Introduction
1. Morris, The Scholar Denied, 198.
2. Steinberg, “An American Dilemma,” 64.
3. Murakawa, The First Civil Right, 15; Scott, Contempt & Pity, 54.
4. Sugrue, “Hearts and Minds.”
5. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xliii. Unless otherwise noted, all references are to the 1944 edition of this work.
6. Myrdal, 60–61, 437, 1066.
7. Myrdal, 1015–1024.
8. Myrdal, 929.
9. See, for example, Stewart, The Negro in America.
10. Garlington, “Newsettes”; Hansen, “First Reader”; newspaper clipping, Call, March 10, 1945; “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work,” vol. 4.2.05:004, folder “An American Dilemma 1945,” Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archive (hereafter GAMA).
11. Norman, “World to Live In”; “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work,” GAMA.
12. Committee of 100 Dinner Invitation, “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work,” June 2, 1948, vol. 4.2.05:003, folder “Klipp,” GAMA. For a discussion of the Committee of 100, see Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law, 34–35.
13. Committee of 100 Dinner Invitation, “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work.”
14. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations.
15. Baker, From Savage to Negro, 194–95.
16. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 76.
17. O’Connor, 76.
18. Gordon, From Power to Prejudice, 36.
19. Gordon, 38.
20. Lawson, To Secure These Rights, 14.
21. Mack, Representing the Race, 244.
22. John Gunther, Inside U.S.A. (New York: New Press, 1947), 683, 926, quoted in Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations, 129.
23. Theodore G. Bilbo, Take Your Choice, 150.
24. Eastland, The Supreme Court’s “Modern Scientific Authorities,” 10.
25. Ellison, Shadow and Act, 303.
26. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 929.
27. Myrdal, 929.
28. Cox, Caste, Class and Race; Aptheker, The Negro People in America; Wilkerson, introduction; Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power; James, “The Revolutionary Answer to the Negro Problem.”
29. Cox, Caste, Class and Race.
30. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 308.
31. Cox, Caste, Class and Race; Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power; Cook, review; Cruse, Crisis of the Negro Intellectual.
32. Cruse, Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 494.
33. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations, 290.
34. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 453.
35. “Memorandum of Conversations with Colonel Arthur S. Woods and Dr. Ruml of the Laura Spelman Foundation, October 26, 28 and November 5, 1925,” box 281, folder 281.2, Grant Files, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR); Newton Baker to Robert Lester, December 26, 1934, folder “Carnegie Corporation, 1934,” Newton D. Baker Papers (hereafter NBP).
36. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 33.
37. Dubow, A Commonwealth of Knowledge, 7–8.
38. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 71.
39. Ellison, Shadow and Act; Cox, Caste, Class and Race; James, “The Revolutionary Answer to the Negro Problem”; Scott, Contempt & Pity; Singh, Black Is a Country; Melamed, Represent and Destroy; Morris, The Scholar Denied; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois; Stewart, The New Negro.
40. See, for example, Mack, Representing the Race; Klarman, Brown v. Board and the Civil Rights Movement; Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights, 169; Tushnet, Making Constitutional Law; Tushnet, Brown v. Board of Education; Tushnet, The Warren Court in Historical Perspective; Tushnet, NAACP’s Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 1925–1950; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Whitman, Brown v. Board of Education; Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations; Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience; Cottrol, “Justice Advanced,” 841.
41. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience; Gordon, From Power to Prejudice; Murakawa, The First Civil Right; Scott, Contempt & Pity; Baker, From Savage to Negro; Melamed, Represent and Destroy.
42. Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge, 486.
43. See, for example, Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge; O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge; Zunz, Philanthropy in America, 184.
44. For historical research on the making of a white Anglo-American world order and Black resistance to global white supremacy, early prominent examples include Du Bois, “The Souls of White Folk”; Du Bois, Color and Democracy; Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks; Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth. More contemporary historical analyses include Willoughby-Herard, Waste of a White Skin; Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics; Wallerstein, Africa, the Politics of Unity; Mazower, No Enchanted Palace; Lake and Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line; Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa; Bell, The Idea of Greater Britain; Matera, Black London; Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom; Eschen, Race against Empire; Horne, Black Revolutionary; Ewing, The Age of Garvey; Robinson, Black Marxism; Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora; Blain, Set the World on Fire; Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire; Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy; Vucetic, The Anglosphere; Ledwidge and Parmar, “Clash of Pans”; Mitcham, Race and Imperial Defence in the British World, 1870–1914; Füredi, The Silent War.
45. See, for example, Morris, The Scholar Denied; Horne, Black Revolutionary; Robinson, Black Marxism.
46. Keppel, foreword, vi.
47. Keppel, vi.
48. Keppel, vi.
49. Keppel, vi.
50. Charles Dollard, interviewed by Isabel Grossner, February 15, 1966, Interview No. 1, Reminiscences of Charles Dollard: 1966, Carnegie Corporation Oral History Project (hereafter CCOHP).
51. Donald Young, interviewed by Isabel S. Grossner, March 16, 1967, CCOHP.
52. Myrdal, An American Dilemma (1964).
53. Keppel, foreword, vi.
54. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, ix, ix–xi.
Chapter 1
1. James Bertram to Frederick Keppel, March 30, 1931, Administrative Records, Policy & Program, box 5, folder 5.4, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Rosenfield, World of Giving, chap. 2.
3. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann notes that Francis Keppel was the youngest of Frederick P. Keppel’s five sons. Francis Keppel was born in 1916, which means that the Keppels had their five sons prior to the war. Lagemann, Politics of Knowledge, 162.
4. Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous, 357.
5. Rosenfield, World of Giving, 93.
6. Stackpole, Carnegie Corporation Commonwealth Program.
7. “Report of the President & of the Treasurer,” 1931, CCNYR.
8. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 768.
9. Annual Report, 1921, CCNYR.
10. Carnegie Corporation, Charter, Constitution, and Bylaws.
11. Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland to Frederick Keppel, February 11, 1936, legal files, box 4, folder 2, CCNYR,; Elihu Root Jr. to Henry S. Pritchett, December 2, 1922, legal files, box 3, folder 34, CCNYR; Elihu Root to Frederick Keppel, October 19, 1923, legal files, box 3, folder 38, CCNYR.
12. Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland to Frederick Keppel, April 25, 1924, Legal Files, box 3, folder 32, CCNYR; Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland to Henry S. Pritchett, January 18, 1922, Administrative Records, Secretary’s Office Records, box 4, folder 1, CCNYR; Bertram to Keppel, March 30, 1931.
13. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 14.
14. Nasaw, 33.
15. Wall, “Carnegie, Andrew.”
16. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 209.
17. Nasaw, 580.
18. Nasaw, 585; Edge, Andrew Carnegie, 99; Morris, The Tycoons, 262.
19. Carnegie, “Wealth.”
20. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 716.
21. White, Republic for Which It Stands, 656.
22. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 498.
23. Nasaw; White, Republic for Which It Stands.
24. Carnegie, “Gospel of Wealth” and “Best Fields of Philanthropy.”
25. Carnegie, Gospel of Wealth and Other Writings, 2.
26. Carnegie, 6.
27. Carnegie, 1.
28. Carnegie, 12.
29. Carnegie, 2.
30. Carnegie, 7.
31. Carnegie, 8.
32. Carnegie, 8.
33. Carnegie, 10.
34. Carnegie, 11.
35. Carnegie, 11.
36. Carnegie, 12.
37. Gladstone, “Mr. Carnegie’s Gospel of Wealth,” 677; Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 350.
38. Carnegie, Gospel of Wealth and Other Writings, 14.
39. See, for example, “Spreading Gospels of Wealth”; Strom, “Pledge to Give Away Fortunes Stirs Debate”; Walker, “Towards a New Gospel of Wealth.”
40. Henderson, “Industrial Insurance,” 589; Tolman, Social Engineering, 162–164.
41. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 597–98; Levy, “Accounting for Profit and the History of Capital,” 192. For a broader lens on the history on the devolving public purposes of private corporations and the evolution of private philanthropies serving the “public good,” see, for example, Hartog, Public Property and Private Power; and Levy, “Altruism and the Origins of Nonprofit Philanthropy.”
42. Nielsen, Big Foundations, 34.
43. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 642.
44. Nasaw, 665–66.
45. Carnegie Corporation, “History of the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission”; Carnegie Corporation, “Other Carnegie Organizations.”
46. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 671.
47. Nasaw, 672.
48. Rosenfield, World of Giving, 18.
49. Nielsen, Big Foundations, 50–54.
50. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 767.
51. Carnegie Corporation, Charter, Constitution, and Bylaws.
52. Board Minutes, January 12, 1923, CCNYR.
53. “Records History,” James Bertram Collection (hereafter JBC).
54. Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 537.
55. Nasaw, 605.
56. Nasaw, 602.
57. Nasaw, 585.
58. Nasaw, 606.
59. Board Minutes, November 28, 1919, CCNYR.
60. Board Minutes, January 12, 1923, CCNYR.
61. Board Minutes.
62. Board Minutes.
63. Board Minutes.
64. Bertram to Keppel, March 30, 1931.
65. Bertram to Keppel.
66. Bertram to Keppel.
67. Bertram to Keppel.
68. Carnegie, Triumphant Democracy, 520; Carnegie, “Look Ahead,” 685–710.
69. Carnegie, Triumphant Democracy, 520.
70. Carnegie, 520.
71. Carnegie, 520.
72. Carnegie, 520, 539.
73. Carnegie, 520.
74. Carnegie, 538–539.
75. Carnegie, 539.
76. Bell, Idea of Greater Britain, 1, 254.
77. Bell, 114.
78. James Russell, 1968, Interviewed by Isabel S. Grossner, Carnegie Corporation Oral History Project (hereafter CCOHP).
79. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa,” December 1, 1927, VIIII.A.3 CCNY publications, miscellany volumes, no. 12 Africa, CCNYR.
80. Memorandum of Interview, January 25, 1927, III.A. Grant Files, ca. 1911–1988, box 281, folder 281.2, CCNYR.
81. Carnegie Corporation, Charter, Constitution, and Bylaws.
82. Carnegie Corporation. And yet, some decades earlier, the trustees and staff at Carnegie Corporation seemed relatively comfortable with these two coexisting means of interpreting the geographic scope of their organization’s charter. See generally, Rosenfield, A World of Giving, 96; Stackpole, Carnegie Corporation Commonwealth Program; and, Lester, Forty Years of Carnegie Giving.
83. Bertram to Keppel, March 30, 1931.
Chapter 2
1. James Bertram to Frederick Keppel, March 30, 1931, I.D. CCNY Administrative Records, Policy & Program, box 5, folder 5.4, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Frederick Keppel to Thomas Jesse Jones, April 7, 1925, III.A. Grant Files, box 188A, folder 188A.5, CCNYR.
3. James Bertram to Frederick Keppel, March 30, 1931.
4. For a discussion of John D. Rockefeller Sr. and his son, see, for example, Chernow, Titan, 481–483.
5. Carnegie, The Negro in America.
6. Carnegie, 4–5.
7. Carnegie, 4.
8. Carnegie, 5.
9. Carnegie, 30.
10. Carnegie, 5.
11. Carnegie, 30.
12. Carnegie, 5.
13. Carnegie, 5.
14. Carnegie, 32.
15. Carnegie, 32.
16. Chernow, Titan, 483.
17. Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom, 40.
18. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935, 4.
19. Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom, 41; Chernow, Titan, 483.
20. Marable, “Booker T. Washington and African Nationalism,” 400; Dagbovie, “Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington,” 257–259.
21. Thornbrough, “Booker T. Washington as Seen by His White Contemporaries,” 166–167.
22. Beilke, “Peabody Education Fund,” 553.
23. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 373. See also Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South.
24. Beilke, “John F. Slater Fund,” 291–292; Fultz, “Teacher Training.”
25. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 378.
26. Brundage, “Up from Slavery” by Booker T. Washington, chap. 14.
27. See, for example, Foner, Reconstruction.
28. Hunter, To ’Joy My Freedom, 99.
29. Washington, Up from Slavery, 142.
30. Washington, 142.
31. Washington, 142–143.
32. Washington, 143.
33. Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 113.
34. Painter, 114.
35. Washington, Up from Slavery, 143.
36. Washington, 142.
37. Washington, 143.
38. Chernow, Titan, 239–242, 482.
39. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 378.
40. Anderson, 379.
41. “The General Education Board.” For more information on the smaller Peabody, Slater, and Jeanes Funds, see, for example, Alexander, Slater and Jeanes Funds, 2; “Administrative History,” Phelps Stokes Fund Records (hereafter PSFR). ; West, “The Peabody Education Fund and Negro Education, 1867–1880.”
42. “$600,000 for Tuskegee and B. T. Washington.”
43. “$600,000 for Tuskegee and B.T. Washington.”
44. It is also worth noting that John D. Rockefeller founded the Rockefeller Foundation two years later, in 1913, with a $100 million endowment. See “Finding a Footing.”
45. Beilke, “General Education Board,” 242–243.
46. Beilke, “Negro Rural School Fund,” 507–508.
47. Beilke, “Peabody Education Fund,” 553.
48. Jones, Negro Education, 1:xi.
49. Booker T. Washington to Phelps Stokes, May 15, 1911, quoted in King, Pan-Africanism and Education, 31.
50. Jones, Negro Education, 1:xi.
51. Anson Phelps Stokes to Booker T. Washington, November 12, 1912, in Harlan and Smock, The Booker T. Washington Papers.
52. Commissioner P. P. Claxton to Anson Phelps Stokes, January 21, 1913, box 44, folder 1, PSFR.
53. Jones, Negro Education, 1:xii.
54. Jones, 1: 1.
55. Jones, 1:22.
56. Jones, 1:10–11.
57. Jones, 1:12.
58. Jones, 1:12.
59. Jones, 1:12.
60. Jones, 1:12.
61. Thomas Jesse Jones to Anson Phelps Stokes, May 3, 1917, box 44, folder 5, PSFR. By the summer of 1919, Jones was using Phelps Stokes Fund letterhead. Compare the letterhead in Thomas Jesse Jones’s correspondence to Anson Phelps Stokes Fund up until February 24, 1919, and then after August 13, 1919, box 44, folder 6 “U.S. Government Agencies, Bureau of Education, 1918–1919,” PSFR.
62. Act of Congress (Act of March 3, 1917; 39 Stat. L., 1070, 1106; 5 U.S.C. 66).
63. Jones to Phelps Stokes, May 3, 1917.
64. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 383.
65. Johnson, “W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Jesse Jones.”
66. Du Bois, “Negro Education.”
67. Du Bois.
68. Du Bois.
69. Du Bois.
70. Du Bois.
71. Carter G. Woodson to “Gentlemen,” June 26, 1936, 1.1. projects, series 200 United States, box 9, folder 81, Rockefeller Foundation Records. See also, for example, Holmes “Twenty-Five Years of Thomas Jesse Jones.” For discussion of the conference, see, for example, Thomas Jesse Jones to Wallace Buttrick, July 7, 1917 (with attached memorandum “Tentative Plans for a Conference on Negro Education”), series 1, subseries 2, box 264, folder 2728, General Education Board Records.
72. Woodson to “Gentlemen,” June 26, 1936.
73. Woodson to “Gentlemen.”
74. Woodson, “Thomas Jesse Jones.”
75. Board of Trustees Minutes, November 20, 1918, box 2, folder 1, PSFR.
76. Memorandum, “Future Work of the Phelps Stokes Fund,” February 3, 1919, enclosed in Thomas Jesse Jones to Anson Phelps Stokes, February 3, 1919, box 44, folder 6, PSFR.
77. Oldham, “Christian Missions.”
78. Memorandum, “Future Work of the Phelps Stokes Fund.”
79. Jones, Education in Africa; Jones, Education in East Africa.
80. Jones, Education in Africa; Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 220.
81. Jacobs, “James Emman Kwegyir Aggrey,” 47, 54.
82. Jacobs, 55.
83. Jones, Education in Africa, 6.
84. Jones, 6.
85. Jones, 6.
86. Jones, 6.
87. Jones, 12.
88. Jones, 13, 15.
89. Berman, “American Influence on African Education,” 135.
90. Berman, 135–136.
91. Wilson, “End of the ‘Great Dark Continent.’ ”
92. Wilson.
93. Norman Leys to J. H. Oldham, November 14, 1921, in Cell, By Kenya Possessed.
94. Saville, “Britain,” 572. Leys’s perspective on Africa was well known presumably on both sides of the Atlantic. At least since 1921, for example, W. E. B. Du Bois had been in correspondence with Leys about attending the next Pan-African Congress. See W. E. B. Du Bois to Norman Leys, May 27, 1921, W. E. B. Du Bois Papers.
95. Leys to Oldham, November 14, 1921.
96. Leys to Oldham.
97. Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 221.
98. Clements, 221.
99. Clements, 221; “Education Mission Going to Africa.”
100. Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 221.
101. Jones, Education in East Africa, 3.
102. Jones, 7.
103. Thomas Jesse Jones to Anson Phelps Stokes, March 20, 1925, box 16, folder 11, PSFR.
104. Lowe, “Sadler, Sir Michael Ernest (1861–1943).”
105. Whitehead, “Education Policy in British Tropical Africa.”
106. Oldham, “Educational Policy of the British Government in Africa,” 424.
107. Wilson, “Africa, the Continent of Misunderstandings.”
108. Frederick P. Keppel to Thomas Jesse Jones, May 27, 1925, box 188A, folder 188A.5, CCNYR; CCNY Memorandum of Interview “MAC, Thomas Jesse Jones, and Mr. Dougall—Kenya Colony,” box 188A, folder 188A.5, CCNYR.
109. Carnegie Corporation of New York Report of the President, 1931, CCNYR; Phelps Stokes Fund to Frederick P. Keppel, January 20, 1932, III.A. Grant Files, ca. 1911–1988, box 188A, folder 188A.6 “Jeanes Schools—Miscellaneous,” CCNYR; Frederick P. Keppel to J. H. Oldham, March 11, 1929, III.A. Grant Files, ca. 1911–1988, box 188A, folder “Jeanes Schools—Ny[a]saland.”
110. Carnegie Corporation of New York Report of the President, 1934, CCNYR.
111. J. H. Oldham to Frederick P. Keppel, April 30, 1925, grant files, box 188A, folder 188A-5, CCNYR.
Chapter 3
1. J. H. Oldham to Frederick P. Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations with Colonel Arthur S. Woods and Dr Ruml of the Laura Spelman Foundation, October 26, 28 and November 5, 1925,” III.A. grant files, box 281, folder 281.2, 5, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Oldham to Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations,” 2–3; Rose, Survey of Sources, 5.
3. “Cross Reference Sheet, FA 1977,” III.A. Grant Files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
4. Oldham to Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations,” 1.
5. Oldham to Keppel, 2–3.
6. Oldham to Keppel, 2.
7. Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics, 57.
8. Painter, History of White People, 341; Willoughby-Herard, Waste of a White Skin; Bell, Idea of Greater Britain; Mazower, No Enchanted Palace; Magubane, Making of a Racist State; Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa; Padmore, Africa; Bunche, World View of Race; Du Bois, “The Souls of White Folk”; Fanon, Wretched of the Earth; Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks.
9. Lake and Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line, 4.
10. Lake and Reynolds; Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics; Robinson, Black Marxism; Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire; Blain, Set the World on Fire; Matera, Black London; Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom; Moses, Golden Age of Black Nationalism, 1850–1925; Edwards, Practice of Diaspora; Ewing, Age of Garvey.
11. Blain, Set the World on Fire, 2.
12. Blain, 12.
13. Blain, 6.
14. Moses, Creative Conflict in African American Thought, 249.
15. Stein, World of Marcus Garvey.
16. See Ewing, Age of Garvey.
17. Ewing; Blain, Set the World on Fire.
18. Pamphlet describing M1440, “Correspondence of the Military Intelligence Division Relating to ‘Negro Subversion,’ 1917–1941,” 2–3, 5 (hereafter CMI); Ellis, Race, War, and Surveillance, 82.
19. Ellis, Race, War, and Surveillance, xix–xx.
20. Ellis, 53.
21. Ellis, 53.
22. Ellis, 82.
23. Pamphlet describing M1440, 4.
24. Pamphlet, 4.
25. Pamphlet, 5.
26. Robinson, Black Marxism, 217; Blain, Set the World on Fire; Stewart, New Negro.
27. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Conservation of Races,” American Negro Academy Address, 1896, quoted in Moses, Creative Conflict in African American Thought, 207.
28. Van Deburg, Modern Black Nationalism, 40.
29. “Mr. Keppel Accepts New Call.”
30. Füredi, The Silent War, 38.
31. Füredi, 78.
32. Füredi, 59, 88.
33. Walters, “Pan-Africanism.”
34. W. E. B. Du Bois to George S. Oettlé, October 22, 1934, W. E. B. Du Bois Records (hereafter DBR).
35. Du Bois to Oettlé.
36. Du Bois to “The Carnegie Fund,” October 6, 1937, DBR; Du Bois to Mr. Russell, November 12, 1937, DBR.
37. Du Bois to Frederick Keppel, May 30, 1939, DBR.
38. Keppel to Du Bois, August 29, 1939, DBR.
39. Keppel to Du Bois.
40. Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics, ix.
41. J. H. Oldham to Lionel Curtis, February 11, 1921, cited in King, “Africa and the Southern States of the U.S.A.,” 665.
42. J. H. Oldham to Lionel Curtis, February 11, 1921, cited in Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 176.
43. Cell, Hailey, 62.
44. Oldham to Curtis, February 11, 1921, cited in Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 176; King, “African Students in Negro American Colleges,” 19.
45. King, Pan-Africanism and Education, 215.
46. Little, “Higher Education,” 562; Nkomo, How I Found Christ in the Jungles of Africa, 10.
47. Nkomo, How I Found Christ in the Jungles of Africa, 2–3.
48. Nkomo, 5.
49. Nkomo, 10.
50. Nkomo, 10.
51. King, Pan-Africanism and Education, 215.
52. Little, “Higher Education,” 562.
53. King, Pan-Africanism and Education, 215.
54. King, 221.
55. Oldham to Curtis, February 11, 1921, cited in Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 176; King, “African Students in Negro American Colleges,” 19–20.
56. Oldham to Curtis, 176.
57. Oldham to Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations,” 3.
58. Bennett, “Paramountcy to Partnership,” 357.
59. “Education Policy in British Tropical Africa: Memorandum Submitted to the Secretary of State for the Colonies by the Advisory Committee on Native Education in the British Tropical African Dependencies,” March 1925, III.A. grant files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
60. Ormsby-Gore, East Africa.
61. Bennett, “Paramountcy to Partnership,” 357–358.
62. Bennett, 358.
63. Oldham to Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations,” 5.
64. Oldham to Keppel, 5.
65. Oldham to Keppel, 5.
66. Oldham to Keppel, 5.
67. Oldham, Christianity and the Race Problem, 23.
68. In promoting this research methodology, Oldham and the British Colonial Office were far from unique at the time. Rather, they were reflecting growing trends in these fields. See Bulmer and Bulmer, “Philanthropy and Social Sciences in the 1920s,” 369.
69. Anson Phelps Stokes to Raymond Fosdick, undated, box 31, folder 2, Phelps Stokes Fund Records (hereafter PSFR); Beardsley Ruml to Anson Phelps Stokes, June 2, 1927, box 31, folder 2, PSFR. Several letters between Stokes, J. H. Oldham, Charles Loram, and Thomas Jesse Jones highlight the Rockefellers’ (and particularly the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial’s) preference for the “research approach.” See, for example, J. H. Oldham to Thomas Jesse Jones, April 27, 1927, box 31, folder 2, PSFR; Thomas Jesse Jones to Charles Loram, June 3, 1927, box 31, folder 2, PSFR.
70. Beardsley Ruml to Anson Phelps Stokes, April 9, 1926, box 31, folder 1, PSFR; Ruml to Stokes, July 2, 1926: “The Memorial would appreciate it if no public announcement of this appropriation were made other than that which you make in your regular report,” box 31, folder 1, PSFR.
71. S. H. Church to Frederick Keppel, November 5, 1925, box 281, folder 281.1, CCNYR; J. H. Oldham to Carnegie Corporation, December 10, 1925, box 281, folder 281.1, CCNYR.
72. Donald Young, interview by Isabel S. Grossner, March 16, 1967, transcript, Carnegie Corporation Oral History Project (hereafter CCOHP).
73. Quoted in Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 448.
74. Jones, Education in Africa; Glotzer, “Long Shadow,” 636–637.
75. Oldham to Keppel, “Memorandum of Conversations,” 5–6.
76. James Bertram Finding Aid, Special Collecting Initiative, James Bertram Collection; Glotzer, “Long Shadow,” 644.
77. Oldham, “Christian Missions and the Education of the Negro.” See also Heyman, “C. T. Loram,” 41–50.
78. Jones, Education in Africa, xxii.
79. Davie, Poverty Knowledge in South Africa, 9.
80. Thompson, History of South Africa, 143.
81. Thompson, 141–153.
82. Davie, Poverty Knowledge in South Africa, 30.
83. Davie, 30.
84. Davie, 33.
85. Davie, 59.
86. Thompson, History of South Africa, 158; Marks, “Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870–1950).”
87. For more on Russell’s trip, see, for example, E. G. Malherbe, “The Carnegie Poor White Investigation: Its Origin and Sequels” (1973), box 295, folder 295.7, CCNYR.
88. Thompson, History of South Africa, 159.
89. Seekings, “ ‘Not a Single White Person Should Be Allowed to Go Under.’ ”
90. Seekings, 380; Davie, Poverty Knowledge, 50–51.
91. Seekings, “ ‘Not a Single White Person,’ ” 380. See also Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policy Makers.”
92. Tayler, “ ‘Our Poor,’ ” 40.
93. Glotzer, “Long Shadow,” 636–637.
94. Malherbe, Education in South Africa.
95. Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policy Makers,” 349–372, 353.
96. Fleisch, 349–372, 353.
97. Fleisch, 353.
98. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa, Printed for the Information of the Board of Trustees,” December 1, 1927, Carnegie Corporation of New York Publications vol. 55, “Miscellany 12 Africa 1951,” CCNYR; Glotzer, “Career of Mable Carney,” 325.
99. John Russell, interview by Isabel S. Grossner, 1968, CCOHP.
100. James Bertram Finding Aid; and, Glotzer, “Long Shadow,” 644.
101. Jones to Loram, June 3, 1927.
102. “Report of the President & The Secretary as to An Educational Program in Africa.”
103. Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policymakers,” 355.
104. E. G. Malherbe, “The Carnegie Poor White Investigation: Its Origin and Sequels,” 1973, box 295, folder 295.7, CCNYR. Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policy Makers,” 355.
105. Magubane, “The American Construction of the Poor White Problem in South Africa,” 696.
106. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
107. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
108. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
109. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
110. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
111. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
112. Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policy Makers,” 352.
113. Driver, Patrick Duncan, 22; Crawford, “Sir Carruthers Beattie”; Fantham, “Outdshoorn Meeting of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science.”
114. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
115. Füredi, The Silent War, 66.
116. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
117. J. H. Oldham to Frederick Keppel, December 1, 1927, grant files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
118. Frederick Keppel to Godfrey Thompson, December 2, 1927, grant files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
119. Oldham to Keppel, December 1, 1927.
120. Oliver, General Intelligence Test for Africans; “Final Report to Carnegie Corporation on Educational Research in East Africa,” grant files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
121. See, generally, grant files, box 196, folder 196.6, CCNYR.
122. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa.”
Chapter 4
1. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa,” December 1, 1927, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR); Frederick Keppel to Charles Loram, September 14, 1927, Carnegie Corporation Administrative Records, box 5, folder “P&P Commonwealth, Africa, 1927–1955, FPK-Loram correspondence,” CCNYR.
2. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa,” December 1, 1927, CCNYR.
3. F. S. Malan to Frederick Keppel, September 14, 1927, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
4. See, for example, Davie, Poverty Knowledge in South Africa, 42.
5. Reverends F. X. Roome, F. S. Malan, and Charles Murray to Carnegie Corporation, December 1, 1927, Carnegie Corporation Records, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
6. Reverends F. X. Roome, F. S. Malan, and Charles Murray to Carnegie Corporation, December 1, 1927, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
7. E. G. Malherbe, “The Carnegie Poor White Investigation: Its Origin and Sequels,” 1973, box 295, folder 295.7, CCNYR.
8. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa”; Keppel to Loram, September 14, 1927.
9. Bulmer and Bulmer, “Philanthropy and Social Science in the 1920s,” 384; Merriam, “Annual Report of the Social Sciences Research Council.”
10. Ross, Origins of American Social Science, 401.
11. Lyons, Uneasy Partnership, 44–45. See, generally, SSRC, accession 1, series 5, Hanover Conferences, boxes 329–330.
12. “General Memorandum by the Director,” series 2, box 2, folder 31, quoted in Bulmer and Bulmer, “Philanthropy and Social Science in the 1920s,” 361.
13. “General Memorandum by the Director,” series 2, box 2, folder 31, quoted in Bulmer and Bulmer, “Philanthropy and Social Science in the 1920s,” 361.
14. See, for example, Maribel Morey, “Rockefeller, Carnegie, and the SSRC’s Focus.”
15. Donald Fisher, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences; Worcester, “Social Science Research Council,” 19.
16. “Friday Evening Session,” accession 1, series 5, Hanover Conference, box 330, folder 1895 “Hanover Conference 1930,” SSRC Papers, 23.
17. Frederick Keppel to Charles E. Merriam, June 8, 1926, Social Science Research Council (SSRC) Committee on P&P Minutes, accession 1, series 2.1, Minute, box 307, Social Science Research Council Records (hereafter SSRCR); SSRC Minutes, Hanover, September 1, 1928, SSRCR; SSRC, accession 1, series 9, Council (SSRC Minutes), box 352, folder 2086; SSRC, accession 1, series 2.1, Minutes, box 309, folder 1769, SSRRCR.
18. Keppel, “The Arts in Social Life.”
19. Charles T. Loram to Frederick Keppel, April 11, 1928, Grant Files, series 1, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
20. Loram to Keppel, April 11, 1928, and accompanying “Report on Sociological Aspect of Poor White Question,” Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
21. Malherbe, Education Report, foreword; Stephen H. Stackpole, “CC Funds in South Africa for Social Research,” April 17, 1953, box 333, folder 333.5, CCNYR.
22. Alan Pifer to Fred van Wyk, “Memo on Poor White Study,” May 8, 1973, box 295, folder 295.7, CCNYR.
23. Malherbe, Foreword, in Malherbe, Educational Report.
24. Loram to Keppel, April 11, 1928, and accompanying “Report on Sociological Aspect of Poor White Question.”
25. Charles Loram to Frederick Keppel, February 10, 1929, Grant Files, series 1, box 102, folder “Poor White Study—Keppel-Loram Correspondence.”
26. Loram to Keppel, April 11, 1928.
27. “Report of the President & the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa,” VIII.A.3 CCNY publications, Miscellany Volumes, no. 12 Africa, CCNYR.
28. Wickliffe Rose to Frederick Keppel, December 29, 1927, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR; Frederick Keppel to Wickliffe Rose, December 28, 1927, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
29. Keppel to Rose.
30. Frederick Keppel to R. W. Wilcocks, March 28, 1929, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR; Driberg to Keppel, March 28, 1928, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
31. Charles Loram to Frederick Keppel, April 15, 1928, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.5, CCNYR.
32. Loram to Keppel, April 15, 1928.
33. Loram to Keppel, April 15, 1928.
34. Charles Loram to Frederick Keppel, July 31, 1928, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.4, CCNYR.
35. “Background on Kenyon Leech Butterfield,” Kenyon L. Butterfield Papers (hereafter KLBP); Ring, The Problem South, 158 256; Charles Loram to Frederick Keppel, December 7, 1929, Grant Files, box 126, folder “Coulter, Charles W. 1928–1934,” CCNYR
36. See, for example, Keppel, foreword, v.
37. Malherbe served as the educational researcher; Stellenbosch University professor J. F. Grosskopf as the economist; Stellenbosch University professor R. W. Wilcocks as the psychologist; the Department of Health’s W. A. Murray as the health researcher. The journalist M. E. Rothman (the only woman researcher on the team) provided the “gender component.”
38. Keppel, “The Arts in Social Life.”
39. Malherbe, Education Report, 6.
40. Malherbe, 8–12; Bulmer, The Chicago School of Sociology, 108.
41. Malherbe, Education Report, 8.
42. Malherbe, 8.
43. Malherbe, 9.
44. Malherbe, 8.
45. Malherbe, 8.
46. Malherbe, 9.
47. Quoted in Willoughby-Herard, Waste of a White Skin, 157.
48. Willoughby-Herard, Waste of a White Skin, 155.
49. Carnegie Commission, “Joint Findings and Recommendations of the Commission,” The Poor White Problem in South Africa, xix.
50. Wilcocks, Psychological Report, chap. 12; Malherbe, Education Report, chap. 8.
51. Two years later, for example, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal would make a similar argument about white Swedes of different social classes in Kris i befolkningsfrågan.
52. Carnegie Commission, “Joint Findings,” viii.
53. Carnegie Commission, viii.
54. Carnegie Commission, ix–x.
55. Carnegie Commission, x.
56. Carnegie Commission, x.
57. Carnegie Commission, xi.
58. Carnegie Commission, xviii–xix.
59. Carnegie Commission, xxi.
60. Carnegie Commission, xx–xxi.
61. Seekings, “Carnegie Commission,” 517.
62. Davis, “Charles T. Loram and the American Model,” 90.
63. Carnegie Commission, “Joint Findings,” xx.
64. Carnegie Commission, xx.
65. Carnegie Commission, xxi.
66. Carnegie Commission, xviii, xxi–xxii.
67. Carnegie Commission, xxiii.
68. Carnegie Commission, xxvi–xxvii.
69. Carnegie Commission, xxviii.
70. Carnegie Commission, xxxii, xxxiii.
71. Stephen H. Stackpole, “Carnegie Corporation Commonwealth Program 1911–1961,” 1963, CCNYR; Dubow, A Commonwealth of Knowledge, 227; Fleisch, “Social Scientists as Policy Makers,” 350.
72. Malherbe, “The Carnegie Poor White Investigation.”
73. Tayler, “ ‘Our Poor,’ ” 49; Stultz, Afrikaner Politics in South Africa, 178; Davis, “Charles T. Loram and the American Model,” 110.
74. Tayler, “ ‘Our Poor,’ ” 41n4.
75. Tayler, 51.
76. Tayler, 44; Pick, Rispel, and Naidoo, “Poverty, Health and Policy,” 169. See also Bell, “American Philanthropy, Carnegie Corporation and Poverty in South Africa,” 482.
77. James Bertram to Frederick Keppel, February 18, 1930, Grant Files, box 206, folder 206.1, CCNYR.
78. Bertram to Keppel.
79. Davis, “Charles T. Loram and the American Model,” 90; Charles Loram to Frederick Keppel, January 6, 1930, Grant Files, box 206, folder 206.1, CCNY.
80. Bertram to Keppel.
81. Bertram to Keppel.
82. Myrdal, An American Dilemma.
83. Office of the President, Record of Interview, March 16, 1939, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.6, CCNYR.
84. Carnegie Corporation Executive Committee Meeting, March 28, 1929, series I.A.4, Bound Agendas and Minutes, vol. 7, CCNYR.
85. Frederick Keppel to Col. O.F. Watkins, February 10, 1928, Carnegie Corporation Records, Grant Files, box 6, folder 6.1.
86. Frederick Keppel to Charles Loram, November 9, 1927, Grant Files, box 295, folder 295.9, CCNYR.
87. Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 238–240.
88. 1931 Report to the Trustees, I.D. Administrative Records, Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR.
Chapter 5
1. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel, Summary of Discussion,” June 13, 1933, Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.3, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Report to the Trustees, 1931, Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR; Murphy, Carnegie Corporation and Africa, 24.
3. Bertram to Keppel.
4. Bertram to Keppel.
5. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel”; “Office of the Secretary Memorandum from RML to JMR,” August 10, 1939, Legal Files, box 4, folder 17, CCNYR.
6. Executive Committee Meeting, March 27, 1931, CCNYR.
7. Keppel to Oldham, February 28, 1931, Administrative Records, I.D., box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR
8. See Chatham House, “Our History”; May, “Curtis, Lionel George.”
9. Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy, 80.
10. Executive Committee Meeting, October 5, 1933, CCNYR.
11. “Memorandum of Conversations with Colonel Arthur S. Woods and Dr. Ruml of the Laura Spelman Foundation, October 26, 28 and November 5, 1925,” grant files, box 281, folder 281.2, CCNYR.
12. See, generally, Administrative Records, I.D. Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2–6.5, CCNYR.
13. See, for example, Ivison Macadam to Frederick Keppel, April 28, 1933, III.A. grant files, ca. 1911–1988, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
14. Lugard, Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa.
15. Smuts, Africa and Some World Problems.
16. “June 23, 1931, Notes, Special Fund Conference, London Notes, Chatham House Conference, May 21, 1931,” Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR.
17. “June 23, 1931, Notes.”
18. “June 23, 1931, Notes.”
19. “June 23, 1931, Notes.”
20. “June 23, 1931, Notes”; and Peter Gosden, “Heath, Sir (Henry) Frank.”
21. “London Conference, Report to the Trustees (1931),” Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR.
22. “London Conference.”
23. “London Conference.”
24. “London Conference.”
25. Executive Committee Meeting, May, 17, 1934, CCNYR.
26. Lionel Curtis to Frederick Keppel, July 20, 1931, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
27. Curtis to Keppel.
28. Curtis to Keppel.
29. Curtis to Keppel.
30. Keppel to Curtis, July 29, 1931, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
31. Curtis to Keppel.
32. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel.”
33. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel.”
34. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel.”
35. Lothian, foreword.
36. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 76.
37. See, for example, Coupland, “The Hailey Survey,” 1; Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa, 7; Rich, Race and Empire in British Politics, 146–147; Brown, “Godfrey Wilson and the Rhodes-Livingston Institute,” 176; Cell, Hailey; Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory; Hailey, Foreword, in Hailey, An African Survey.
38. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 78–79, n40.
39. Lothian, foreword, i.
40. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 86.
41. Philip Kerr to Frank Aydelotte, November 14, 1929, Rhodes House Archive (RHA), File 2792.
42. Frederick Keppel to Charles Loram, December 26, 1929, grant files, box 295, folder 295.7, CCNYR.
43. “Memorandum of Conversations with Colonel Arthur S. Woods and Dr. Ruml of the Laura Spelman Foundation, October 26, 28, and November 5, 1925,” grant files, box 281, folder 281.2, CCNYR.
44. Lugard, Dual Mandate; Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 70.
45. Kuper, Anthropologists and Anthropology, 130–133; Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 70.
46. See, for example, Wala, Council on Foreign Relations.
47. May, “Milner’s Kindergarten.”
48. See, generally, Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folders 6.2–6.6, CCNYR.
49. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory 70.
50. Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy, 58; Louis, introduction, 14.
51. Rich, Race and Empire in British Politics, 54–55.
52. May, “Coupland, Sir Reginald.”
53. May, “Coupland.”
54. May, “Curtis, Lionel George.”
55. May, “Kerr, Philip Henry, Eleventh Marquess of Lothian.”
56. May, “Milner’s Kindergarten.”
57. Oldham, White and Black in Africa; Maxon, “Devonshire Declaration”; Okia, “The Northey Forced Labor Crisis, 1920–1921.”
58. Oldham, White and Black in Africa, 70.
59. Oldham.
60. Füredi, The Silent War, 80.
61. “June 23, 1931, Notes.”
62. “June 23, 1931, Notes.”
63. Report of the President, 1931, CCNYR.
64. Report of the President.
65. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 100.
66. Füredi, Silent War, 58–59.
67. Kuper, Anthropologists and Anthropology, 130–33.
68. See, for example, Rivière, “The Formative Years”; Davis, “How All Souls Got Its Anthropologist.”
69. Malinowski, “Practical Anthropology.”
70. Malinowski.
71. Kuper, Anthropologists and Anthropology, 125. See also James, “Anthropologist as Reluctant Imperialist.”
72. James, “Anthropologist as Reluctant Imperialist,” 53–54.
73. Malinowski, “Practical Anthropology.”
74. James, “Anthropologist as Reluctant Imperialist,” 51.
75. Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory, 100.
76. See, for example, Lugard, Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, 18; “Memorandum from British Colonial Secretary,” 260.
77. Curtis to Keppel, July 20, 1931; Keppel to Curtis, July 29, 1931; Honoré, “Feetham, Richard”; Lavin, “Duncan, Sir Patrick.”
78. Lionel Curtis to Frederick Keppel, August 11, 1932, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
79. Keppel to Curtis, July 29, 1931, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
80. “Notes, August 10, 1931,” Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.2, CCNYR.
81. Frederick Keppel to Ivison Macadam, October 17, 1931, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
82. Ivison Macadam to Frederick Keppel, June 23, 1933, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
83. “Luncheon for Dr. Keppel”; Cell, Hailey, 215, 220–221.
84. Cell, Hailey, 222.
85. Cell, 222–223.
86. Cell, 224, 227.
87. Cell, 224, 227.
88. Cell, 224.
89. Cell, 229.
90. Cell, 233.
91. Cell, 229.
92. Lord Lothian (Philip Kerr) to Frederick Keppel, December 16, 1936, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR; Keppel to Lothian, January 11, 1937, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR; Keppel to John Russell, April 15, 1937, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6; Russell to Lothian, May 14, 1937, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR.
93. Cell, Hailey, 230–231.
94. Cell, 231.
95. Cell, 232; Stockwell, “Pedler, Sir Frederick Johnson.”
96. Cell, Hailey, 232, 233.
97. Lord Lothian (Philip Kerr) to Frederick Keppel, August 2, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR.
98. “Aug. 28–29, 1941, Office of the President Record of Interview, CD and Dr. Myrdal,” “Negro Study” General Correspondence, Roll #1, CCNYR.
99. “Aug. 28–29, 1941, Office of the President Record of Interview.”
100. Gunnar Myrdal to Frederick Keppel, July 7, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, Roll #1, CCNYR.
101. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 161.
102. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xvi.
103. Hailey, An African Survey.
104. Hailey, xxi.
105. Hailey, xxi.
106. Hailey, xxi.
107. Hailey, xxi.
108. Hailey, xxv.
109. Hailey, ix–xvii.
110. Hailey.
111. Cell, Hailey, 231, 236.
112. Hailey, An African Survey, xxii.
113. Hailey, xxiii.
114. Hailey, xxiv–xxv.
115. “[London Conference of Advisers], April 14, 1937, Summary of Discussion,” Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.5, CCNYR.
116. Frederick Keppel to Lord Lothian (Philip Kerr), November 29, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR.
117. “[London Conference of Advisers], April 14, 1937.”
118. “[London Conference of Advisers], April 14, 1937.”
119. “[London Conference of Advisers], April 14, 1937”; Jewkes and Jewkes, “Clay, Sir Henry (1883–1954).
120. Frederick Keppel to Malcolm Hailey, September 20, 1939, grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR. For more on Jabavu, see Higgs, Ghost of Equality.
121. Keppel to Hailey.
122. Davie, Poverty Knowledge in South Africa, 46–47.
123. Mkhize, “ ‘To See Us as We See Ourselves.’ ”
124. Higgs, “Jabavu, Davidson Don Tengo (1885–1959).”
125. Higgs.
126. Saunders, “Biography of a Political Activist.”
127. “Memo,” February 3, 1939, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR.
128. Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa, 4–5, 7.
129. Pedler, “Lord Hailey,” 486.
130. Keppel to Matheson, August 16, 1939, grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR; Royal Scottish Geographical Society, “Livingstone Medal.”
131. Cell, Hailey, 217.
132. Hetherington, British Paternalism and Africa, 110; Brown, “Godfrey Wilson and the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute,” 176; Kuper, Anthropologists and Anthropology, 134; “Tribute to Lord Hailey,” 94–96.
133. Cell, Hailey, 235.
134. Hailey, An African Survey, xxiv–xxv.
135. Hailey, xxi.
136. Plant, “An African Survey,” 205.
137. Worthington, “Lord Hailey on the African Survey,” 582.
138. Worthington, 582.
139. Hailey, An African Survey, xxv.
140. Hailey, An African Survey, xxiv.
141. Matera, Black London, 89–90; Robinson, Black Marxism.
142. McLemee and Le Blanc, C. L. R. James and Revolutionary Marxism, 132.
143. Matera, Black London, 89.
144. Matera, 90–91.
145. Du Bois, review, 121. See also, Du Bois, Color and Democracy, 257.
146. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 453.
147. Du Bois, review,” 123.
148. Du Bois, 121.
Chapter 6
1. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 33.
2. Frederick Keppel and J. H. Oldham, Record of Interview, November 23, 1936, box 281, folder 281.1, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
3. John Russell, interview by Isabel S. Grossner, 1968, Carnegie Corporation Oral History Project (hereafter CCOHP).
4. Russell interview.
5. Russell interview.
6. Russell interview.
7. Russell interview.
8. Russell interview.
9. Russell interview.
10. Russel interview.
11. Ellis, Race, War, and Surveillance, 53.
12. W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn, quoted in Ellis, 251.
13. Board of Trustees Meeting, October 24, 1935, CCNYR. Carnegie Corporation listed “Negro education” as a grantmaking category as recently as its previous meeting on March 21, 1935.
14. Frederick P. Keppel and Henry James, Memorandum of Interview, June 18, 1930, folder 24.5, CCNYR.
15. Leffingwell to Keppel, February 14, 1929, I.E.5. Trustee Files, box 24, folder 24.10, CCNYR; Russel interview.
16. Leffingwell to Keppel.
17. Russell interview.
18. Russell interview.
19. Leffingwell to Keppel.
20. Russell interview.
21. Russell interview.
22. Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous, 357.
23. Rosenthal, 357.
24. Rosenthal, 358.
25. Russell interview. Keppel expressed his frustrations with his board in another context, including an SSRC meeting that year. See, “Friday Evening Session,” accession 1, series 5, Hanover Conference, box 330, folder 1895, Social Science Research Council Records (hereafter SSRCR).
26. “2 Carnegie Aides Die on Same Day:; “R. A. Franks, 73, Carnegie Aid, Dies in Jersey.”
27. Russell interview.
28. Russell interview; Board of Trustees Meeting, October 24, 1935.
29. Cleveland Foundation, Centennial Website, “An Idea Whose Time Had Come.”
30. Bulmer, “Social Survey Movement,” 16.
31. Bulmer, 16; Anderson and Greenwald, introduction, 8.
32. Bulmer, “Social Survey Movement,” 16. For more context to the social survey movement in Great Britain and the United States, see, for example, O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 26–44; Greenwald and Anderson, Pittsburgh Surveyed.
33. Russell interview.
34. Russell interview.
35. Russell interview; Alan Pifer to John Russell, March 12, 1974, I. E. Staff and Trustees Files, 1913–1996, box 18, CCNYR. For more on the Cleveland Foundation, see Tittle, Rebuilding Cleveland.
36. Newton Baker to Robert Lester, December 26, 1934, folder “Carnegie Corporation, 1934,” Newton D. Baker Papers (hereafter NBP).
37. Newton Baker to Frederick Keppel, April 22, 1936, folder “Carnegie Corporation, 1936,” NBP.
38. Lumpkins, American Pogrom, 1.
39. Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, chap. 11; Lumpkins, American Pogrom, 207.
40. Lumpkins, American Pogrom, 3.
41. Russell interview.
42. Platt, Politics of Riot Commissions, 161.
43. Platt, 161.
44. “Background Note,” Frederick Henry Osborn Papers (hereafter FHOP).
45. Lorimer and Osborn, Dynamics of Population.
46. Lach, “Coffman, Lotus Delta.”
47. Frederick Keppel and Henry James, Memorandum of Interview, June 18, 1930, I. E. Staff and Trustee Files, box 24, folder 24.5, CCNYR.
48. Frederick Keppel and Newton Baker, Record of Interview, September 30, 1936, I. E. Staff and Trustee Files, box 22, folder 22.9, CCNYR.
49. Keppel and Baker, Record of Interview.
50. Keppel and Baker, Record of Interview.
51. J. Th. Moll to Frederick Keppel, November 2, 1936, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
52. Moll to Keppel.
53. Frederick Keppel and J. H. Oldham, Record of Interview, November 23, 1936, box 281, folder 281.1, CCNYR.
54. Moll to Keppel.
55. Schrieke, Alien Americans, vii.
56. Schrieke, viii.
57. Schrieke, 191.
58. Lindgren, “Bertram Johannes Otto Schrieke,” 131.
59. “Negro Study, Personnel Suggestions through July 15, 1937,” “Negro Study,” roll 1, CCNYR; Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 29.
60. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, chap. 1.
61. Keppel, “Arts in Social Life,” 958–1008.
62. Robert M. Lester, interview by Isabel S. Grossner, 1968, vol.1, CCOHP.
63. For more on Herskovits, see, for example, Gershenhorn, Melville J. Herskovits.
64. Melville Herskovits to Frederick Keppel, April 8, 1936, Series 35/6, box 5, folder 10, Melville J. Herskovits Papers (hereafter MHP).
65. For developing correspondence between Herskovits and Keppel, see Series 35/6, box 5, folder 10, MHP.
66. Melville Herskovits to Donald Young, January 2, 1936, Series 35/6, box 14, folder 1, MHP.
67. Herskovits to Young.
68. Donald Young to Frederick Keppel, January 30, 1937, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
69. Young to Keppel.
70. Donald Young, 1967, CCOHP.
71. Young to Keppel.
72. Young to Keppel.
73. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937,” Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 6, folder 6.5, CCNYR.
74. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
75. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
76. Grayson, “Layton, Walter Thomas, first Baron Layton.”
77. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
78. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
79. Rickett, “Salter, (James) Arthur, Baron Salter”; “Negro Study Personnel,” n.d., “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
80. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
81. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
82. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
83. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
84. Cell, Hailey, 222.
85. “[FPK Log—London visit], April 1937.”
86. Frederick Keppel to Robert Lester, June 24, 1933, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.5, CCNYR.
87. Young to Keppel.
88. Young to Keppel.
89. “Negro Study, Personnel Suggestions through July 15, 1937.”
90. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 33.
91. Fleck, Transatlantic History of the Social Sciences, 41–43; See, generally, Fisher, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences.
92. Carlson, Swedish Experiment in Family Politics, 45.
93. Hirdman, Alva Myrdal, 201; Carlson, Swedish Experiment, 50; Rappaport, Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers, 1:472; Hirdman, Alva Myrdal, 158.
94. Myrdal, Nation and Family, vii.
95. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kris i befolkningsfrågan, chap. 2.
96. For further discussion on the “social corpus,” see Rabinbach, Human Motor, chaps. 8 and 10.
97. See Mazower, Dark Continent, chap. 3; Connelly, Fatal Misconception, chap. 2.
98. See, for example, Bock and Thane, Maternity & Gender Policies.
99. Mazower, Dark Continent, chap. 3; Connelly, Fatal Misconception, chap. 3.
100. Spektorowski and Mizrachi, “Eugenics and the Welfare State in Sweden,” 345.
101. Hirdman, Alva Myrdal, 203.
102. Frederick Keppel to Gunnar Myrdal, August 18, 1937, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
103. Keppel and Duffus, Arts in American Life.
104. Keppel and Duffus, 2.
105. Keppel and Duffus, vi.
106. Keppel to Myrdal, 2.
107. Keppel to Myrdal, 2.
108. Myrdal to Boström, Feb. 9, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:1, file “Boström, Wollmar,” Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives (hereafter GAMA); Myrdal to Kinberg, June 8, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:6, GAMA; Myrdal, An American Dilemma, ix–xx.
109. Myrdal, An American Dilemma (1964), xxv.
110. MeasuringWorth, “Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value.”
111. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xvii.
112. James B. Conant to Gunnar Myrdal, June 9, 1937, Papers of President James B. Conant, UAI 5.168, box 83, folder “Godkin Lecture, 1936–1937,” James B. Conant Papers (hereafter cited as JBCP); O. E. Baker (United States Department of Agriculture) to Gunnar Myrdal, December 17, 1937, Korrespondens: Gunnar Myrdal 1920–1929, vol. 3.2.1:1, folder “1930-t Ba,” GAMA; H. D. White (Director of Monetary Research, Treasury Department) to Gunnar Myrdal, June 24, 1938, Korrespondens: Gunnar Myrdal 1930–1939, vol. 3.2.1: 11, GAMA; T. J. Woofter Jr. (Coordinator of Rural Research, Works Progress Administration) to Gunnar Myrdal, May 23, 1938, Korrespondens: Gunnar Myrdal 1930–1939, vol. 3.2.1: 11, GAMA; Nathan Straus (Administrator, Department of the Interior United States Housing Authority) to Gunnar Myrdal, June 24, 1938, Brevsamling 1930–1939 S, vol. 9, GAMA.
113. Gunnar Myrdal, interview by Isabel A. Grossner, November 27, 1967, interview 1, CCOHP.
114. Moynihan, “Foreword to the Paperback Edition,” v.
Chapter 7
1. “GM conference with Dr. Keppel, May 2, on the plan contained in letter of April 28, 1939,” “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll. 1, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Frederick Keppel to Gunnar Myrdal, September 4, 1942, “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work: An American Dilemma, 1937–1947,” folder 1942, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives (hereafter GAMA).
3. Dollard interview.
4. Charles Dollard, interviewed by Isabel Grossner, 1969, Carnegie Corporation Oral History Project (hereafter CCOHP).
5. Lagemann, “Keppel, Frederick Paul.”
6. For broader context for these historical actors’ conflation of the study of race relations and Black Americans, see, for example, Walton, Miller, and McCormick, “Race and Political Science”; Steinberg, Race Relations; Bhambra, “A Sociological Dilemma.”
7. “May 8, 1930 Memo,” RG 1.1 Projects, series 200 U.S., box 9, folder 80, Rockefeller Foundation Records (hereafter RFR).
8. “Ruml—Pers. Memoranda 1929,” series II, correspondence, box 5, folder 3, Beardsley Ruml Papers (hereafter BRP).
9. “Ruml—Pers. Memoranda 1929.”
10. Katz and Sugrue, W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City, 13–14; O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 34.
11. Katz and Sugrue, W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City, 13–14.
12. Katz, American Negro, iii; Moss, American Negro Academy; Young and Deskins, “Early Traditions of African-American Sociological Thought.”
13. “Memorandum: The Executive Committee and Director to the Board of Trustees (The Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial for the year October 1, 1924 through September 30, 1925),” series 2, box 2, folder 15, Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Records (hereafter LSRMR).
14. “Race Relations and Negro Work, 1926–1927,” III. Appropriations, subseries 8, box 98, folder 996, LSRMR; “Excerpt ‘Race Relations’ from Memorandum: The Executive Committee and Directors to the Board of Trustees.”
15. “Race Relations and Negro Work”; “Excerpt ‘Race Relations’ from Memorandum.”
16. “Race Relations and Negro Work”; “Excerpt ‘Race Relations’ from Memorandum.”
17. “Race Relations and Negro Work.”
18. “Race Relations and Negro Work.”
19. “Race Relations and Negro Work.”
20. “Race Relations and Negro Work.”
21. Correspondence between Carter G. Woodson and Rockefeller Foundation Managers (March 1930–April 1932), RG 1.1 Projects, series 200, box 9, folders 80 and 81, RFR; Jones, Negro Education.
22. “Excerpt—Trustees’ Confidential Report,” June 1951, Minutes of SSRC general program, folder 4738, box 554, subseries 200S, RG 1.2, RFR.
23. “Race Relations and Negro Work”; “Excerpt ‘Race Relations’ from Memorandum.”
24. “P&P A Nov 24 1928 Committee Personnel,” accession 1, series 1, committee projects, subseries 19, miscellaneous projects, box 174, folder 998, Social Science Research Council Records (hereafter SSRCR).
25. “Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations, 1925–30,” SSRC Annual Reports (1925–1933), 51, SSRCR.
26. Jackson, “Herskovits, Melville Jean”; Manning, “Just, Ernest Everett.” The Sub-Committee on Tests for Race Differences, 1928–1930, included M. J. Herskovits, Ernest E. Just, Joseph Peterson, M. S. Viteles, and T. J. Woofter. The Sub-Committee on Governmental and Political Aspects of Interracial Relations, 1928–1930, included H. F. Gosnell, Joseph P. Harris, Kirk H. Porter, Frank Stewart, and E. J. Woodhouse.
27. Gilmore, “How Anne Scott and Pauli Murray Found Each Other.”
28. “Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations,” 52–53.
29. “Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations,” 52–53.
30. “Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations,” 52–53.
31. “Conference on Racial Differences,” accession 1, series 1, committee projects, subseries 10, miscellaneous projects, box 173, folder 997, SSRCR.
32. “P&P December 14–15, 1930 ‘Joint Committee on Racial Problems,’ ” accession 1, series 1, committee projects, subseries 10, miscellaneous projects, box 174, folder 998, 339–340, SSRCR.
33. “Appendix VII. Report of Interracial Committee, May 24, 1930,” accession 1, series 1, committee projects, subseries 10, miscellaneous projects, box 174, folder 998, 38–39, SSRCR.
34. Correspondence between Carter G. Woodson and Rockefeller Foundation Managers.
35. Woofter, “Status of Racial and Ethnic Groups”; “Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations,” 51. Woofter had been a member of the SSRC’s Advisory Committee on Interracial Relations.
36. Young, Research Memorandum.
37. “Encyclopedia of the Negro Memorandum,” September 15, 1938, series 35:6, box 7, folder 19, folder “Encyclopedia of the Negro, 1935–1940,” Melvin Herskovits Papers (hereafter MHP).
38. C. G. Woodson to the Rockefeller Foundation, June 29, 1936, 1.1. projects, series 200 U.S., box 9, folder 81, RFR; “Memorandum Regarding Encyclopedia of the Negro,” April 27, 1931, box 17, folder 2, Phelps Stokes Fund Records (hereafter PSFR).
39. Woodson to Rockefeller Foundation.
40. Woodson to Rockefeller Foundation.
41. Woodson to Rockefeller Foundation.
42. Anson Phelps Stokes to Jackson Davis, March 31, 1932, box 39, folder 2, PSFR.
43. Phelps Stokes to Davis.
44. SSRC Minutes of the Committee on Problems and Policy, March 17, 1934, accession 1, series 2, Committee on P&P, subseries 1, Minutes, box 313, folder 1781, SSRCR; “Memorandum on the Negro Encyclopedia,” III.A. grant files, ca. 1911–1988, box 139, folder 139.11, CCNYR.
45. “Encyclopedia of the Negro Memorandum,” August 2, 1938, series 35:6, box 7, folder 19, MHP.
46. Donald Young to Melville Herskovits, April 7, 1936, series 35:6, box 22, folder 3, MHP; Herskovits to Young, April 13, 1936, series 35:6, box 22, folder 3, MHP.
47. Young to Herskovits; Herskovits to Young.
48. Young to Herskovits; Herskovits to Young.
49. Frederick Keppel to Anson Phelps Stokes, November 17, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 139, folder 139.11, CCNYR.
50. Karl, Uneasy State; Leuchtenburg, “New Deal and the Analogue of War.”
51. Karl and Katz, “American Private Philanthropic Foundation,” 242.
52. Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks, chap. 3.
53. White, Man Called White, 169–170.
54. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 341–343.
55. Kennedy, 341–343.
56. Sitkoff, 342.
57. Brown, Strain of Violence, appendix; Rushdy, End of American Lynching, 94.
58. Wright Rigueur, The Loneliness of the Black Republican, 15, 18.
59. Wright Rigueur, 13–14.
60. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks, 64.
61. Sitkoff, 65–66.
62. Sitkoff, 65–66.
63. Sitkoff, 79.
64. Sitkoff, 79.
65. “Negro in Industry,” 345.
66. “Negro in Industry,” 345–346.
67. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis.
68. Drake and Cayton, xiii; Washington, “Horace Cayton,” 56.
69. Peretz, “Making of Black Metropolis.”
70. Grimshaw, “A Study in Social Violence,” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1959, cited in Rudwick, Race Riot, 3.
71. Tuttle, Race Riot, 11.
72. Blain and Zoellner, “ ‘Riots,’ ‘Mobs,’ ‘Chaos.’ ”
73. Harris, “Logic of Black Urban Rebellions.”
74. Gruening and Du Bois, “Massacre of East St. Louis.”
75. Herman, “Ten Years After.”
76. Gruening and Du Bois, “Massacre of East St. Louis,” 219.
77. Gruening and Du Bois, 219.
78. Gruening and Du Bois, 219.
79. Rudwick, Race Riot, 6.
80. Rudwick, 27–33.
81. McLaughlin, “Ghetto Formation and Armed Resistance.”
82. Gruening and Du Bois, “Massacre of East St. Louis,” 238.
83. Rudwick, Race Riot, chap. 10.
84. Rudwick, 138.
85. Rudwick, 139.
86. Rudwick, 140.
87. Rudwick, chap. 10; Platt, Politics of Riot Commissions.
88. Rudwick, Race Riot, 140–141.
89. Rudwick, 140–141.
90. Tuttle, Race Riot, 14.
91. Francis, Civil Rights and the Making of the Modern American State, 57.
92. Tuttle, Race Riot, 21.
93. Tuttle, 22, 23.
94. Platt, Politics of Riot Commissions, 95.
95. Tuttle, Race Riot, 6–7.
96. “Summary of the 1919 Chicago Race Riots.”
97. Tuttle, Race Riot, 9–10.
98. Daley, “To Remember the Chicago Race Riot.”
99. Tuttle, Race Riot, 32.
100. Platt, Politics of Riot Commissions, 120; Farber, “Charles S. Johnson’s ‘The Negro in Chicago,’ ” 79.
101. Lupo, Flak-Catchers, chap. 4.
102. Lupo, chap. 4.
103. Chicago Commission on Race Relations, Negro in Chicago, 652–653.
104. Chicago Commission, xvii.
105. Chicago Commission, xvii.
106. Chicago Commission, 152.
107. Chicago Commission, 221.
108. Lewis, foreword, ix–x.
109. Chicago Commission, Negro in Chicago, 221.
110. Chicago Commission, 300.
111. Chicago Commission, 362.
112. Chicago Commission, 393, 494.
113. Chicago Commission, 640–651.
114. Lupo, Flak-Catchers, chap. 4.
115. Lupo, chap. 5.
116. Greenberg, “Or Does it Explode?,” 3.
117. Lupo, Flak-Catchers, chap. 5.
118. Fay, “Harlem Riot of 1935.”
119. Johnson, “Generation of Women Activists,” 225.
120. Platt, Politics of Riot Commissions, 161–162.
121. Mayor’s Commission on Conditions in Harlem, Negro in Harlem.
122. Mayor’s Commission.
123. Lupo, Flak-Catchers, chap. 5.
124. Mayor’s Commission, Negro in Harlem, chap. 9.
125. Mayor’s Commission, chap. 9.
126. Kessner, Fiorello H. LaGuardia, quoted in Lupo, Flak-Catchers, chap. 5.
Chapter 8
1. Lord Lothian (Philip Kerr) to Frederick Keppel, August 2, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR); Frederick Keppel to Lord Lothian, November 29, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 797, folder 797.6, CCNYR.
2. Lothian to Keppel; Keppel to Lothian.
3. Keppel to Lothian.
4. Anderson, “Northern Foundations and the Shaping of Southern Black Rural Education”; Link, “Jackson Davis and the Lost World of Jim Crow Education.”
5. Beaver, “Baker, Newton Diehl.”
6. Frederick Keppel to Raymond Fosdick, June 8, 1938, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR; Fosdick to Keppel, June 15, 1938, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR.
7. Day to Gunn, June 21, 1932, box 111, 1.1 Projects 800, folder 800S, Rockefeller Foundation Records (hereafter RFR).
8. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 32.
9. Diary entries, May 12, 1933, and October 5, 1933, Officers Diaries, Max Mason, reel 1, RFR.
10. Alva and Gunnar Myrdal to Van Sickle, July 20, 1933, 1.1 Projects, 717S, box 20, folder 181, RFR.
11. Myrdal to Kittredge, June 8, 1938, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:8, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives (hereafter GAMA); Kittredge to Myrdal, July 6, 1938, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:8, GAMA; Rockefeller Foundation, Directory of Fellowships and Scholarships.
12. “Chapter 1: The Old Study” (1983 Draft), Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work, vol. 4.2.11:6, GAMA.
13. See, generally, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
14. Fosdick, Adventure in Giving, 266.
15. Fosdick, vii.
16. Perkins, Edwin Rogers Embree.
17. Perkins, 110.
18. Perkins, 110.
19. Perkins, 110.
20. Embree, Julius Rosenwald, 13–15.
21. Fosdick, Adventure in Giving, 20.
22. Fosdick, 125.
23. Fosdick to Keppel, June 15, 1938, series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2789, General Education Board Records (hereafter GEBR); Myrdal to Keppel, January 28, 1939, series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2789, GEBR; Memorandum from Davis to Keppel (“Trip with Gunnar Myrdal and Richard Sterner, October 3–20, 1938”), series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2787, GEBP.
24. Goodrich to Myrdal, August 5, 1939, vol. 3.2.1:3, folder “130-t- C,” GAMA.
25. Fosdick to Keppel; Myrdal to Keppel, January 28, 1939; Memorandum from Davis to Keppel.
26. Myrdal to Keppel, January 28, 1939.
27. Myrdal to Boström, February 9, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:1, folder “Boström, Wollmar,” GAMA; Myrdal to Kinberg, June 8, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:6, GAMA.
28. Myrdal to Kinberg, June 8, 1939.
29. “Office of the President, Record of Interview, Subject: Negro Study, CD and Myrdal,” March 21, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence roll 1, CCNYR; Myrdal to Keppel, April 28, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence roll 1, CCNYR; “Thomas, W. Jr. (Dissertation) Proposal for the Study of the Relation of Behavior to Social Structure in Scandinavia,” Accession 1, Series 1, Committee Projects, Subseries 22, box 248, folder 1474, “Social Sciences Research Council Records (hereafter SSRCR); “Social Sciences Research Aid, No. 4; Recipient: Karl Gunnar Myrdal,” June 16, 1932, 1.1. Projects, Record Group 800, box 10, folder 1010, RFR; Myrdal to Kittredge, March 28, 1935, 1.1. Projects, Record Group 800, box 10, folder 1010, RFR; Thomas to Walker, March 2, 1940, 1.1. Projects, Record Group 800, box 11, folder 106, RFR. See, for example, Myrdal and Bouvin, Cost of Living in Sweden 1830–1930; Myrdal, “Industrialization and Population”; Thomas, Social and Economic Aspects.
30. Myrdal to Keppel, April 28, 1939.
31. “Biographical/Historical Information,” Doxey A. Wilkerson Papers (hereafter DWP); Clarkin, “Bunche, Ralph Johnson.”
32. Myrdal to Keppel, April 28, 1939.
33. Myrdal to Keppel.
34. Myrdal to Keppel.
35. Myrdal to Keppel.
36. Myrdal to Keppel.
37. Myrdal to Keppel.
38. Myrdal to Keppel.
39. Myrdal to Keppel, “Report of Progress,” July 25, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence roll 1, CCNYR.
40. Myrdal to Keppel, April 28, 1939.
41. Nepa, “Harris, Abram Lincoln, Jr.”; Mazzari, “Arthur Raper and Documentary Realism”; Stepto, “Brown, Sterling Allen”; Bender, “Beard, Charles Austin”; Cott, “Beard, Mary Ritter”; and “Collection Overview,” Guion Griffis Johnson Papers.
42. “Carnegie Corporation Interview with Jackson Davis,” November 28, 1938, series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2787, GEBR.
43. “Chapter 1: The Old Study.”
44. “Interviews with Myrdal and Sterner,” March 6, 1939, series 12, Davis, subseries (Jackson Davis), box 8, folder 1939, GEBR.
45. Keppel to Davis, May 13, 1940, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR; “GEB Interview with Myrdal,” April 8, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR; “GEB Interview with Myrdal,” May 12, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR.
46. Davis to Flexner, May 2, 1944, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, reel 1, CCNYR.
47. “The Committee of 100 Dinner Invitation,” June 2, 1948, “Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work,” vol. 4.2.05:003, folder “Kipp,” GAMA. For a discussion of the NAACP’s Committee of 100, see Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law, 34–35.
48. Tushnet, NAACP’s Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 2, 34. For greater context for the NAACP’s shifting priorities in the mid- to late 1930s, see Francis, Civil Rights and the Making of the Modern American State; Tushnet, NAACP’s Legal Strategy.
49. Walter White to “Whom It May Concern,” September 19, 1939, box 10B, folder “General Correspondence, Walter White 1939–42,” Ralph Bunche Papers (hereafter RBP).
50. “Guests at the Tea for Dr. Myrdal—September 10, 1942,”, box 77, folder “Mu (205),” Frederick P. Keppel Papers.
51. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xiv.
52. See, for example, box 29, folder 2 “Carnegie-Myrdal Correspondence, 1939–40,” RBP.
53. See, for example, box 29, folders 1 and 2, RBP; Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:13, vol. 3.2.1:14, and vol. 3.2.1:16, GAMA. Specifically about Dorn, see Myrdal to Parran, April 29, 1940, vol. 3.2.1:16, GAMA.
54. “Harold F. Dorn (1906–1963)”; Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xiii.
55. Myrdal to LaFollette, September 10, 1937, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:6, GAMA; LaFollette to Myrdal, February 7, 1939, March 13, 1939, March 22, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:6, GAMA.
56. McGuire to Myrdal, May 17, 1938, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1: 3, GAMA.
57. “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript of An American Dilemma Revisited,” Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work, vol. 4.3.11:08b, 57, GAMA.
58. “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript,” 208–209.
59. See, for example, Frankfurter to Myrdal, June 19, 1938, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:3, GAMA; Myrdal to Frankfurter, January 12, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:3, GAMA.
60. An American Dilemma Revisited (January 1986 draft), documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s work, vol. 4.2.11:08b, 57, GAMA. See also Myrdal, Historien om “An American Dilemma.”
61. Myrdal to Ezekiel, January 5, 1939, Gunnar Myrdal’s Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1: 3, GAMA.
62. Myrdal to Ezekiel; Myrdal to Alexander, April 29, 1940, Gunnar Myrdal’s Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:13, GAMA.
63. Foreman to Myrdal, April 29, 1940, Gunnar Myrdal’s Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:14, GAMA; Hinrichs to Myrdal, January 7, 1944, Gunnar Myrdal’s Correspondence, vol. 3.2.1:14, GAMA.
64. Bunche to Roosevelt, May 3, 1940, box 33, folder 20, RBP.
65. “Memorandum of the Interview,” 13, box 33, folder 20, RBP.
66. Davis, Guest of Honor.
67. “Memorandum of the Interview,” 14.
68. After the interview, Bunche provided Myrdal with a twenty-page summary of the White House with detailed descriptions of the meals, of his interactions with White House staff, and, of his conversations on Black Americans with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and her two secretaries.
69. Keppel to Myrdal’s Staff, May 13, 1940, series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2788, GEBR.
70. “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript.”
71. “Notes on journey U.S. 1940–43,” Alva Myrdal’s Personal Documents, vol. 1.1:008, GAMA; “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript,” 19.
72. “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript,” 19.
73. “Notes on journey.”
74. “January 1986 Gunnar Myrdal’s manuscript,” 22.
75. “Record of Interviews,” February 28, 1941, and March 12, 1941, roll 1, CCNYR.
Chapter 9
1. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 161.
2. Myrdal to Dollard, July 22, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
3. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xv–xvi.
4. Myrdal, xi.
5. Myrdal, title page. Also worth noting: along with Gunnar Myrdal’s central manuscript, Harper & Brothers also published four companion texts that members of his research team had initially had as memoranda. During Myrdal’s absence in Sweden a year earlier, Carnegie Corporation and University of Chicago sociologist Samuel A. Stouffer agreed to publish these monographs in case Myrdal was not able to return from Europe to complete the U.S. project. See Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past; Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation; Sterner, Negro’s Share; Klineberg, Characteristics of the American Negro; Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xii.
6. Office of the President, Record of Interview, August 28–29, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
7. Gunnar Myrdal to Charles Dollard, July 22, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
8. Cell, Hailey, 229.
9. Dollard to Myrdal, July 24, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
10. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 806.
11. Myrdal, 806–807.
12. See chapter 6 of this book.
13. Dollard to Myrdal, November 28, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
14. Record of Interview, July 27, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
15. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 200. See also, Myrdal, An American Dilemma, app. 10.
16. Hirdman, Alva Myrdal, 223.
17. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kontakt med Amerika.
18. Hirdman, Alva Myrdal.
19. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kontakt.
20. Myrdal and Myrdal, 32–33.
21. Myrdal and Myrdal, 33.
22. Myrdal and Myrdal, 34.
23. Myrdal and Myrdal, 51.
24. Myrdal and Myrdal, 52.
25. Myrdal and Myrdal, 52.
26. Myrdal and Myrdal, 52.
27. Myrdal and Myrdal, 56.
28. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xliii.
29. Myrdal, xliii.
30. Myrdal, 24.
31. Myrdal, 24.
32. Myrdal, xlvii.
33. Myrdal, 1065.
34. Myrdal, 1065.
35. Myrdal, 1065.
36. Myrdal, 1065. The author refers to his English-language text, Monetary Equilibrium. An earlier version was published in Swedish in 1931. See Myrdal, “Om penningteoretisk jämvikt.”
37. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 75, 1069.
38. Myrdal, 1066.
39. Myrdal, 1066.
40. Myrdal, 1067.
41. Myrdal, 1065–1066.
42. Myrdal, 1068.
43. Myrdal, 1067–1068.
44. Myrdal, 1068.
45. Myrdal, 60, 61.
46. Myrdal, 61.
47. Myrdal, 61.
48. Myrdal, 60–61.
49. Myrdal, 1066.
50. Myrdal, 1066.
51. Myrdal, 53.
52. Myrdal, 57.
53. Myrdal, 53, 57.
54. Singh, Black Is a Country.
55. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1015.
56. Myrdal, 1016.
57. Myrdal, 1019.
58. Myrdal, 1022.
59. Keppel, foreword, viii.
60. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 929.
61. Myrdal, 167.
62. Myrdal, 168.
63. For more on the Myrdals in 1930s Sweden and the public policy significance of their coauthored text Kris befolkningsfrågan, see, for example, Ekerwald, “To Build a Nation”; Ekerwald, “Modernist Manifesto of Alva and Gunnar Myrdal”; Wisselgren, “Reforming the Science-Policy Boundary.” For symposia on the Myrdals, see Lyman and Eliaeson, “Alva and Gunnar Myrdal”; Morey and Martin, “Gunnar Myrdal Symposium.”
64. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kris, chap. 1.
65. Myrdal and Myrdal. See also Baker, Margaret Sanger, 91.
66. Myrdal and Myrdal, chap. 2, “Nativitet och inkomststandard.”
67. Myrdal and Myrdal, 9.
68. Myrdal and Myrdal, 9.
69. Myrdal and Myrdal, chap. 6, “Utjämning av barnförsörjningskostnaden genom socialpolitik.”
70. See, for example, Eliaeson, “Gunnar Myrdal”; Hirdman, Alva Myrdal; Carlson, Swedish Experiment in Family Politics.
71. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kris, 66.
72. Myrdal and Myrdal, 67.
73. Myrdal and Myrdal, 223.
74. Spektorowski and Mizrachi, “Eugenics and the Welfare State in Sweden,” 347.
75. Spektorowski and Mizrachi, 347. See also Connelly, Fatal Misconception; Bashford and Levine, Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics.
76. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 175–178.
77. Myrdal, 175–176.
78. Myrdal, 176.
79. Myrdal, 176.
80. Myrdal, 178.
81. Myrdal and Myrdal, Kris, 69.
82. Myrdal and Myrdal, 71.
83. Myrdal and Myrdal, 74.
84. Myrdal and Myrdal, 72.
85. Myrdal and Myrdal, 67.
86. Myrdal and Myrdal, 76, 224.
87. Myrdal and Myrdal, 76.
88. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, xlviii.
89. Myrdal, xlvii–xlviii, 462–466, 792–494.
90. Myrdal, 437.
91. Myrdal, 545.
92. Myrdal, 463, 545–546.
93. Myrdal, 463.
94. Myrdal, 546.
95. Myrdal, 1015.
96. Myrdal, 464–465.
97. “Interview Memorandum,” November 17, 1938, series 1, subseries 1.2, box 270, folder 2787, General Education Board Records (hereafter GEBR).
98. “Interview Memorandum.”
99. “Office of the President Record of Interview,” November 20, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
100. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 124.
101. Jackson, 124.
102. “Office of the President Record of Interview.”
103. “Record of Interview,” November 27, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
104. See, for example, Dollard to Myrdal, November 28, 1941, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
105. Dollard to Myrdal.
106. Keppel to Myrdal, July 13, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
107. Myrdal, Nation and Family (1941), chap. 22, cited in Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1078.
108. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1073.
109. Myrdal, 1075; Gilmore, Gender & Jim Crow, 23, 47, 72–73.
110. French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir would pick up on Myrdal’s appendix and credit this section of An American Dilemma for inspiring her to write Le Deuxieme Sexe (The Second Sex, 1949). Morey, “A Displaced American Feminist in Paris.”
111. Dollard to Myrdal, July 10, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
112. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 429.
113. Myrdal, 449, 451.
114. Gunnar Myrdal, interview by Walter Jackson, August 8, 1980, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives.
115. Keppel to Jessup, “Office of the President, Record of Interview, Confidential Memorandum to WAJ from FPK,” July 27, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
116. Keppel to Jessup, “Office of the President.”
117. Record of interview, July 27, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
118. Jessup to Keppel, July 30, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
119. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, v.
120. Myrdal, v.
121. Myrdal, vi.
122. Myrdal, vi–vii.
123. Myrdal, 1019.
124. Myrdal, vii.
Chapter 10
1. “Public Affairs Pamphlets are Best Sellers,” 210.
2. “Public Affairs Pamphlets are Best Sellers,” 210.
3. M. B., review, 332.
4. Lawson, To Secure These Rights, 126.
5. Lawson, 126.
6. Lawson, 138–139.
7. Lawson, 49.
8. Lawson, 54.
9. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 60–61.
10. Lawson, “Introduction,” 32.
11. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 61.
12. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 6.
13. Dudziak, 11.
14. Solovey, Shaky Foundations, 123.
15. “Official Reports”; “McCarthyism and the Red Scare.”
16. “Foundations Defend Freedom of Inquiry.”
17. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York submitted to Special Committee to Investigate Tax Exempt Foundations,” July 1954, Documents from Gunnar Myrdal’s Work, vol. 4.2.11:19, 15, 22, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives.
18. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 28; Orlans, “Social Science Research Policies in the United States.”
19. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations, 157, 174–177.
20. Southern, 157, 174–177.
21. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 28.
22. Rosenfield, A World of Giving, 153.
23. Rosenfield, 153.
24. Rosenfield, 153.
25. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 30.
26. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 30.
27. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 30.
28. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 30.
29. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 31.
30. “Statements of Carnegie Corporation of New York,” 32.
31. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vi.
32. Dodd, Dodd Report to the Reece Committee. See also Solovey, Shaky Foundations, 126.
33. See, for example, Von Eschen, Race against Empire; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Bell, “Brown v. Board of Education.”
34. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize, 3.
35. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 12.
36. Von Eschen, Race against Empire, 128.
37. Von Eschen, 129.
38. Wilkerson, introduction, 9.
39. Aptheker, Negro People in America, 54; Lehmann-Haupt, “Herbert Aptheker.”
40. McLemee and Le Blanc, C. L. R. James and Revolutionary Marxism, 179.
41. Cox, Caste, Class and Race, 538.
42. Cox, 538.
43. Du Bois, review; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 453.
44. Du Bois, review, 121.
45. Du Bois, 123.
46. Du Bois, Color and Democracy, 274–275.
47. Du Bois, 311.
48. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 453.
49. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 261.
50. Jackson, 302.
51. Joseph, “Rethinking the Black Power Era,” 707–708.
52. Joseph, 709.
53. Joseph, 711.
54. Nelson, Body and Soul, 5–6.
55. Nelson, 114.
56. Joseph, Stokely, 15, 268.
57. Horne, Black Revolutionary, 189.
58. Horne, 189.
59. Marable, Malcolm X, 3.
60. Rampersad, Ralph Ellison, 181–182.
61. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, xi.
62. Ellison, Invisible Man.
63. Ellison, Shadow and Act.
64. Tuttle, Race Riot, v–vi.
65. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 929.
66. Anderson, This Was Harlem, 307.
67. Anderson, 314.
68. Anderson, 23.
69. Anderson, 256.
70. Wall, Harlem Renaissance, 50.
71. Ellison, “An American Dilemma: A Review.”
72. Ellison.
73. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 929.
74. Ellison, “An American Dilemma: A Review.”
75. Ellison.
76. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 302–311.
77. Cook, review, 207–209.
78. Killens, Black Man’s Burden, 58.
79. Transcript of the Academy discussion, May 14–15, 1965, quoted in Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations.
80. Stone, “People without a Country,” 8–9, 11.
81. Stone, 8–9, 11.
82. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 455–56.
83. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power, 9–10, 5.
84. Carmichael and Hamilton, 5.
85. Carmichael and Hamilton, 22–23, 44.
86. Carmichael and Hamilton, 55.
87. King, Where Do We Go from Here, 84–85.
88. King, 9.
89. King, 15.
90. Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire, 1.
91. Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom, xi, xiii.
92. For more on Nkruma’s pan-African congresses, see, for example, Nkrumah, Africa Must Unite; Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire, chap. 3.
93. Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics, 121.
94. Moodley, “Continued Impact of Black Consciousness in South Africa,” 243–244; Davie, Poverty Knowledge in South Africa, 197–198.
95. Moodley, “Continued Impact of Black Consciousness in South Africa,” 250–251.
96. See, for example, King, Where Do We Go From Here, chap. 3; Nkrumah, Africa Must Unite, 139.
97. Frederick Keppel to Anson Phelps Stokes, November 17, 1938, III.A. grant files, box 139, folder 139.11, Carnegie Corporation of New York Record; Frederick Keppel to W. E. B. Du Bois, August 29, 1939, W. E. B. Du Bois Papers.
98. Keppel to Phelps Stokes; Keppel to Du Bois.
99. Keppel to Du Bois.
100. Du Bois, Color and Democracy, 286.
Epilogue
1. “Record of Interview,” July 27, 1942, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CCNYR).
2. Gunnar Myrdal, interview by Walter Jackson, August 18, 1980, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal Archives (hereafter GAMA).
3. Scott, Scott’s Official History, 454.
4. “Conference, Myrdal and Keppel,” May 2, 1939, “Negro Study” General Correspondence, roll 1, CCNYR.
5. Harris, “Locke, Alain Leroy.”
6. Keppel to Loram, January 21, 1930, Administrative Records, I.D., Policy & Program, box 206, folder 206.1, CCNYR.
7. “Memorandum of Interview,” 1925, box 281, folder 281.2, CCNYR.