich (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1960), 115.
17. Carr and Walsh, "Planter's Wife," 115; Williams, "Frontier Family," 57.
18. Comment appended to abstract of 1731 census, The Documentary History of the State of New-York, vol. 1, ed. E. B. O'Callaghan (Albany, 1850), 471. I do not mean to imply that fertility was simply a function of the age of women at marriage. Religious and ethnocultural factors also played a role, e.g., the hostility of the Puritan immigrants to contraception. Nevertheless, there is broad agreement among historical demographers that, other things being equal, early female marriages tended to increase fertility and later marriages to decrease it. See, e.g., Jim Potter, "Demographic Development and Family Structure," in Colonial British America: Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era, ed. Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1984), 149.
19. Margaret Van Horn Dwight, A Journey to Ohio in 1810, ed. Max Farrand (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1920 printing), v-vi.
20. Steven Patterson, "Settling the Frontier in Washington County, Kansas" (research paper, University of North Florida, 1992).
21. Galenson, White Servitude, 30; Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1986), 5, 13, 33-34, 42; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, "Of Agues and Fevers: Malaria in the Early Chesapeake," WMQ 33 (1976): 52-53, 55.
22. A Woman's Reminiscences of Six Years in Camp with Texas Rangers (Austin: Von Boeckmann-Jones, 1928), 47-48.
23. "Bypaths of Kansas History," Kansas Historical Quarterly 9 (1940): 99101.
24. Sarah Peairs her Pamphlet James Peairs her Brother and Ann Peairs her Sister (MS, n.d.), 8-13, Ayer collection no. 691, Newberry.
25. [Louise Clapped The Shirley Letters from the California Mines, 1851-1852, ed. Carl I. Wheat (New York: Knopf, 1970), 23-24, 96-97; Mary B. Ballou to Selden Ballou, 30 Oct. 1852, WAC, Beinecke, 9-12; Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 29-31.
26. David C. Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy in Austin, Texas, 1870-1915," SHQ 96 (1983): 477, 480; Neil Larry Shumsky, "Tacit Acceptance: Respectable Americans and Segregated Prostitution, 1870-1910," J. of Social History 19 (1986): 670.
27. Alice Cowan Cochran, Miners, Merchants, and Missionaries: The Roles of Missionaries and Pioneer Churches in the Colorado Gold Rush and Its Aftermath, 1858-1870 (Methuen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1980), 102-131, 188-189; C. Robert Haywood, Victorian West: Class and Culture in Kansas Cattle Towns (Lawrence: U. Press of Kansas, 1991), 109-110. Newton church: Workin' on the Railroad: Reminiscences from the Age of Steam, ed. Richard Reinhardt (Palo Alto: American West Publishing, 1970), 90.
28. James Joseph Poth, "A History of Crime and Violence in Washington Territory, 1851-1860" (Master's thesis, U. of Washington, 1969), 5.
29. Mary Floyd Williams, History of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of 1851 (rpt. New York: Da Capo Press, 1969), 197; Roger W. Lotchin, San Francisco, 1846-1856: From Hamlet to City (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), ch. 13; James Andrew Baumohl, "Dashaways and Doctors: The Treatment of Habitual Drunkards in San Francisco from the Gold Rush to Prohibition" (Ph.D. diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1986), 36-42.
30. Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1990), ch. 1; Barbara Leslie Epstein, The Politics of Domesticity: Women, Evangelism, and Temperance in Nineteenth-Century America (Middletown: Wesleyan U. Press, 1981), ch. 5; Ruth Bordin, Woman and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Philadelphia: Temple U. Press, 1981), ch. 9; Jack S. Blocker Jr., American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform (Boston: Twayne, 1989), 83-85.
31. Robert R. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Knopf, 1968), 260.
32. Stuart Henry, Conquering Our Great American Plains (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1930), 85.
33. Joseph G. McCoy, Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwest (Kansas City, 1874), 231; Dykstra, Cattle Towns, 257-263, 294-307, quotation 304.
34. Johanna Nel, "A Territory Is Founded: Political, Social, Economic and Educational Conditions in Wyoming, 1850-1890," Annals of Wyoming 61, no. 2 (1989): 8; Carol Leonard and Isidor Wallimann, "Prostitution and Changing Morality in the Frontier Cattle Towns of Kansas," Kansas History 2 (Spring 1979): 45-46; Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 246; W. C. Holder, "Law and Lawlessness on the Texas Frontier, 1875-1890," SHQ 44 (1940): 201.
35. Shumsky, "Tacit Acceptance," 665-679; Humphrey, "Prostitution and Public Policy," 505-515; Richard White, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 355-362.
36. "The Letters of John Ferguson, Early Resident of Western Washington County," Kansas Historical Quarterly 12 (1943): 346.
37. Chapman, News from Brownsville, 97, 111-112, 202-203.
38. Elliott West, Growing Up with the Country: Childhood on the Far Western Frontier (Albuquerque: U. of New Mexico Press, 1989), 186; Roger Lane, Violent Death in the City: Suicide, Accident, and Murder in NineteenthCentury Philadelphia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1979), 122123; Richard A. Bartlett, The New Country: A Social History of the American Frontier, 1776-1890 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), 390391; Haywood, Victorian West, 122.
39. Elliott West, The Saloon on the Rocky Mountain Mining Frontier (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1979), 134; Blocker, American Temperance Movements, 68-69; Jim Baumohl, "On Asylums, Homes, and Moral Treatment: The Case of the San Francisco Home for the Care of the Inebriate, 1859-1870," Contemporary Drug Problems 13 (1986): 406407; Julie Roy Jeffrey, Frontier Women: The Trans-Mississippi West, 18401880 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1979), 139; Haywood, Victorian West, 184-187.
40. Frank R. Rossiter, Charles Ives and His America (New York: Liveright, 1975), 26-53, 320-323; Leon Edel, Henry James, the Master: 1901-1916 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1972), 279.
41. Sherman L. Ricards and George R. Blackburn, "The Sydney Ducks: A Demographic Analysis," PacHR 42 (1973): 20-23, 31; Sydney in Ferment: Crime, Dissent, and Official Reaction, 1788 to 1973 (Canberra: Australian National U. Press, 1977), 4-43, 165-176.
8. Chinatown
1. Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 1974), 88-90; U.S. Senate, Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration [hereafter JSC], Senate Report no. 689, 44th Cong., 2nd sess. (1877), 489; Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1964), ch. 1; Victor G. and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ': A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York: Pantheon, 1973), 17-18, 411; Stan Steiner, Fusang: The Chinese Who Built America (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 68.
2. June Mei, "Socioeconomic Origins of Emigration: Guangdong to California, 1850 to 1882," in Labor Immigration under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States before World War II, ed. Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1984), 240; Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1980), 62.
3. California Senate, Special Committee on Chinese Immigration, Chinese Immigration: Its Social, Moral, and Political Effect (Sacramento, 1878), 221; Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana U. Press, 1986), 1-10; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1971), 8; Barth, Bitter Strength, 99-100.
4. Mary R. Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Henry Holt, 1909), 21-25, 498; Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ', 33, 36; Daniel Cleveland to J. Ross Browne, 27 July 1868, doc. 1, American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States and China. Series II: The United States, China, and Imperial Rivalries, 1861-1893 [hereafter ADPP: China], vol. 13, ed. Jules Davids (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1979).
5. "Reminiscences of Joseph H. Boyd: An Argonaut of 1857," ed. William S. Lewis, Washington Historical Quarterly 15 (1924): 259.
6. William Speer, An Humble Plea, Addressed to the Legislature of California in Behalf of the Immigrants of the Empire of China to This State (San Francisco, 1856), 35; ADPP: China, doc. 1: 3, 10-11.
7. ADPP: China, doc. 1: 3-4, 10-11; Stephen Williams, "The Chinese in the California Mines" (M.A. thesis, Stanford U., 1930), 66-67; Chen, Chinese of America, 45-46.
8. Clipping from the San Francisco Morning Call, month and day not noted, Loren L. Williams MS Journals, 1851-1880, vol. I., Graff collection, Newberry.
9. Coolidge, Chinese Immigration, 498; Tsai, Chinese Experience, 16-17; Crocker to Cornelius Cole, 12 April 1865, in Catherine Coffin Phillips, Cornelius Cole: California Pioneer and United States Senator (San Francisco: John Henry Nash, 1929), 138. There is every indication that their work was superior to, not "nearly equal to," that of the white workers. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ', 40; George Kraus, High Road to Promontory (Palo Alto: American West Publishing, 1969), 111.
10. JSC, 27-28.
11. Christian G. Fritz, "Due Process, Treaty Rights, and Chinese Exclusion, 1882-1891," in Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882-1943, ed. Sucheng Chan (Philadelphia: Temple U. Press, 1991), 25.
12. Sucheng Chan, "The Exclusion of Chinese Women, 1870-1943," in Entry Denied, 94-146.
13. Lucie Cheng, "Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America," in Labor Immigration under Capitalism, ed. Cheng and Bonacich, 417; Joann Levy, They Saw the Elephant: Women in the California Gold Rush (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1990), 153-154. Percentage of prostitutes: Judy Yung, Chinese Women of America: A Pictorial History (Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 1986), 18; Tsai, Chinese Experience, 41.
14. Chan, "Exclusion of Chinese Women," 105-107; Mei, "Socioeconomic Origins," 225.
15. "Rock Springs Massacre, 1885," in American Violence: A Documentary History, ed. Richard Hofstadter and Michael Wallace (New York: Knopf, 1970), 331; ADPP: China, vol 12, docs. 30-54: 173-239; Paul Crane and Alfred Larson, "The Chinese Massacre," Annals of Wyoming 12 (1940): 47-55, 153-161.
16. Steiner, Fusang, 173-174, quotation at 174; Hubert Howe Bancroft, California Inter Pocula (San Francisco, 1888), 563-568; Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ', 55.
17. Betty Lee Sung, Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 253-259, 320; "New York Notes" (TS, n.d.), 2-3, Box 43, Records of the United States Delegation to the International Opium Commission and Conference, 1908-1913, National Archives; Lyman, Chinese Americans, 94.
18. Ching Chao Wu, "Chinese Immigration in the Pacific Area" (rpt. San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1974), 16-17.
19. I. E. Cohn, "The Chinese and Their Peculiar Medical Ideas," Medical Record 42 (1892): 477-478; Lyman, Chinese Americans, 89, 152-153; Sung, Mountain of Gold, 85-89; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population: Asians and Pacific Islanders in the United States (1993), 6.
20. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ'. 69-70; Tsai, Chinese Experience, 38.
21. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ', 24.
22. Tsai, Chinese Experience, 10, 38-39; Mei, "Socioeconomic Origins," 238; Lyman, Chinese Americans, 96-97; Ramon D. Chacon, "The Beginning of Racial Segregation: The Chinese in West Fresno and Chinatown's Role as Red Light District, 1870s-1920s," Southern California Quarterly 70 (1988): 382-384.
23. Cheng, "Chinese Prostitutes," 411.
24. Marlon K. Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain: Cantonese Rhymes from San Francisco Chinatown (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1987), 294.
25. David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: Opiate Addiction in America before 1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1982), 9-34, 65-70; Tsai, Chinese Experience, 39-40.
26. David Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts Who Survived: An Oral History of Narcotic Use in America, 1923-1965 (Knoxville: U. of Tennessee Press, 1989), 83.
27. Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years of Work for Him (Chicago, 1900), 60; Hawaii, Legislature, Special Commission on Opium, Report (Honolulu, 1892), 6-11; Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain, 302; Lawrence M. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870-1910 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1981), 300, 303.
28. Friedman and Percival, Roots of Justice, 89-91, 106-107; Lyle A. Dale, "Rough Justice: Criminal Justice in San Luis Obispo County, California, 1880-1910" (Master's thesis, California State U., Fullerton, 1990), 49-52; Charles A. Tracy, "Race, Crime and Social Policy: The Chinese in Oregon, 1871-1885," Crime and Social Justice 11 (Winter 1980): 21.
29. "Negro education not a source of crime" (TS, probably 1904), 3, container 38, Willcox Papers, LC; Lyman, Chinese Americans, ch. 5. Newspaper headlines: Rocky Mountain News, 17 Oct. 1875, 4; New York Tribune, 19 June 1881, 7; Yung, Chinese Women, 19.
30. Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874-1939 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1990), 16; Frederick J. Masters, "Opium and Its Votaries," California Illustrated Magazine 1 (1892): 641; Dale, "Rough Justice," 50; Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (rpt. New York: Hill and Wang, 1957), 76.
31. Kiichi Kanzaki, California and the Japanese (rpt. San Francisco: R & E Research Associates, 1971), 8-9; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Chinese and Japanese in the United States, 1910 (1914), 26.
32. Yuji Ichioka, "Amerika Nadeshiko: Japanese Immigrant Women in the United States, 1900-1924," PacHR49 (1980): 339-357; idem, TheIssei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 51-56, 71-72, 244; Azusa Tsuneyoshi, "Meiji Pioneers: The Early Japanese Immigrants to the American Far West and Southwest, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss.. Northern Arizona U., 1989), 30.
33. Paul S. Taylor, "Crime and the Foreign Born: San Francisco," in National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on Crime and the Foreign Born (1931), 352-354, 385-389.
34. Condit, Chinaman as We See Him, 60; H. H. Kane, Opium Smoking in America and China (New York, 1882), 13. Used strictly the word "tong" refers to any Chinese secret society, including those that served legal and benevolent purposes. By the late 1880s, however, the term had acquired strong criminal connotations and, for simplicity's sake, I use it in this sense.
35. Richard H. Dillon, The Hatchet Men: The Story of the Tong Wars in San Francisco's Chinatown (New York: Coward-McCann, 1962), ch. 3; Roger D. McGrath, Gunfighters, Highwaymen, and Vigilantes: Violence on the Frontier (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1984), 133; Cheng, "Chinese Prostitutes," 416-418; Barth, Bitter Strength. 103.
36. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ', 92, 82.
37. Tsai, "Chinese Experience," 53-54; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare Among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1972), 96-97 and fig. 13.
38. June Mei, "Socioeconomic Developments among the Chinese in San Francisco, 1848-1906," in Labor Immigration under Capitalism, ed. Cheng and Bonacich, 383; Chen, Chinese in America, 184-185.
39. C. N. Reynolds, "The Chinese Tongs," AJS 40 (1935): 622; Lyman, Chinese Americans, 105; Nee and Nee, Longtime Califom', 80-81.
40. Julia Cherry Spruill, Women's Life and Work in the Southern Colonies (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1938), 15-19.
41. Perceval, letter of 4 May 1769 to James Grant, quoted in Daniel L. Schafer, "Yellow Silk Ferret Tied round Their Wrists': African Americans in British East Florida, 1763-1784," in The Black Heritage of Florida, ed. David R. Colburn and Jane L. Landers (Gainesville: U. Press of Florida, 1995), 90; Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Vintage, 1977), 79; Advice among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South, ed. James O. Breeden (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 239-245.
9. The Floating Army
1. E.g., Patricia Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987), 17-32.
2. Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton, Population Trends in the United States (rpt. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1969), 173.
3. Bruce Catton, The Civil War (New York: American Heritage Press, 1971), 1-2, 149-152; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1988), 608.
4. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, pt. 2 (1975), 728, 731; Sam H. Schurr and Bruce C. Netschert, Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1960), 511-512.
5. Eric H. Monkkonen, "Introduction," in Walking to Work: Tramps in America, 1790-1935, ed. Monkkonen (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1984), 8, 16n8; John C. Schneider, "Tramping Workers, 1890-1920: A Subcultural View," ibid., 213-215; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus, Ohio, 1860-1885 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1975), 160. Many migrant workers preferred to describe themselves as hobos, "tramps" referring more specifically and derogatorily to wandering men who shunned work and supported themselves by begging or stealing. But this distinction was ignored or blurred by those outside (and sometimes inside) the subculture, who often used "tramps" as a general descriptive term.
6. "Chicago: Hobo Capital of America," Survey 50 (1923): 287-290, 303305; Schneider, "Tramping Workers," 223-225; Roger Bruns, Knights of the Road: A Hobo History (New York: Methuen, 1980), ch. 7.
7. Eric H. Monkkonen, "Regional Dimensions of Tramping, North and South, 1880-1910," in Walking to Work, 189-211; Josiah Flynt [Willard], Tramping with Tramps: Studies and Sketches of Vagabond Life (rpt. College Park, Md.: McGrath, 1969), 110 (quotation); Jeffrey A. Drobney, "Where Palm and Pine Are Blowing: Convict Labor in the North Florida Turpentine Industry," Florida Historical Quarterly 72 (1994): 420-421, 428-429 (death rates).
8. Edward L. Ayers, The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1992), 151-159.
9. John C. Schneider, "Omaha Vagrants and the Character of Western Hobo Labor, 1887-1913," Nebraska History 63 (1982): 262-264; idem, "Tramping Workers," 213-217; Priscilla Ferguson Clement, "The Transformation of the Wandering Poor in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia," in Walking to Work, 64-65, 73; Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1986), 130-142.
10. Schneider, "Tramping Workers," 212-213, 226-229; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 9.
11. Arrowsmith (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1925), 97.
12. [John James McCook,] "Tramp," New International Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 22 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1922), 413; Nels Anderson, The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man (rpt. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1961), 66; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 26-60, 91; Gregory R. Woirol, In the Floating Army. F. C. Mills on Itinerant Life in California, 1914 (Urbana: U. of Illinois Press, 1992), 101.
13. "The Shanty Boy," or Life in a Lumber Camp (rpt. Berrien Springs, Mich.: Hardscrabble Books, 1979), 102-103; Harold M. Hyman, Soldiers and Spruce: Origins of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen (Los Angeles: Institute of Industrial Relations, 1963), 109.
14. Frank A. Crampton, Deep Enough: A Working Stiff in the Western Mine Camps (Denver: Sage Books, 1956), 101-117; Rodman W. Paul, The Far West and the Great Plains in Transition (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 278-281.
15. Martin Cherniack, The Hawk's Nest Incident: America's Worst Industrial Disaster (New Haven: Yale U. Press, 1986).
16. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 84-85, reports 3,410 adult deaths for 1906-1913. According to U.S. Bureau of the Census, Chinese and Japanese in the United States, 1910 (1914), 26, there were 37,822 adult Japanese in California in 1910. The estimated annual adult death rate is thus 3,410 divided by 37,822 divided by 8 times 1,000 equals 11.3. National mortality figures: Historical Statistics of the United States, pt. 1, 61.
17. Ichioka, Issei, 84-85; I. E. Cohn, "The Chinese and Their Peculiar Medical Ideas," Medical Record 42 (1892): 477-478; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 165; Crampton, Deep Enough, 220-222; Richard A. Bartlett, The New Country: A Social History of the American Frontier, 1776-1890 (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1974), 348; Robert H. Coombs, "Marital Status and Personal Weil-Being: A Literature Review," Family Relations 40 (Jan. 1991): 97-98.
18. Bruns, Knights of the Road, 46-47.
19. "Chicago: Hobo Capital," 303; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 49, 84-85; Kenneth Allsop, Hard Travelling The Hobo and His History (rpt. New York: New American Library, 1970), 141.
20. [Willard], Tramping with Tramps, 291-314; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 42-45; Monkkonen, "Introduction," Walking to Work, 9-10.
21. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives (rpt. New York: Hill and Wang, 1957), 59; Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1981), 86-109; idem, "The Organized Response to Crime in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century America," J. of Interdisciplinary History 14 (1983): 127-128.
22. Lyle A. Dale, "Rough Justice: Criminal Justice in San Luis Obispo County, California, 1880-1910" (Master's thesis, California State U., Fullerton, 1990), 59-62, 78-79, 128.
23. Woirol, Floating Army, ch. 4; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 133-134; Bruce Siberts with Walker D. Wyman, Nothing but Prairie and Sky: Life on the Dakota Range in the Early Days (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1954), 130-131.
24. Paul T. Ringenbach, Tramps and Reformers, 1873-1916: The Discovery of Unemployment in New York (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 43—45; Carlos A. Schwantes, Coxey's Army: An American Odyssey (Lincoln: U. of Nebraska Press, 1985).
25. Bill Haywood's Book: The Autobiography of William D. Haywood (New York: International Publishers, 1929); Allsop, Hard Travelling 304; Bruns, Knights of the Road, 145-161; Woirol, Floating Army, ch. 7; John S. Gambs, The Decline of the I.W.W. (New York: Columbia U. Press, 1932), 165-166.
26. Joseph Robert Conlin, Bread and Roses Too: Studies of the Wobblies (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1969), 111; Rebel Voices: An I.W.W. Anthology, ed. Joyce L. Kornbluh (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press, 1964), ch. 2.
27. Michael Lesy, Wisconsin Death Trip (New York: Random House, 1973), entries for 21 Sept. 1893, 4 June 1894, and 25 Feb. 1897; Woirol, Floating Army, 103, 113.
28. Waldo L. Cook, "Murders in Massachusetts," Journal of the American Statistical Association 3 (1893): 373; Larry V. Bishop and Robert A. Harvie, "Major Crime in Three Rural Counties of Montana, 18951915," J. of Police Science and Administration 10 (1982): 84, 86, 90-91; Workin' on the Railroad: Reminiscences from the Age of Steam, ed. Richard Reinhardt (Palo Alto: American West Publishing Company, 1970), 74; Siberts, Nothing but Prairie and Sky, 140.
29. Lawrence R. Friedman and Robert V. Percival, The Roots of Justice: Crime and Punishment in Alameda County, California, 1870-1910 (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina, 1981), 317; [Willard], Tramping with Tramps, 100.
30. Bruns, Knights of the Road, 32, 200, 202-203; Rebel Voices, ed. Kornbluh, 86.
31. Monkkonen, "Afterword," in Walking to Work, 239; Stephan Thernstrom and Peter Knights, "Men in Motion: Some Data and Speculations about Urban Population Mobility," in Anonymous Americans: Explorations in Nineteenth-Century Social History (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), 17-47, esp. 39.
32. We Pointed Them North: Recollections of a Cowpuncher (New York: Farrar andRinehart, 1939), 223.
33. Anderson, The Hobo, ch. 10; John Paul McKinsey, "Transient Men in Missouri" (Ph.D. diss.. University of Missouri, 1940), 156-159; Allsop, Hard Travelling ch. 18; Edwin H. Sutherland and Harvey J. Locke, Twenty Thousand Homeless Men: A Study of Unemployed Men in the Chicago Shelters (rpt. New York: Arno Press, 1971), 128-132.
34. Letter from William Aspinwall quoted in John James McCook, "Leaves from the Diary of a Tramp, VIII," Independent 54 (1902): 874.
35. "How I Became a Socialist," in Jack London: Novels and Social Writings (New York: Library of America, 1982), 1117-1120; Bruns, Knights of theRoad, 16; Journal of F. M. Hutchinson (MS, 1871-1873), 15, WAC, Beinecke.
36. Hutchinson journal.
37. Siberts, Nothing but Prairie and Sky, 9-45, 206-207.
38. Peter Way, "Evil Humors and Ardent Spirits: The Rough Culture of Canal Construction Laborers," JAM 79 (1993): 1407-1413; Lawrence J. McCaffrey, Textures of Irish America (Syracuse: Syracuse U. Press, 1992), 30; Mike Royko, Boss: Richard J. Daley of Chicago (New York: Dutton, 1971), 27.
39. Ted Robert Gurr, "Historical Trends in Violent Crime," and Roger Lane, "On the Social Meaning of Homicide Trends in America," in Violence in America, vol. 1: The History of Crime, ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage, 1989), 21-54, 55-79.
40. Aspinwall's letters: SRP, roll 12.
41. John J. McCook, "The Tramp Problem," Lend a Hand 15 (1895): 171-172.
42. SRP, roll 12, frame 871; McCook, "Leaves from the Diary of a Tramp, IX," Independent 54 (1902): 1542.
43. [John J. McCook,] Report of the Special Committee on Outdoor Alms of the Town of Hartford A.D. 1891 (Hartford), xlv-xlvi; David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 67-68; McCook, The Drink Business: What It Is; What It Does; What to Do with It (Hartford, 1895), 2. Eric Monkkonen, "Regional Dimensions," in Walking to Work, 193, doubts McCook's findings. He believes the information about intemperance was "the ideology of the person making the record. The hurried notations of busy police desk clerks answering McCook's queries reflect in no way an informed evaluation." This is too sweeping a dismissal. The forms were structured in such a way that the person filling them out had to ask detailed questions of the tramps themselves. There are, moreover, vignettes and quotations that unmistakably come from the subjects, e.g., "drinking man— 'would have a dollar in pocket but for this" (SRP, roll 2, frames 104, 290, 295). While bias may have inflated the percentage, binge drinking was undoubtedly widespread among tramps.
44. McCook, "Tramp Problem," 169-170.
45. Quoted in Bruns, Knights of the Road, 141.
46. Anderson, The Hobo, 67.
47. Jeremy W. Kilar, "Great Lakes Lumber Towns and Frontier Violence," Journal of Forest History 31 (1987): 73-77; Ramon D. Chacon, "The Beginning of Racial Segregation: The Chinese in West Fresno and Chinatown's Role as Red Light District, 1870s-1920s," Southern California Quarterly 70 (1988): 389-390.
48. Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (rpt. New York: Russell and Russell, 1970), 36-37; W. J. Rorabaugh, The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1979), 144; Way, "Evil Humors and Ardent Spirits," 1412-1413; Andrew F. Rolle, The Immigrant Upraised: Italian Adventurers and Colonists in an Expanding America (Norman: U. of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 154.
49. Haywood quoted in Page Smith, America Enters the World: A People's History of the Progressive Era and World War I (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985), 113. Dickson: Charles W. Collins and John Day, "Dope, the New Vice," Everyday Life, 4 (July 1909): 5.
50. Quoted in Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (New York: Norton, 1976), 4.
51. James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 19001920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1966), chs. 2-4; Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1978), ch. 13; John J. Rumbarger, Profits, Power, and Prohibition: Alcohol Reform and the Industrializing of America, 1800-1930 (Albany: State U. of New York Press, 1989).
52. Richard Erdoes, Saloons of the Old West (New York: Knopf, 1979), 60, 82; John C. Burnham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History (New York: New York U. Press, 1993), 57; Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 193; Anderson, The Hobo, 27.
53. Burnham, Bad Habits, 28; Mark Edward Lender and James Kirby Martin, Drinking in America: A History (New York: Free Press, 1982), 136-139.
54. Anderson, The Hobo, 135.
55. McKinsey, "Transient Men in Missouri," 160.
56. The Hobo, xxi.
57. James F. Rooney, "Societal Forces and the Unattached Male," in Disaffiliated Man: Essays and Bibliography on Skid Row, Vagrancy, and Outsiders, ed. Howard M. Bahr (Toronto: U. of Toronto Press, 1970), 18-21; Schneider, "Omaha Vagrants," 269-270; Carlos A. Schwantes, "The Concept of the Wageworkers' Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly 18 (1987): 44, 54.
58. Thomas Minehan, Boy and Girl Tramps of America (rpt. Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 1976), xiv-xv; McKinsey, "Transient Men in Missouri," 43.
59. Walter J. Stein, California and the Dust Bowl Migration (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 44, 50, 55.
60. Samuel E. Wallace, Skid Row as a Way of Life (Totowa, N.J.: Bedminster Press, 1965), 22-25; James P. Spradley, You Owe Yourself a Drunk: An Ethnography of Urban Nomads (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 120-121, 179, 254, 258.
61. "The Prejudice against Men," Nation 253 (8 July 1991): 46.
10. Marriage Boom, Urban Bust
1. Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton, Population Trends in the United States (rpt. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1969), 172-175; Donald J. Bogue et al., The Population of the United States: Historical Trends and Future Prospects, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1985), 349.
2. Rowe, letter of 8 March 1918, Letters from a World War I Aviator, ed. Genevieve Bailey Rowe and Diana Rowe Doran (Boston: Sinclaire Press, 1986), 59; Thompson and Whelpton, Population Trends in the United States, 174-175.
3. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 18601925 (New York: Atheneum, 1975).
4. Marion F. Houstoun, Roger G. Kramer, and Joan Macklin Barrett, "Female Predominance in Immigration in the United States Since 1930: A First Look," International Migration Review 18 (1984): 908-963.
5. "Another Stereotype Upset," NYT, 15 Sept. 1985, 4E.
6. Robert V. Wells, Revolutions in Americans' Lives: A Demographic Perspective on the History of Americans, Their Families, and Their Societies (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 221.
7. Bogue et al.. Population of the United States, 42, 234; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1995 (1995), 14.
8. Bogue et al.. Population of the United States, 150; Deborah L. Wingard, "The Sex Differential in Morbidity, Mortality, and Lifestyle," Annual Review of Public Health 5 (1984): 453.
9. Willard Waller, The Veteran Comes Back (New York: Dryden Press, 1944), 138; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988), 153-154.
10. Bogue et al.. Population of the United States, 166.
11. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, pt. 1 (1975), 224; Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, 152; John Patrick Diggins, The Proud Decades: America in War and in Peace, 1941-1960 (New York: Norton, 1988), 180; John Hajnal, "The Marriage Boom," Population Index 19 (1953): 85.
12. Bogue et al., Population of the United States, 147; Sidonie M. Gruenberg, "Why They Are Marrying Younger," New York Times Magazine, 30 Jan. 1955, 38.
13. Keith W. Olson, The G.I. Bill, the Veterans, and the Colleges (Lexington: U. Press of Kentucky, 1974), 25 (quotation), 33-34, 44; "GI Bill Saluted on 50th Birthday," Florida Times-Union, 23 June 1994, Al, A8.
14. Olson, G. Bill, 75-76.
15. Mintz and Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions, 180; Douglas T. Miller and Marion Nowak, The Fifties: The Way We Really Were (New York: Doubleday, 1977), ch. 6; J. Ronald Oakley, God's Country: America in the Fifties (New York: Dembner Books, 1986), 118, 293-294; Brett Harvey, The Fifties: A Women's Oral History (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 68-70.
16. Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 25-26, 183.
17. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1985), 232. Wanted-to-rent, e.g., Florida Times-Union, 9 Dec. 1945, 26; 16 Dec. 1945, 26.
18. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 236; Oakley, God's Country, 112; David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard Books, 1993), ch. 9.
19. Quoted in Studs Terkel, The Good War: An Oral History of World War Two (New York: Ballantine Books, 1984), 134.
20. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 248-249; Mark H. Rose, Interstate: Express Highway Politics, 1939-1989, rev. ed. (Knoxville: U. of Tennessee Press, 1990), 1-2, 92-93.
21. Terkel, Good War. 139.
22. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 290; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991), 70; Wells, Revolutions, 220.
23. Rates are also available for accidental deaths not involving motor vehicles, but the data for the past thirty to forty years are falsely low because of changes in federal classification and hence are not used here. See Paul C. Holinger, Violent Deaths in the United States: An Epidemiologic Study of Suicide, Homicide, and Accidents (New York: Guilford Press, 1987), 102.
24. "Wilson Blames Speeders," New York Times, 28 Feb. 1906, 3. Problems with pre-1933 data: H. C. Brearley, Homicide in the United States (Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1932), 15-18; Roger Lane, "On the Social Meaning of Homicide Trends in America," in Violence in America, vol. 1: The History of Crime, ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage, 1989), 64-74. Other articles in this anthology, Gurr's "Historical Trends in Violent Crime," 37-41, and Neil Alan Weinerand Margaret A. Zahn, "Violent Arrests in the City," esp. 113, are also germane. Highway safety: Bob Minzesheimer, "National Speed Limits Losing Some Steam," USA Today, 11 May 1995, 3A. Emergency medical services: David Simon, Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 161; William G. Doerner and John C. Speir, "Stitch and Sew: The Impact of Medical Resources on Criminally Induced Lethality," Criminology 24 (1986): 319-330.
25. Holinger, Violent Deaths in the United States; William Wilbanks, Murder in Miami (Lanham, Md.: U. Press of America, 1984), 11-12.
26. William L. O'Neill, A Democracy at War: America's Fight at Home and Abroad in World War II (New York: Free Press, 1993), 250.
27. E. B. Sledge, With the Old Breed at Peleliu and Okinawa (rpt. Novato, Cal.: Presidio Press, 1981); John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986); William H. Sullivan, Obbligato, 1939-1979: Notes on a Foreign Service Career (New York: Norton, 1984), 70.
28. Winthrop S. Hudson, Religion in America (New York: Scribner, 1965), 396; William Martin, A Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 106; James Hudnut-Beumler, Looking for God in the Suburbs: The Religion of the American Dream and Its Critics, 1945-1965 (New Brunswick: Rutgers U. Press, 1994), ch. 2; Blanshard, American Freedom and Catholic Power, 2nd rev. and enl. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958), viii.
29. Wade Clark Roof and William McKinney, American Mainline Religion (New Brunswick: Rutgers U. Press, 1987), ch. 1; Hazel Gaudet Erskine, "The Polls: Church Attendance," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (1964): 676, 679; Jackson W. Carroll et al., Religion in America: 1950 to the Present (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 20-21.
30. Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press, 1986), 171-172.
31. Bogueetal., Population of the United States, 14; Marvin Wolfgang, Youth and Violence (Washington: G.P.O., 1970), 35-39; Landon Y. Jones, Great Expectations: America and the Baby Boom Generation (New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1980), ch. 11.
32. Samuel H. Preston and Alan Thomas Richards, "The Influence of Women's Work Opportunities on Marriage Rates," Demography 12 (1975): 209-222; David M. Heer and Amyra Grossbard-Shectman, "The Impact of the Female Marriage Squeeze and the Contraceptive Revolution on Sex Roles and the Women's Liberation Movement in the United States, 1960 to 1975," JA1F43 (1981): 54.
33. Susan Cotts Watkins, Jane A. Menken, and John Bongaarts, "Demographic Foundations of Family Change," ASR 52 (1987): 354; Popenoe, "Cultural Changes and the Family," paper prepared for the Children's Roundtable Retreat, Boca Raton, Florida, 11-14 Feb. 1994, 10.
34. Mark Edward Lender and James Kirby Martin, Drinking in America: A History (New York: Free Press, 1982), 197; Philip J. Cook and Michael J. Moore, "Economic Perspectives on Reducing Alcohol-Related Violence," in Alcohol and Interpersonal Violence, ed. Susan E. Martin (Rockville, Md.: National Institutes of Health, 1993), 193-212; David F. Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, exp. ed. (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1987), ch. 12.
35. Holinger, Violent Deaths in the United States, 210.
36. Keith D. Harries, The Geography of Crime and Justice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 62.
37. Lemann, Promised Land, 41.
38. Robert W. Pearson, "Economy, Culture, Public Policy, and the Urban Underclass," Items 43 (June 1989): 25-27; Roger Lane, "Black Philadelphia, Then and Now," Public Interest, no. 108 (Summer 1992): 50-51.
39. John Koren, Economic Aspects of the Liquor Problem (Boston, 1899), ch. 6; Muriel W. Sterne, "Drinking Patterns and Alcoholism among American Negroes," in Alcoholism, ed. David J. Pittman (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 66-99; "State Reports to NIAA Show Alcoholism Rate in the U.S. at 9.3 Million," Report on Alcoholism 33 (1975): 8-9; David Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts Who Survived: An Oral History of Narcotic Use in America, 1923-1965 (Knoxville: U. of Tennessee Press, 1989), 14-19.
40. Lewis Yablonsky, The Violent Gang (rpt. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967), 18-19.
41. Courtwright, Joseph, and Des Jarlais, Addicts Who Survived, 313.
42. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1987); Loi'c J. D. Wacquant and William Julius Wilson, "The Cost of Racial and Class Exclusion in the Inner City," AAAPSS 501 (1989): 8-25; Elijah Anderson, "The Story of John Turner," Public Interest, no. 108 (Summer 1992): 23 (quotation), 31-34.
43. Courtwright, Joseph, and Des Jarlais, Addicts Who Survived, 254.
44. Norman B. Rushforth et al., "Violent Death in a Metropolitan County: Changing Patterns in Homicide (1958-74)," NEJM 297 (1977): 531; Kurt Gorwitz and Ruth Dennis, "On the Decrease in the Life Expectancy of Black Males in Michigan," PHR 91 (1976): 145; "Homicide among Black Males," PHR 95 (1980): 549.
44. Colin McCord and Harold P. Freeman, "Excess Mortality in Harlem," NEJM 322 (1990): 174, 176; Donna M. Shai, "Mortality Associated with Drug Misuse among Blacks in New York City, 1979-1981," UA 27 (1992): 1433-1443.
46. Wolfgang, Patterns in Criminal Homicide (Philadelphia: U. of Pennsylvania Press, 1958), 365; Ralph Blumenthal, "Life and Death in a New York Homicide Precinct," NYT, nat. ed,, 16 April 1990, Al, A16.
47. "Night as Frontier," ASR 43 (1978): 6.
48. Melbin, "Night as Frontier," 7-8, 10-12; idem, Night as Frontier (New York: Free Press, 1987), 33-35.
49. Accident Facts, 1983 Edition (Chicago: National Safety Council, 1983), 50; William L. Carlson, "Age, Exposure, and Alcohol Involvement in Night Crashes," Journal of Safety Research 5 (1973): 252, 257; H. M. Simpson, D. R. Mayhew, and R. A. Warren, "Epidemiology of Road Accidents Involving Young Adults: Alcohol, Drugs and Other Factors," Drug and Alcohol Dependence 10 (1982): 47; Jacksonville, Fl., Office of the Sheriff, "Report of Offense Type by Hour of Day, 1992," data furnished by Chuck Alsobrook.
50. James A. Inciardi and Juliet L. Dee, "From the Keystone Cops to Miami Vice: Images of Policing in American Popular Culture," J. of Popular Culture 21 (1987): 88.
51. "The '50s," Newsweek 123 (3 Jan. 1994): 36.
11. Ghetto Violence
1. Morton Owen Schapiro and Dennis A. Ahlburg, "Why Crime Is Down," American Demographics 8 (1986): 56-57.
2. Thomas Byrne Edsall, "Black vs. White in Chicago," NYRB 36 (13 April 1989): 22.
3. U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 1993 (Hyattsville, Md.: Public Health Service, 1994), 130; U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, "Fighting Crime in America: An Agenda for the 1990's" (Washington, D.C.: majority staff report, 12 March 1991), 1-12; Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993), 304; Peter Renter, Mathea Falco, and Robert MacCoun, Comparing Western European and North American Drug Policies: An International Conference Report (Santa Monica: RAND Drug Policy Research Center, 1993), 6.
4. "Homicide," Newsweek 124 (15 Aug. 1994): 22-23; F. Landis MacKellar and Machiko Yanagishita, "Homicide in the United States," Population Trends and Public Policy, no. 21 (Feb. 1995): 4-19.
5. Kenneth Tardiff et al., "Homicide in New York City," JAMA 272 (I 994): 44; Jeffrey A. Roth, "Firearms and Violence," National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief (Feb. 1994): 1.
6. "Homicide," 23; MacKellar and Yanagishita, "Homicide in the United States," 4.
7. David Simon, Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1991).
8. Marc Mauer and Tracy Huling, Young Black Americans and the Criminal Justice System (Washington: The Sentencing Project, 1995); David J. Rothman, "The Crime of Punishment, "NYRB 41 (17 Feb. 1994): 34-35.
9. William A. Darity Jr. and Samuel L. Myers Jr., "Does Welfare Dependency Cause Female Hardship? The Case of the Black Family," and Frances E. Kobrin and Linda J. Waite, "Effects of Childhood Family Structure on the Transition to Marriage," both in JMF 46 (1984): 775-776 and 807-816; David W. Murray, "Poor Suffering Bastards," Policy Review, no. 68 (Spring 1994): 9-15; James Q. Wilson, "Culture, Incentives, and the Underclass," in Values and Public Policy, ed. Henry J. Aaron, Thomas E. Mann, and Timothy Taylor (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1994), 62-63.
10. M. Belinda Tucker and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Trends in African American Family Formation: A Theoretical and Statistical Overview," in The Decline in Marriage among African Americans, ed. idem (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 3-26; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (1993), 53.
11. U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Planning and Research, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (1965), 59; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 78; Stacy Furukawa, The Diverse Living Arrangements of Children: Summer 1991, Current Population Reports P70-38 (1994), 3.
12. Moynihan, "How the Great Society 'Destroyed the American Family," Public Interest (Summer 1992): 56-57; The Negro Family, 13, 93.
13. Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1967); Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991), 172-177; Michael Katz, The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 25-29, 44-50.
14. Kim A. Winpisinger et al., "Risk Factors for Childhood Homicides in Ohio," AJPH 81 (1991): 1052-1054. Steven F. Messner, "Regional and Racial Effects on the Urban Homicide Rate," AJS 88 (1983): 1001, also reports a strong correlation (+.71) between the percentages of oneparent children and homicide rates for 204 SMSAs.
15. Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 212.
16. Katz, Undeserving Poor, 153; George James, "Job Is Picking Up Garbage: 100,000 New Yorkers Want It," NYT, nat. ed., 21 Sept. 1990, A14.
17. Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Random House, 1984), 238-239; Paul A. Jargowsky and Mary Jo Bane, "Ghetto Poverty in the United States, 1970-1980," in The Urban Underclass, ed. Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1991), 246247.
18. Lewis, "The Culture of Poverty," Scientific American 215 (Oct. 1966): 19-25; Katz, Undeserving Poor, ch. I.
19. Richard J. Herrnstein, IQ in the Meritocracy (Boston: Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1973); James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985); R. J. Herrnstein, "Still an American Dilemma," Public Interest 98 (1990): 3-17; Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles J. Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994).
20. Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1991).
21. Moynihan, Negro Family, 36.
22. "Neighborhood Effects on Teenage Pregnancy," in The Urban Underclass, ed. Jencks and Peterson, 383. See also Anderson's "Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-City Youths," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 501 (1989): 59-78; "The Story of John Turner," Public Interest, no. 108 (Summer 1992): 3-34; and "The Code of the Streets," Atlantic Monthly 273 (May 1994): 81-94.
23. Tales Out of School, ed. Dan Morgan (New York: Elisabeth Sifton/Penguin Books, 1988), 51-52.
24. Greg Donaldson, The Ville: Cops and Kids in Urban America (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1993), 26-27.
25. Carl S. Taylor, Dangerous Society (East Lansing: Michigan State U. Press, 1989), 60; Terry Williams and William Kornblum, The Uptown Kids (New York: Putnam, 1994), 129, 134.
26. William Finnegan, "Out There, I" New Yorker 66 (10 Sept. 1990): 66, 84, and "Out There, II" (17 Sept. 1990): 73, 84.
27. Sanyika Shakur, Monster: The Autobiography of an LA. Gang Member (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1993), 102.
28. Taylor, Dangerous Society, 56; Anderson, "Code of the Streets," 94; Terry Williams, The Cocaine Kids: The Inside Story of a Teenage Drug Ring (New York: Addison Wesley, 1989), 81.
29. Makes Me Wanna Holler: A Young Black Man in America (New York: Random House, 1994), 114-118.
30. Anderson, "Code of the Streets."
31. Steve Patterson, "The Lure of Gangs," Florida Times-Union, 8 May 1994, A6; Donaldson, The Ville, 27.
32. Leon Bing, Do or Die (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 49.
33. David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1989), 756, 768; Bing, Do or Die, 152-153. Interestingly, no one can remember the name of the girl over whom the dispute began; this particular Helen has been lost to history. Episodes of the war, which featured kidnapping, rape, and mutilation as well as murder, are described in Shakur, Monster.
34. Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: District Attorney's Office, 1992).
35. Shakur, Monster, 138; Patterson, "Lure of Gangs," A6; Bing, Do or Die, 214.
36. Willard W. Waller, On the Family, Education, and War: Selected Writings, ed. William J. Goode, Frank F. Furstenberg Jr., and Larry R. Mitchell (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1970), 177-178, 197-198.
37. Too Many Women? The Sex Ratio Question (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983), ch. 1.
38. John W. Briggs, "Fertility and Cultural Change among Families in Italy and America," AHR 91 (1986): 1142-1143.
39. Scott J. South and Katherine Trent, "Sex Ratios and Women's Roles: A Cross-National Analysis," AJS 94 (1988): 1096-1115.
40. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1994, 20.
41. Douglas J. Besharov and Timothy S. Sullivan, "One Flesh: America Is Experiencing an Unprecedented Increase in Black-White Intermarriage," New Democrat 8 (July/Aug. 1996): 19-21.
42. Panel on High-Risk Youth, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, Losing Generations: Adolescents in High-Risk Settings (Washington: National Academy Press, 1993), 34; McCall, Makes Me Wanna Holler, 271.
43. Graham B. Spanier and Paul C. Click, "Mate Selection Differentials between Whites and Blacks in the United States," Social Forces 58 (1980): 707-725; Guttentag and Secord, Too Many Women? 227-229; The Decline in Marriage among African Americans, ed. Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, chs. 5, 6, and 11.
44. Messner and Sampson, "The Sex Ratio, Family Disruption, and Rates of Violent Crime: The Paradox of Demographic Structure," Social Forces 69 (1991): 693-713.
45. Alex Kotlowitz, There Are No Children Here: The Story of Two Boys Growing Up in the Other America (New York: Doubleday, 1991), 10; Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, "Young Black Males in America: Endangered, Embittered, and Embattled," in Young, Black, and Male in America: An Endangered Species, ed. idem (Dover, Mass.: Auburn House, 1988), 4; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 23.
46. Robert Tillman, "The Size of the 'Criminal Population': The Prevalence and Incidence of Adult Arrest," Criminology 25 (1987): 567-569; Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York: Ballantine, 1992), ch. 11; Christopher Lasch, The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy (New York: Norton, 1995); Marvin Wolfgang, "Real and Perceived Changes of Crime and Punishment," Daedalus 107 (Winter 1994): 146.
47. "Hanging Out," NYRB 42 (25 May 1995), 36.
48. Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles, 19-20; Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African-American Slang, ed. Clarence Major (New York: Penguin, 1994).
49. And only if poorly socialized inner-city men actually took the jobs and kept at them. There is skepticism on this point, e.g., Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, A General Theory of Crime (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1990), 163-165.
12. The Crack Era
1. See John C. Burnham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History (New York: New York U. Press, 1993), ch. 7.
2. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon, 1976); Christopher Jencks, "Deadly Neighborhoods," New Republic 198 (13 June 1988): 28-30.
3. William Finnegan, "Out There, II," New Yorker 66 (17 Sept. 1990): 74.
4. Brown, Die, Nigger, Die (New York: Dial Press, 1969), 18-19; Morris Janowitz, "Patterns of Collective Racial Violence," in The History of Violence in America, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr (New York: Bantam, 1969), 412-444.
5. Peter Plagen et al., "Violence in Our Culture," Newsweek 117 (1 April 1991): 51; Richard Brunelli, "Study Measures Changes in Black Household TV Viewing," Mediaweek 3(15 April 1993): 4.
6. Steven F. Messner, "Television Violence and Violent Crime: An Aggregate Analysis," Social Problems 33 (1986): 230; James Patterson and Peter Kim, The Day America Told the Truth: What People Really Believe about Everything that Really Matters (New York: Prentice Hall, 1991), 123; Alexander Cockburn, "Rituals in the Dark," American Film 16 (Aug. 1991): 27.
7. Jerrold Ladd, Out of the Madness (New York: Warner Books, 1994), 114-115.
8. E.g., Deborah Prothrow-Stith with Michaele Weissman, Deadly Consequences: How Violence Is Destroying Our Teenage Population and a Plan to Begin Solving the Problem (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 36-38; Brandon Centerwall, "Television and Violence," JAMA 267 (1992): 3059-3063.
9. West, Race Matters (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993), 16-17, 29-30, 3637, 56.
10. Homework data: Sanford M. Dornbusch, personal communication, 12 Feb. 1990. See also Fox Butterfield, "Why Asians Are Going to the Head of the Class," NYT, 3 Aug. 1986, sec. 12, 18-23; John H. Bunzel, "Minority Faculty Hiring: Problems and Prospects," American Scholar 59 (Winter 1990): 51.
11. Jeff Cohen and Norman Solomon, "Crime Time," Folio Weekly, 23 Aug. 1994, 9. See also Catherine S. Manegold, "A Grim Wasteland on News at Six," NYT, 14 June 1992, metro sec., 41, 50; Michael Freeman, "Networks Doubled Crime Coverage in '93, Despite Flat Violence Levels in U.S. Society," Mediaweek 4 (14 March 1994): 4.
12. Garland Williams, New York District Supervisor of the Bureau of Narcotics, to Harry Anslinger, Commissioner of Narcotics, 9 Feb. 1940, U.S. Treasury Department File 0120-9, Drug Enforcement Administration, Washington; David T. Courtwright, "The Rise and Fall and Rise of Cocaine in the United States," in Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology, ed. Jordan Goodman, Paul E. Lovejoy, and Andrew Sherratt (London: Routledge, 1995), 206-228. Portions of the latter are incorporated into this chapter.
13. Gerald T. McLaughlin, "Cocaine: The History and Regulation of a Dangerous Drug," Cornell Law Review 58 (1973): 555-556.
14. Joseph L. Zentner, "Cocaine and the Criminal Sanction," J. of Drug Issues 7 (1977): 98; Scott E. Lukas, Amphetamines (New York: Chelsea House, 1985); Edward Brecher, Licit and Illicit Drugs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 267-305.
15. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987), ch. 8.
16. Thomas L. Dezelsky, Jack v. Toohey, and Robert Kush, "A Ten-Year Analysis of Non-Medical Drug Use Behavior at Five American Universities," J. of School Health 51 (1981): 52-53; Joseph Kennedy, Coca Exotica: The Illustrated Story of Cocaine (Rutherford, N.J., and New York: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press and Cornwall Books, 1985), 117122.
17. Guy Gugliotta and Jeff Leen, Kings of Cocaine: Inside the Medellin Cartel (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
18. Rensselaer W. Lee III, The White Labyrinth: Cocaine and Political Power (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1989), 100; Price and Purity of Cocaine (Washington: Office of National Drug Control Policy, 1992), 5-6.
19. Dan Waldorf, Craig Reinarman, and Sheigla Murphy, Cocaine Changes: The Experience of Using and Quitting (Philadelphia: Temple U. Press, 1991), 103-139; U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, Cocaine: A Major Drug Issue of the Seventies: Hearings, 96th Cong., 1st sess. (1980), 91, 120-121, 125; Gordon Witkin et al., "The Men Who Invented Crack," U.S. News and World Report 111 (19 Aug. 1991): 44-53; Douglas McDonnell, Jeanette Irwin, and Marsha Rosenbaum, "'Hop and Hubbas': A Tough New Mix," Contemporary Drug Problems 17 (1990): 147-151; Beatrice A. Rouse, "Trends in Cocaine Use in the General Population," in The Epidemiology of Cocaine Use and Abuse, ed. Susan Schober and Charles Schade, National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph 110 (Washington: G.P.O., 1991), 14.
20. Terry Williams, Crackhouse: Notes from the End of the Line (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992), 3, 8-10; Lewis Cole, Never Too Young to Die: The Death of Len Bias (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 150-151; Elliott Currie, Reckoning: Drugs, the Cities, and the American Future (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993).
21. Peter Reuter, Robert MacCoun, and Patrick Murphy, Money from Crime: A Study of the Economics of Drug Dealing in Washington, D.C. (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 1990), 56, 66; Carl S. Taylor, Dangerous Society (East Lansing: Michigan State U. Press, 1990), 45, 70; Philippe Bourgois, "In Search of Horatio Alger: Culture and Ideology in the Crack Economy," Contemporary Drug Problems 16 (1989): 619-649, and idem, "Growing Up," American Enterprise 2 (May/June 1991): 30-34.
22. A. James Giannini et al., "Cocaine-Associated Violence and Relationship to Route of Administration," J. of Substance Abuse Treatment 10 (1993): 67. See also Norman S. Miller, Mark S. Gold, and John C. Mahler, "Violent Behaviors Associated with Cocaine Use: Possible Pharmacological Mechanisms," IJA 26 (1991): 1077-1088.
23. Peter M. Marzuk et al., "Cocaine Use, Risk Taking, and Fatal Russian Roulette," JAMA 267 (1992): 2635-2637.
24. Kenneth Tardiff et al., "Homicide in New York City," JAMA 272 (1994): 43-46.
25. Terry M. Williams and William Kornblum, Growing Up Poor (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1985), 50, 127; Bruce D. Johnson et al., Taking Care of Business: The Economics of Crime by Heroin Abusers (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1985), 175; Paul J. Goldstein, "Drugs and Violence," in U.S. National Institute of Justice, Questions and Answers in Lethal and Non-Lethal Violence, ed. Carolyn Rebecca Block and Richard L. Block (1993), 11.
26. Reuter, MacCoun, and Murphy, Money from Crime, 96-98.
27. Witkin et al., "Men Who Invented Crack," 52-53; Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991), 336-337; Jerome H. Skolnick, Ricky Bluthenthal, and Theodore Correl, "Gang Organization and Migration," in Gangs: The Origins and Impact of Contemporary Youth Gangs in the United States, ed. Scott Cummings and Daniel J. Monti (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993): 203.
28. Leon Bing, Door Die (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 223-224 (quotation); Sanyika Shakur, Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1993), 25; Craig Wolff, "In New York, the Brazenness Of Illegal Gun Dealers Grows," NYT, nat. ed., 6 Nov. 1990, Al, B12.
29. Prothrow-Stith with Weissman, Deadly Consequences, 121; Joseph B. Treaster and Mary B. W. Tabor, "Teen-Age Gunslinging Is on Rise," NYT, nat. ed., 17 Feb. 1992, Al, A12.
30. "Homicide," Newsweek 124 (15 Aug. 1994): 25; Michael deCourcy Hinds, "Number of Killings Soars in Big Cities across U.S.," NYT, nat. ed., 18 July 1990, 10.
31. Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: District Attorney's Office, 1992), 86-88, 106-107; Prothrow-Stith with Weissman, Deadly Consequences, ch. 8.
32. Alfred Blumstein, "Youth Violence, Guns, and the Illicit-Drug Industry," Carnegie Mellon U., Heinz School of Public Policy and Management, working paper 94-29 (July 1994), 18; Treaster and Tabor, "Teen-Age Gunslinging," A12.
33. "1990 and the Promised Land," New York State Division of Substance Abuse Services Outlook (Jan./Feb. 1991), 21.
34. Isabel Wilkerson, "'Crack House' Fire: Justice or Vigilantism?" NIT, 22 Oct. 1988, 1, 6; Tucker Carlson, "Smoking Them Out," Policy Review, no. 71 (Winter 1995): 60, 61.
35. McDonnell, Irwin, and Rosenbaum, "Hop and Hubbas,'" 154; Taylor, Dangerous Society, 70-71.
36. Norman S. Miller and Mark S. Gold, "Criminal Activity and Crack Addiction," IJA 29 (1994): 1069-1078; Edward Walsh, "Image of Parks Tall Again: Draws Attention to Crime Plague," Buffalo News, 2 Sept. 1994, Al 3; Barbara Reynolds, "If Civil Rights Legend Rosa Parks Isn't Safe, Who Is?" USA Today, 2 Sept. 1994, 11A.
37. U.S. General Accounting Office, Drug Abuse: The Crack Cocaine Epidemic: Health Consequences and Treatment (1991), 17; Ladd, Out of the Madness, 116; McDonnell, Irwin, and Rosenbaum, "'Hop and Hubbas,'" 154; Gina Kolata, "New Picture of Who Will Get AIDS Is Dominated by Addicts," NYT, 28 Feb. 1995, C3.
38. Herman Joseph and Karla Damus, "Prenatal Cocaine/Crack Exposure in New York City," and Daniel R. Neuspiel and Sara C. Hamel, "Cocaine and Infant Behavior," in Cocaine/Crack Research Working Group Newsletter, no. 2 (Oct. 1991), 4-6, 14-25.
39. Mercel L. Sullivan, "Absent Fathers in the Inner City," AAAPSS 501 (1989): 54-56; Jerald G. Bachman, Patrick M. O'Malley, and Jerome Johnston, Youth in Transition, vol. 6: Adolescence to Adulthood—Change and Stability in the Lives of Young Men (Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, 1978), 195-197.
40. Patrick Biernacki, Pathways from Heroin Addiction: Recovery without Treatment (Philadelphia: Temple U. Press, 1986), 76-77.
41. George E. Peterson and Adele V. Harrell, "Introduction: Inner-City Isolation and Opportunity," in Drugs, Crime, and Social Isolation, ed. Harrell and Peterson (Washington: Urban Institute, 1992), 23.
42. Hamid, "Drugs and Patterns of Opportunity in the Inner City," in Drugs, Crime, and Social Isolation, ed. Harrell and Peterson, 238; Alan Burdick, "Looking for the High Life," The Sciences 31 (June 1991), 17.
43. Burdick, "Looking for the High Life," 15; Eric D. Wish, "U.S. Drug
Policy in the 1990s," IJA 25 (1990-1991): 377-409; Susan S. Everingham and C. Peter Rydell, Modeling the Demand for Cocaine (Santa Monica: RAND Drug Policy Research Center, 1994), ch. 7.
44. Sam Vincent Meddis, "Is the Drug War Racist?" U.S.A. Today, 23-25 July 1993, 26 July 1993, 27 July 1993. Racial disparity was also built into the sentencing provisions of the 1986 federal antidrug law. That statute specified a mandatory minimum sentence of ten years for a violation involving 50 grams of crack cocaine but required a full 5 kilograms—100 times the weight of crack—to warrant a comparable sentence for a powder cocaine violation. The U.S. Sentencing Commission concluded that the harmful effects of crack did not justify the 100-to-l ratio. Congress kept it anyway. Richard B. Conaboy et al., Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy (N.c.: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1995).
45. James Q. Wilson, "Culture, Incentives, and the Underclass," in Values and Public Policy, ed. Henry J. Aaron, Thomas E. Mann, and Timothy Taylor (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1994), 59-60; Larry Reibstein et al., "Back to the Chain Gang?" Newsweek 124 (17 Oct. 1994): 87.
46. Roberts quoted in Jack Anderson's column, "Sentence Reform Good Penal Policy, but Bad Politics," Florida Times-Union, 20 Aug. 1993, A13; Stuntz, "Crime Talk and Law Talk," Reviews in American History 23 (1995): 157.
47. Mark A. R. Kleiman and Kerry D. Smith, "State and Local Drug Enforcement: In Search of a Strategy," in Drugs and Crime, ed. Michael Tonry and James Q. Wilson, vol. 13 of Crime and Justice (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1990), 87; Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "Defining Deviancy Down," American Scholar 62 (Winter 1993): 28.
48. McGrath, "Treat Them to a Good Dose of Lead," Chronicles 18 (Jan. 1994): 18-19.
49. Benjamin Mark Cole, "Bank Deposits Getting High on Drug Money Flooding L.A.'s Underground Economy," Los Angeles Business Journal, 3 June 1991, 13.
50. Adam Walinsky, "The Crisis of Public Order," Atlantic Monthly 276 (July 1995): 46; Joe Lambe and Glenn E. Rice, "A Young Life Abruptly Ended, but Who Has Paid?" Kansas City Star, 28 May 1995, Al.
51. A. Alvarez, Night: Night Life, Night Language, Sleep, and Dreams (New York: Norton, 1995), 244.
52. Simon, Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1991).
53. Elijah Anderson, "The Code of the Streets," Atlantic Monthly 273 (May 1994): 94; Taylor, Dangerous Society, 71-72; Shakur, Monster, 163.
Conclusion: Life in the New Frontier Society
1. Buford, Among the Thugs (New York: Norton, 1992), 248-249.
2. Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. et al., "Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart," Science 250 (1990): 228.
3. Sanyika Shakur, Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1993), 36, 55; Cheryl W. Thompson, "HUD Chief, Aide Rough It on City's Poverty 'Frontier," Chicago Tribune 20 June 1993, sec. 2, 3; Lo'ic J. D. Wacquant and William Julius Wilson, "The Cost of Racial and Class Exclusion in the Inner City," AAAPSS 501 (1989): 15; Gordon Witkin et al., "The Men Who Invented Crack," U.S. News and World Report 111 (19 Aug. 1991): 52; Mary B. W. Tabor, "Brooklyn Youths Taking Drugs as Trade to Buffalo," NYT, nat. ed., 26 Feb. 1992, A1, B12.
4. Gangs, Crime and Violence in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: District Attorney's Office, 1992), 31-32; Leon Bing, Do or Die (New York: HarperCollins, 1991).
5. Roger D. McGrath, "Violence and Lawlessness on the Western Frontier," in Violence in America, vol. 1: The History of Crime, ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Newbury Park, Ca.: Sage, 1989), 140-141.
6. Dan Keating and Charles Strouse, "Living Dangerously: We're Capital of Crime," Miami Herald, 4 Dec. 1994, 1A, 22A.
7. Laurie Cassaday, "Man Guilty in 2 Slayings," Florida Times-Union, 10 March 1995, B1, B3.
8. Jacksonville Sheriff's Office, "Fourth Quarter 1994 SHO Summary" (Jan. 12, 1995). I am indebted to Gus Carlson for assistance in obtaining this document.
9. "Early 1995 Murder Rate Takes Dramatic Drop," Florida Times-Union, 18 Dec. 1995, A7; Jim Newton, "The NYPD: Bigger, Bolder—and Better?" Los Angeles Times, 24 Dec. 1995, A1, A18-19; Michael Massing, "Crime and Drugs: The New Myths," NYRB 43 (11 Feb. 1996): 16-20.
10. James Alan Fox and Glenn Pierce, "American Killers Are Getting Younger," USA Today (magazine) 122 (Jan. 1994): 24-26; Alfred Blumstein, "Youth Violence, Guns, and the Illicit-Drug Industry," Carnegie Mellon U., Heinz School of Public Policy and Management, working paper 94-29 (July 1994), 22-23; Adam Walinsky, "The Crisis of Public Order," Atlantic Monthly 276 (July 1995): 49, 52.
11. As pointed out in a paper by David Popenoe, "Cultural Changes and the Family" (1994), kindly furnished to me by the author.
12. The erosion of parental authority and the disruption of families by external market, bureaucratic, and professional forces is explored by Christopher Lasch in Haven in a Heartless World (New York: Basic Books, 1977); The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1979); The Minimal Self (New York: Norton, 1984); and The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy (New York: Norton, 1995).
13. Blankenhorn, Fatherless America: Confronting Our Most Urgent Social Problem (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 35, 32; David Popenoe, Life without Father (New York: Free Press, 1996), 52-53, 153-157; Gottfredson and Hirschi, A General Theory of Crime (Stanford: Stanford U. Press, 1990), 272-273.
14. Lykken, The Antisocial Personalities (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1995), chs. 14-15, quotation at 22.
15. Hubert Howe Bancroft, California Inter Pocula (San Francisco, 1888), 311; Gary G. Hamilton, "The Structural Sources of Adventurism: The Case of the California Gold Rush," AJS 83 (1978): 1469-1473.
16. U.S. Centers for Disease Control, "Physical Violence during the 12 Months Preceding Childbirth—Alaska, Maine, Oklahoma, and West Virginia, 1990-1991," MM WR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 43 (4 March 1994): 135. See also Blankenhorn, Fatherless America, 34-35; Walter R. Gove, Carolyn Briggs Style, and Michael Hughes, "The Effect of Marriage on the Weil-Being of Adults," J. of Family Issues 11 (1990): 21-25.