Appendixes
Appendix I–1
The Aghlabid governors in Sicily, 827–909 – Islamic Sicily I
Until the Norman conquest in the eleventh century, Sicily had been part of the Islamic world for more than two centuries. It was a so-called arabo-siculo culture which remained alive under the Norman and Swabian rulers and was incorporated into a brilliant Arab-Norman culture. This Islamic tradition, which was to be firmly impressed on Sicilian history in due course, was nourished under the rule of Aghlabid, Fāṭimid and Kalbite dynasties.
Substantial investigation on Islamic Sicily was begun by an Italian Arabist, Michele Amari (1806–1906), most of whose studies are still of great value.1 His monumental work, Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia (3 vols., Florence 1854–1872), was first published more than 130 years ago. Many scholars have since been engaged in this subject and have produced important monographs on various topics.2 Unfortunately, however, nobody has attempted to make a list of the Islamic governors (rulers) as complete as possible based on available sources,3 a task which is most essential to the study of this period.
The following is the result of my investigation of the Muslim governors in Sicily, for which BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 723–726, has offered key information.
* * *
I transliterate Arabic letters based on the following rule with vowels added:
The abbreviation system is as follows:
* * *
I. The Aghlabid governors (wālī s): 827–909
The first Muslim dynasty was established by an Aghlabid military commander, qāḍī Asad b. al-Furāt, in the middle of the ninth century. In 827 the Aghlabid commander Asad b. al-Furāt was ordered to make an expedition to Sicily by the third Aghlabid amīr Ziyāda Allāh (817–838),4 who had received an appeal for help from Euphemios, a rebellious Byzantine naval commander in Sicily. This expedition was to change the destiny of the island because Asad’s victory against the Byzantine army established a firm foothold for the Aghlabids in Sicily and began the long Muslim occupation of Sicily. Asad died in the following year, but his role as leader of the Muslim army of Sicily was taken over by Muḥammad b. Abī al-Jawārī (828–†829) and, after the latter’s death, by Zuhayr b. Ghawth (829–830).5
The successors of Asad were called wālī (or sometimes amīr or ‘āmil) and ruled as governors of Sicily. These wālī s were sometimes elected by the Muslims in Sicily and confirmed by the Aghlabid amīr s, and at other times they were directly appointed by the latter. Thus they kept a close relationship with the Aghlabid court in Tunisia. The Aghlabid amīr’s influence is shown by Sicilian coins bearing the name of an Aghlabid amīr6 and the Friday sermon (khuṭba) in which the name of an Aghlabid amīr was mentioned together with that of an ‘Abbāsid caliph. But the walīs acted almost independently, deciding on war and peace on their own.7
Under Aghlabid rule (827–908) the Muslims took most Sicilian towns from Byzantine hands: Palermo – which became the capital of the Muslims in Sicily – was captured in 831, Messina in 843, Castrogiovanni in 859, Syracuse in 878 and Taormina in 902. Thus in 909, when Aghlabid rule came to an end, the whole of Sicily was under Muslim rule.8 This Muslim occupation profoundly changed land ownership in Sicily. An iqṭā‘ system was introduced, in which conquered land was distributed among soldiers of the Muslim army (jund) and the landholder (muqṭa‘) was given almost full power to administer the land (qaṭī‘a), although he had to pay a land tax (‘ushr) to the state.9 Various administrative customs and organizations characteristic of other contemporary Muslim states were also introduced into Sicily.10
1. The q āḍī Asad b. al-Furāt (827–†828)
Asad b. al-Furāt was appointed commander of the Muslim force in Sicily by the third Aghlabid amīr Ziyāda Allāh I, and he left Africa for Sicily in the month of Rabī‘ al-Awwal of AH 212 (31 May–29 Jun. 827) [Nuwayrī, Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn al-Athīr]. He died in the month of Sha‘bān of AH 213 (15 Oct.–12 Nov. 828) [Nuwayrī] or in the month of Rajab of AH 213 (15 Sep.–14 Oct. 828) [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 427–429, sana 212 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 114–117, anno 212); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 354–355, sana 212, 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 5, anno 212, 213); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 1, p. 460, faṣl 4, p. 466 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §1, p. 164; §4, p. 173); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 221–223, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 364–367, anno 201). Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 275, 361, 368–406, 455, 536; vol. 2, pp. 53, 255, 500.
2. Muḥammad b. Abī al-Jawārī (828–†829)
Muḥammad b. Abī al-Jawārī was chosen wālī by the Muslims of Sicily in AH 213 (22 Mar. 828–10 Mar. 229) after the death of Asad b. al-Furāt. He died in AH 214 (11 Mar. 829–27 Feb. 830). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 429, sana 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 117–118, anno 213); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 355, sana 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 5–6, anno 213); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 4, p. 467 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §4, p. 174); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 223, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 367–368, anno 201). Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 407, 414–417, 429.
3. Zuhayr b. Ghawth (829–830)
Zuhayr b. Ghawth is called Zuhr b. Barghūth (or Burghawth [B/r/gh/w/th]) by Nuwayrī and Zuhayr b. ‘Awn (‘/w/n) by Ibn Khaldūn. He was chosen by the Muslims of Sicily after the death of Muḥammad in AH 214 (11 Mar. 829–27 Feb. 830). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 430, sana 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 118, anno 213); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 4, p. 467 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §4, p. 175); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 223–224, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 368, anno 201). There is no mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 415 and note.
4. Aṣbāgh b. Wakīr, Farghlūsh (830–†830)
Aṣbāgh b. Wakīr arrived in Sicily from Spain in AH 214 (11 Mar. 829–27 Feb. 830) and took the government in AH 215 (28 Feb. 830–17 Feb. 831), but died of the plague in the same year [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 430, sana 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 119, anno 213); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 355–356, sana 214 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 6–7, anno 214). There is no mention in Ibn Khaldūn and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 418–422; vol. 2, p. 53.
5. ‘Uthmān b. Qurhub (830?–832)
‘Uthmān b. Qurhub was expelled from Sicily by Abū Fihr Muḥammad in AH 217 (7 Feb. 832–26 Jan. 833, Ibn ‘Adhārī). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 356, sana 216 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 7, anno 216). There is no mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 427.
6. Abū Fihr Muḥammad b. ‘Abd Allāh b. al-Aghlab (831–†851)
Abū Fihr was appointed wālī by his cousin, the Aghlabid amīr Ziyādat Allāh I (817–838), in AH 216 (18 Feb. 831–6 Feb. 832). He went to Sicily from Africa and expelled ‘Uthmān b. Qurhub in AH 217 (7 Feb. 832–26 Jan. 833) [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Nuwayrī thinks that Abū Fihr ruled for 19 years and died on the tenth day of the month of Rajab of AH 236 (17 Jan. 851) [Nuwayrī]. Ibn al-Athīr also mentions Rajab of AH 236 as the date of his death. Ibn Khaldūn says that he died in AH 236 after having governed Sicily for 19 years. According to Abū al-Fidā’, Abū Fihr died in the month of Rajab of AH 237 (29 Dec. 851–27 Jan. 852). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 431, sana 215, 236 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 119, anno 215, 236); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 356, sana 216, 217, 220 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 7, anno 216, 217, 220); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 4, p. 471 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §4, p. 180); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 404–405, sana 228, 237 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 85, 86, anno 224 [sic], 237); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 225, 230, sana 201, 228, 237 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 369, 377, anno 201, 228, 237). Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 358–359, 427–429, 431–432, 455.
* Al-Faḍl b. Ya‘qūb (835)
The Aghlabid amīr Ziyāda Allāh sent Al-Faḍl b. Ya‘qūb to Sicily. Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 4, p. 468 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §4, p. 176); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 225, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 370, anno 201). There is no mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn ‘Adhārī and Abū al-Fidā’. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 432, 438.
* Abū al-Aghlab Ibrāhīm b. ‘Abd-Allāh b. al-Aghlab (835–†851)
Abū al-Aghlab, brother of Abū Fihr, was appointed wālī by the amīr and left for Sicily on the fifteenth day of the month of Ramaḍān of AH 220 (12 Sep. 835) [Ibn Khaldūn]. He died in AH 236 (15 Jul. 850–4 Jul. 851) [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 356–357, sana 220, 236 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 7, 9, anno 220, 236); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 4, p. 468 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §4, p. 176); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 226, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 370, anno 201). There is no mention in Nuwayrī and Abū al-Fidā’. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 427, 432–439, 454–455, 492.
7. Al-‘Abbās b. al-Faḍl b. Ya‘qūb b. Fazāra (851–†861)
Al-‘Abbās was chosen wālī by the Muslims of Sicily and confirmed by the fifth Aghlabid amīr Muḥammad I (841–856) in AH 236 (15 Jul. 850–4 Jul. 851) [Nuwayrī, Ibn ‘Adhārī], or in AH 237 (5 Jul. 851–22 Jul. 852) [Abū al-Fidā’, Ibn al-Athīr]. He died either on the third day of the month of Jumādā al-ūlā of AH 247 (15 Jul. 861) [Ibn ‘Adhārī], or on the third day of the month of Jumādā al-ākhira of AH 247 (14 Aug. 861) [Nuwayrī, Ibn al-Athīr]. Ibn Khaldūn says that his death was in the middle of AH 247. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 431–432, sana 236, 244 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 120, 122, anno 236, 244); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 357–358, sana 236, 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 9, 12, anno 236, 247); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, pp. 471–472 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, pp. 180, 182); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 405, sana 237, 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 85–86, anno 237, 247); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 231, 234, sana 237 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 377, 381–382, anno 237). Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 450–451, 456–475, 479, 481, 487, 512.
8. Aḥmad b. Ya‘qūb (861–861)
Aḥmad b. Ya‘qūb, uncle of Al-‘Abbās b. Faḍl, was chosen by the Arabs of Sicily after the death of Al-‘Abbās (Jul. or Aug. 861) and confirmed by the sixth Aghlabid amīr Abū Ibrāhīm Aḥmad, but he was deposed by the Muslims of Sicily in AH 247 (17 Mar. 861–6 Mar. 862). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 433, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 122, anno 247); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 357–358, 359, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 12–13, anno 247). No mention in Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 533–535.
9. ‘Abd Allāh b. al-‘Abbās (861–862)
‘Abd Allāh, son of Al-‘Abbās b. Faḍl, was chosen by the Muslims of Sicily but rejected by the amīr in AH 247 (17 Mar. 861–6 Mar. 862). He governed for five months [Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Ibn al-Athīr]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 433, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 122, anno 247); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 6, p. 472 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §6, p. 183); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 405, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 86, anno 247); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 234, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 382–383, anno 247). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 480–481.
10. Khafāja b. Sufyān b. Sawāda (862–†869)
Khafāja was appointed wālī by the amīr and arrived in Sicily in the month of Jumādā al-ūlā of AH 248 (2–30 Aug. 862) [Ibn al-Athīr]. Ibn Khaldūn and Nuwayrī mention AH 248 (7 Mar. 862–23 Feb. 863) as that date. He was killed on the first day of the month of Rajab of AH 255 (15 Jun. 869) [Ibn ‘Adhārī, Nuwayrī, Ibn al-Athīr]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 433, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 122–123, anno 247); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 360, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 14, anno 255); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 6, p. 472 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §6, p. 184); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 405, sana 247, 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 86, 87, anno 247, 255); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 234, 237, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 383, 387, anno 247). Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 477–478, 481–489; vol. 2, p. 60.
11. Muḥammad b. Khafāja b Sufyān (869–†871)
Muḥammad, son of Khafāja, was chosen wālī by the Muslims in Sicily just after the death of his father (15 Jun. 869), and confirmed by the eighth Aghlabid amīr Abū al-Gharānīq Muḥammad II (863–875) in AH 255 (20 Dec. 868–8 Dec. 869). He was killed by his own eunuchs on the third day of the month of Rajab of AH 257 (27 May 871). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 433, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 360, sana 255, 257 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 14–15, anno 255, 257); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 6, p. 473 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §6, p. 184); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 405–406, sana 247, 255, 257 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 86, 87, anno 247, 255, 257); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 237, sana 247 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 387, anno 247).
12*. Muḥammad b. Abī al-Ḥusayn (871–871)
He was chosen wālī by the Muslims of Sicily after the death of Muḥammad on 27 May 871, but rejected by the amīr (Nuwayrī). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 433, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 490–491, 531. Concerning the period of disturbance (871–873), the sources offer contradictory information. We need further examination on the governors during this period (I put asterisks on their numbers).
13*. Rabāḥ b. Ya‘qūb b. Fazāra (871–†871) [and ‘Abd Allāh b. Ya‘qūb (871–†871) for Italy]
Rabāḥ b. Ya‘qūb was appointed wālī of Sicily and his brother ‘Abd Allāh b. Ya‘qūb wālī of Italy by the amīr in AH 257 (29 Nov. 870–17 Nov. 871). Rabāḥ b. Ya‘qūb died in the month of Muḥarram of AH 258 (18 Nov.–17 Dec. 871), and ‘Abd Allāh died in the month of Ṣafar of the same year (18 Dec. 871–15 Jan. 872) [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 433–434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 360, sana 257–258 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 15, anno 257–258); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 406, sana 257 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 87, anno 257); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 238, sana 257 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 389, anno 257). No mention in Ibn Khaldūn. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 457, 467, 480, 491, 526, 531–532.
14*. Abū al-‘Abbās b. Ya‘qūb b. ‘Abd Allāh (871–†871)
Abū al-‘Abbās was chosen wālī by the Muslims of Sicily but died after a short time and was replaced with his brother ‘Abd Allāh b. Ya‘qūb, wālī for Italy. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 531.
15*. ‘Abd Allāh b. Ya‘qūb (871–871)
‘Abd Allāh, wālī for Italy and brother of Abū al-‘Abbās and Aḥmad, was chosen wālī of Sicily by the Muslims of Sicily after the death of his brother Abū al-‘Abbās. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 491, 526–528, 531.
16*. Al-Ḥusayn b. Rabāḥ Aḥmad b. Ya‘qūb (872–872)
Al-Ḥusayn, son of Rabāḥ Aḥmad b. Ya‘qūb, was appointed wālī and deposed by the amīr in AH 258 (18 Nov. 871–6 Nov. 872) [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 123, anno 255); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 360, sana 258 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 15, anno 258). No mention in Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 533, 553, 560.
17*. ‘Abd Allāh b. Muḥammad (873–873)
‘Abd Allāh was appointed wālī by the amīr in the month of Shawwāl of AH 259 (31 Jul. –28 Aug. 873), but was deposed in the same year [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī erroneously called him ‘Abd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. al-Aghlab. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 123–124, anno 255). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 53.
18. Habbāshī Abū-Mālik Aḥmad b. Ya‘qūb b. ‘Umar b. ‘Abd Allāh b. Ibrahīm b. al-Aghlab (873–875)
Abū-Mālik was appointed by the amīr in AH 259 (7 Nov. 872–26 Oct. 873). Nuwayrī says that Abū Mālik ruled for twenty-six years until AH 287 (7 Jan.–25 Dec. 900). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 533–535.
19. Ja‘far b. Muḥammad (875–†878)
Ja‘far was appointed by the the ninth Aghlabid amīr Ibrāhīm II (875–902). He died in AH 264 (13 Sep. 877–2 Sep. 878). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 264 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 15–16, anno 264); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 243, sana 264 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 396, anno 264). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn and Abū al-Fidā’.
* Khurj al-Ru‘ūna al-Aghlab b. Muḥammad b. al-Aghlab (878–878)
Khurj al-Ru‘ūna became governor but was not accepted by the Muslims of Sicily and so was expelled in AH 264 (13 Sep. 877–2 Sep. 878). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 264 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 16, anno 264). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr.
20. Al-Ḥusayn b. Rabāḥ (878–880?)
Al-Ḥusayn became ruler of Palermo in AH 264 (13 Sep. 877–2 Sep. 878). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 264 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 16, anno 264). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr.
21. Ḥasan b. al-‘Abbās (881–882)
Ḥasan b. al-‘Abbās became governor of Sicily in AH 267 (12 Aug. 880–31 Jul. 881), but was deposed in AH 268 (1 Aug. 881–20 Jul. 882) [Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn al-Athīr]. Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 267, 268 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 17, anno 267, 268); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 406, sana 267 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 87, anno 267); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 243–244, sana 267, 268 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 397–398, anno 267, 268). No mention in Nuwayrī and Ibn Khaldūn.
22. Muḥammad b. Faḍl (882–885?)
Muḥammad b. Faḍl became governor in AH 268 (1 Aug. 881–20 Jul. 882). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 268 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 17, anno 268); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 244, sana 268 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 398, anno 268). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn and Abū al-Fidā’.
23. Al-Ḥusayn b. Aḥmad (†885)
Al-Ḥusayn b. Aḥmad died in AH 271 (29 Jun. 884–17 Jun. 885). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 361, sana 271 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 17, anno 271); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 245, sana 271 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 399, anno 271). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn and Abū al-Fidā’. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 566.
24. Sawāda b. Muḥammad b. Khafāja (885–887)
Sawāda was given the office in AH 271 (29 Jun. 884–17 Jun. 885), but was deposed by the Muslims in Palermo in AH 273 (8 Jun. 886–27 May 887) [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 361–362, sana 271, 273 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 17, 18, anno 271, 273); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 245, sana 271 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 399, anno 271). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn and Abū al-Fidā’. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 566–568, 571.
25. Abū al-‘Abbās b. ‘Alī (887–890?)
Abū al-‘Abbās was elected wālī by the rebels in AH 273 (8 Jun. 886–27 May 887). Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 362, sana 273 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 18, anno 273). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, pp. 567–568.
* Sawāda b. Muḥammad b. Khafāja (890?–892?)
Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 362, sana 276 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 18, anno 276). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. See no. 24 above.
26. Muḥammad b. Faḍl (892–898)
Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 362, sana 278 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 19, anno 278). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 1, p. 572. See no. 23 above.
27. Abū Mālik Aḥmad b. ‘Umar b. ‘Abd Allāh (900–900)
Abū Mālik was appointed by the amīr in AH 287 (7 Jan.–25 Dec. 900). Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 245–246, sana 287 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 400, anno 287). No mention in Nuwayrī, Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn and Abū al-Fidā’.
28. Abū al-‘Abbās ‘Abd Allāh b. Ibrāhīm b. Aḥmad b. al-Aghlab (900–902)
Abū al-‘Abbās, son of the Aghlabid amīr Ibrāhīm II (875–902), was appointed wālī by the amīr, and arrived in Mazara on 24 July of AM 6408 (24 Jul. 900) [“Cronica di Cambridge”] or arrived in Sicily on the first day of the month of Sha‘bān of AH 287 (1 Aug. 900) [Ibn al-Athīr]. He remained in Sicily until he was called back to Africa to take the throne of the tenth Aghlabid amīr in AH 289 (16 Dec. 901–4 Dec. 902). He was killed by three servants associated with his son Abū Muḍar on the last day of the month of Sha‘bān of AH 290 (28 Jul. 903) [Ibn al-Athīr]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 362, sana 287, 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 20–21, anno 287, 289); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 7, p. 474 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §7, p. 185); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 245–246, 248, 250, sana 287, 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 400, 403, 405, anno 287, 289); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 167, sana 6408 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 280, anno 6408). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’. Cf. SMS, vol. 2, pp. 70–74, 84–95, 97, 148–150.
* The Aghlabid amīr Ibrāhīm II (902–†902)
The amīr Ibrāhīm II (875–902) called back his son Abū al-‘Abbās, wālī of Sicily, from Sicily to Africa, and gave the office of amīr to him in AH 289 (16 Dec. 901–4 Dec. 902, Ibn ‘Adhārī). Then, he went to Sicily to take the command of the army personally for the holy war in May of AM 6416 ([sic], May 908) [“Cronica di Cambridge”], but died there on the nineteenth day of the month of Dhū al-qa‘da of AH 289 (25 Oct. 902) [Abū al-Fidā’]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 362, sana 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 21, anno 289); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 7, pp. 474–476 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §7, pp. 186–188); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 406, sana 261 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 87, anno 261); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 248, sana 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 403, anno 289); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6416 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 280, anno 6416). Cf. SMS, vol. 2, pp. 93–117.
29. Abū Muḍar Ziyāda Allāh b. Abī al-‘Abbās (902–903)
Abū Muḍar Ziyāda Allāh, son of Abū al-‘Abbās, became governer in AH 289 (16 Dec. 901–4 Dec. 902), but was deposed and imprisoned in Africa by his father [Ibn al-Athīr]. He arrived in Tunisia on the nineteenth day of the month of Jumādā al-ākhira of AH 290 (20 May 903) [Ibn ‘Adhārī]. He became the eleventh and last Aghlabid amīr in 903. Ibn al-Athīr mentions Abū Muḍar’s brother Abū Ma‘ad besides Abū Muḍar as commanders of Muslim army in Sicily. Ibn Khaldūn also mentions Ibrāhīm’s two sons Abū al-Aghlab and Abū Muḥriz as well as Abū Muḍar as amīrs of the Muslim army in Sicily. Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 364, sana 290 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 21–22, anno 290); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 7, p. 475 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §7, p. 187); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 248–250, sana 287, 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 403, 405, anno 287, 289). No mention in Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’ and “Cronica di Cambridge.” Cf. SMS, vol. 2, p. 97.
30. Muḥammad b. al-Sarqūsī (903)
Abū al-‘Abbās replaced Abū Muḍar with Muḥammad in 903. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255); Ibn al-Athīr, BAS testo arabo, p. 249, sana 289 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 405, anno 289). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and “Cronica di Cambridge.” Cf. SMS, vol. 2, pp. 165, 172.
31. ‘Alī b. Muḥammad b. Abī al-Fawāris (903)
‘Alī b. Muḥammad became wālī in AH 290, but was deposed by the Aghlabid amīr Ziyāda Allāh (903–909) in AH 290 (5 Dec. 902–23 Nov. 903). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255); “Cronica di Cambridge,” in BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6417 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 280–281, anno 6417). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 2, pp. 165–168.
32. Aḥmad b. Abī al-Ḥusayn b. Rabāḥ (903–909)
Aḥmad was appointed wālī in AH 290 (5 Dec. 902–23 Nov. 903), but was deposed by the Muslims in Sicily on the tenth day of the month of Rajab of AH 296 (4 Apr. 909) [Nuwayrī]. According to “Cronica di Cambridge,” the day of the deposition was 1 April of AM 6417 (1 Apr. 909), and Aḥmad is described as Ibn Rabāḥ. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255, 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 124, 125, anno 255, 296); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6417 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 280–281, anno 6417). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr. Cf. SMS, vol. 2, pp. 165–166.
Notes
Appendix I–1 is the former part of my study on Islamic Sicily, which originates from an appendix (Appendix 3: Islamic Sicily) to my Ph.D. dissertation entitled Medieval Kingdom of Mystery: The Norman Kingdom of Sicily and Its Administration (Yale University, New Haven, Conn., 1990). The latter part of Islamic Sicily is scheduled to appear in Mediterranean World, vol. 13 (1992), with the title of “The Fatimid and Kalbite Governors in Sicily: 909–1044 – Islamic Sicily II.” I should like to thank Dr. Jonathan Rotondo-McCord of Xavier University of Louisiana for his help.
1 Michele Amari, Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, 3 vols. (Florence, 1854–1872; 2nd ed., a cura di Carlo A. Nallino, 3 vols. in 5 parts, Catania, 1933–1939); Michele Amari, ed., Biblioteca arabo-sicula ossia Raccolta di testi arabici che toccano la geografia, la storia, le biografie e la bibliografia della Sicilia (Leipzig, 1857); Michele Amari, ed., Appendice alla biblioteca arabo-sicula (Leipzig, 1875); Michele Amari, ed., Appendice alla biblioteca arabo-sicula II (Leipzig, 1878); Michele Amari, ed. and trans., Biblioteca arabo-sicula, versione italiana, 2 vols. (Rome/Turin, 1880–1881); Michele Amari, Epigrafi arabiche di Sicilia, 3 vols. (Palermo, 1875–1885).
2 For those works on Islamic Sicily, see Francesco Gabrieli, “Un secolo di studi arabo-siculi,” Studia islamica, vol. 5 (1954), pp. 89–102; Umberto Rizzitano, “Il contributo del mondo arabo agli studi arabo-siculi,” Rivista degli studi orientali, vol. 36 (1961), pp. 71–93; Umberto Rizzitano, “Gli Arabi in Italia,” L’occidente e l’Islam nell’alto medioevo (Spoleto, 1965, Settimane de Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medio Evo, XII), pp. 93–98; Umberto Rizzitano, “Aziz Ahmad: A History of Islamic Sicily,” Rivista storica italiana, vol. 89 (1977), pp. 168–172. Very important works are Celestino Schiaparelli, Il canzoniere di ‘Abd al Ǵabbâr ibn Abî Bakr ibn Muḥ ammad ibn Ḥamdīs, poeta arabo di Siracusa (Rome, 1897); Bartolomeo M. Lagumina, Studi sulla numismatica arabo-normanna di Sicilia (Palermo, 1891); Bartolomeo M. Lagumina, Catalogo delle monete arabe esistenti nella Biblioteca comunale di Palermo (Palermo, 1892); Salvatore Cusa, I diplomi greci ed arabi di Sicilia (Palermo, 1868–1892); Centenario della nascita di Michele Amari: Scritti di filologia e storia araba, 2 vols. (Palermo, 1910); Francesco Gabrieli, Dal mondo dell’Islam (Milan/Naples, 1954); Umberto Rizzitano, Storia e cultura nella Sicilia saracena (Palermo, 1975).
3 The only exception is the list made by Amari in BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 723–726.
4 At the end of the eighth century the garrison of Tunis revolted against the governor (amīr) Ibn Muqtatil. Ibrahīm b. Aghlab, governor of the Zab, helped in suppressing the revolt and usurped Ibn Muqtatil’s position. In 800 the ‘Abba sid caliph recognized Ibn Aghlab as governor of Tunis and thus the Aghlabid dynasty was established. The eleven Aghlabid umarā’ (= pl. of amīr) enjoyed great autonomy from the ‘Abbāsid caliphs, and ruled Tunisia until 909. See Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 76–78.
5 Ibn al-Athīr, vol. 6, p. 236 or in BAS testo arabo, pp. 221–223, sana 201 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 367–368, anno 201); Ibn ‘Adhārī, Al-Bayān al-mughrib, ed. Dozy, vol. 1, p. 95 or in BAS testo arabo, pp. 354–355, sana 212, 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 5–6, anno 212, 213); Ibn Khaldūn, (ed. Būlāq), vol. 3, p. 253 or in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 1, p. 460, faṣl 4, pp. 466–467 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, §1, p. 164, §4, pp. 173–175); Nuwayrī, “Nihāyat al-arab,” BAS testo arabo, pp. 427–430, sana 212, 213 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 114–118, anno 212, 213); SMS, vol. 1, pp. 394–399; Aziz Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily (Edinburgh, 1975), p. 7.
6 Lagumina, Catalogo delle monete arabe.
7 Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, p. 23.
8 Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib, pp. 76–78; Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, pp. 6–24.
9 Amari, SMS, vol. 1, pp. 476–477; vol. 2, p. 33; Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, pp. 23–24. The best and most complete study on the iqṭā‘ system in the Muslim world is Tsugitaka Satō, State and Society in Medieval Islam: Studies on the Iqṭā‘ System in Arabic Society (Tokyo, 1986).
10 Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, p. 23. See also Amari, SMS, vol. 2, p. 14.
Appendix I–2
The Fatimid and Kalbite governors in Sicily, 909–1044 – Islamic Sicily II
This is the second part of my investigation on the Muslim governors (or rulers) in Sicily.
I transliterate Arabic letters based on the following rule with vowels added:
The abbreviation system is as follows:
* * *
II. The Fatimid governors (wālī s): 909–948
Aghlabid rule of Sicily came to an end in 909 when the Aghlabid dynasty in Tunisia was replaced by the Fāṭimids (909–1171), and thus the history of Islamic Sicily entered the second phase. As soon as the news arrived in Sicily that Abū ‘Abd Allāh, a leader of the Shī‘ites and one of the founders of the Fāṭimid dynasty, had occupied Tunisia, the Muslims in Sicily imprisoned Aḥmad b. Abī al-Ḥusayn, the last Aghlabid wālī (903–909), and reelected the former wālī, ‘Alī b. Muḥammad (903–903),1 to be first Fāṭimid wālī (909–910) on 4 April 909. Thus Fāṭimid rule in Sicily began.
‘Alī b. Muḥammad was, however, deposed and replaced with Al-Ḥasan (910–912) by the first Fāṭimid caliph ‘Ubayd Allāh al-Mahdī (909–934) in 910. This new wālī, Al-Ḥasan, appointed Isḥāq b. Abī al-Minhāl to be qāḍī of Sicily, who proclaimed Al-Mahdī’s name in the Friday sermon at Palermo.2 Fāṭimid rule (909–947) of Sicily was then established religiously as well as politically. During this period most of the wālīs were appointed by the caliphs and maintained close ties with the Fāṭimid court in Tunisia, but they enjoyed political independence.
1. ‘Alī b. Muḥammad b. Abī al-Fawāris (909–910)
When the news arrived in Sicily that Abū ‘Abd Allāh, a leader of the Shī‘ites and founder of the Fāṭimid dynasty, had occupied Tunisia, the Muslims in Sicily imprisoned the wālī Aḥmad b. Abī al-Ḥusayn and chose anew ‘Alī b. Muḥammad (= I, No. 31) to be wālī on the tenth day of the month of Rajab of AH 296 (4 Apr. 909) [Nuwayrī]. He was confirmed by Abū ‘Abd Allāh in the same year but deposed by the first Fāṭimid caliph (khalīfa) Al-Mahdī ‘Ubayd-Allāh (909–934) in AH 297 (20 Sep. 909–8 Sep. 910) [Nuwayrī]. He is described as Ibn Abī al-Fawāris in “Cronica di Cambridge.” Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 434–435, sana 296, 297 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 125, anno 296, 297); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6417 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 280–281, anno 6417). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī, Ibn Khaldūn, Abū al-Fidā’ and Ibn al-Athīr.
2. Al-Ḥasan b. Aḥmad b. Abī Khinzīr (910–912)
Al-Ḥasan was appointed wālī by the caliph Al-Mahdī and arrived in Sicily on the tenth day of the month of Dhū al-ḥijja of AH 297 (20 Aug. 910) [Ibn al-Athīr]. He was deposed by the caliph in AH 299 [Nuwayrī]. According to Ibn ‘Adhārī, however, he was expelled from Sicily with ‘Alī in AH 300. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 297 (BAS versione italiana
, vol. 2, pp. 125, 126, anno 297); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 364, sana 300 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 23, anno 300); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 476 (BAS versione italiana, II, §8, p. 189); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 406, sana 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 88, anno 296); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 250–251, sana 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 408, anno 296). No mention in “Cronica di Cambridge.”
3. ‘Alī b. ‘Umar al-Balawī (912–913)
‘Alī was appointed by the caliph Al-Mahdī and arrived in Sicily on the tenth day of the month of Dhū al-ḥijja of AH 299 (15 Aug. 912) [Nuwayrī] or on the last day of the same month (17 Aug. 912) [Ibn al-Athīr]. The Muslims in Sicily were not satisfied with him because he was old and weak, and they abandoned him in AH 300 (18 Aug. 912–6 Aug. 913) [Nuwayrī]. According to Ibn ‘Adhārī, however, ‘Alī was a brother of Al-Ḥasan and son of Aḥmad b. Abī Khinzīr. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 297 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 126, anno 297); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 364, sana 300 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 23, anno 300); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 476 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 189); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 251, sana 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 408, anno 296). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’ and “Cronica di Cambridge.”
4. Aḥmad b. Ziyāda Allāh b. Qurhub (913–†916)
Aḥmad was elected wālī by the Muslims of Sicily on 17 January of AM 6421 (27 Jan. 913) [“Cronica di Cambridge”], and confirmed by the ‘Abbāsid caliph al-Muqtadir (908–932) in AH 300 (18 Aug. 912–6 Aug. 913). He was deposed by the Muslims in Sicily on 14 July of AM 6424 (14 Jul. 916) [“Cronica di Cambridge”], sent back to Africa in the month of Muḥarram of AH 304 (Jul. 916), and was killed in the same year (5 Jul. 916–23 Jun. 917) [Nuwayrī, Ibn ‘Adhārī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 435–436, sana 297, 304 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 126–127, anno 297, 304); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 364, 366, sana 300, 304 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 23, 25–26, anno 300, 304); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, pp. 476–477 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, pp. 189, 190); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 251, sana 300 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 409–410, anno 300); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 168–169, sana 6421, 6424 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 281–282, anno 6421, 6424). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’.
5. Abū Sa‘īd Mūsā b. Aḥmad, al-Ḍayf (916–917)
Abū Sa‘īd was sent to Sicily as wālī with a large force by the Fāṭimid caliph Al-Mahdī in AH 304 (5 Jul. 916–23 Jun. 917) [Nuwayrī]. He arrived in Palermo on 28 September of AM 6425 (28 Sep. 916) [“Cronica di Cambridge”]. He went back to Africa with his army in September of AM 6426 (Sep. 917) [“Cronica di Cambridge”]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 436, sana 304 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 127, anno 304); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 366, sana 304 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 26, anno 304); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 477 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, pp. 190–191); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 253, sana 300 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 410, anno 300); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 169, sana 6424, 6426 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 282, anno 6424, 6426). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’.
6. Sālim b. Asad b. Rashīd (917–937[†940])
Sālim was appointed wālī in place of Abū Sa‘īd Mūsā by Al-Mahdī in AH 305 (24 Jun. 917–13 Jun. 918) and was replaced with Khalīl b. Isḥāq in AH 325 (19 Nov. 936–7 Nov. 937) [Nuwayrī]. He died in AM 6448 (1 Sep. 939–31 Aug. 940) [“Cronica di Cambridge”]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 436–437, sana 304, 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 127, 128–129, anno 304, 325); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 366, sana 304 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 26, anno 304); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 477 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 191); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 253, 255, sana 313, 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 411, 413, anno 313, 325); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 169, 173, sana 6426, 6446 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 282, 288, anno 6426, 6646 [sic]). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’.
7. Abū al-‘Abbās Khalīl b. Isḥāq b. Ward (937–941)
Abū al-‘Abbās was appointed walī by the Fāṭimid caliph Al-Qā’im (934–946) in AH 325 (19 Nov. 936–7 Nov. 937). He entered Palermo on 23 October of AM 6446 (23 Oct. 937) [“Cronica di Cambridge”] and left for Africa on 11 September of AM 6450 (11 Sep. 941) [“Cronica di Cambridge”], in the month of Dhū al-hījja of AH 329 (27 Aug.–25 Sep. 941) [Nuwayrī, Ibn al-Athīr]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 437, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 129, anno 325); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 368–369, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 29, anno 325); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 2, p. 463, faṣl 8, p. 478 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §2, p. 168; §8, pp. 192–193); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 255–256, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 413–415, anno 325); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 172–173, sana 6446, 6450 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 287, 289, anno 6446, 6450). No mention in Abū al-Fidā’.
8. Ibn al-Kūfī (941–946?) and Abū al-Qāsim b. ‘Aṭṭāf (941–948)
The wālī Khalīl b. Isḥāq left his two deputies (mutawallī), Ibn al-Kūfī and Ibn ‘Aṭṭāf, in Sicily and returned to Africa on 11 Sep. of AM 6450 (11 Sep. 941) [“Cronica di Cambridge”], in the month of Dhū al-hījja of AH 329 (27 Aug.–25 Sep. 941) [Nuwayrī]. According to Nuwayrī, Muḥammad b. al-Ash‘ath was the wālī in AH 334 (13 Aug. 945–1 Aug. 946), but Ibn ‘Aṭṭāf assumed the state affairs (istaqalla ‘Aṭṭāf bi-al-amri) until AH 336 (23 Jul. 947–10 Jul. 948). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 129, anno 325); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 479 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 193); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 257, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 416, anno 336); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, p. 173, sana 6450 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 289, anno 6450). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī or Abū al-Fidā’.
III. The Kalbite/Kalbid rulers (wālī s, amīr s): 948–1044
On 25 April 947 the people in Palermo rose against the Fāṭimid wālī Ibn ‘Aṭṭāf. In order to handle this situation, the third Fāṭimid caliph al-Manṣūr (946–953) appointed Al-Ḥasan (948–953) as wālī and sent him to Sicily. This was the beginning of the Kalbite dynasty, which ruled the island for over ninety years (948–1044), and marks the third phase of the Islamic history of Sicily.3 In 953 al-Ḥasan was called back to Mahdīya by the new caliph al-Mu‘izz (953–975) to attend the Fāṭimid court, and his son Aḥmad was appointed wālī of Sicily. Aḥmad’s governorship continued for more than sixteen years until he was also recalled to Africa in 969. The government of Sicily was entrusted to Al-Ḥasan’s freedman Ya‘īsh. But soon disorder prevailed in Sicily, and Caliph al-Mu‘izz sent Abū al-Qāsim ‘Alī b. al-Ḥasan, brother of Aḥmad, to the island as the latter’s deputy. Aḥmad died a few months later and Abū al-Qāsim was confirmed as wālī of Sicily in 970. Thus, the Kalbite wālī of Sicily became hereditary and the Kalbite dynasty was established.4
The Kalbite dynasty was interrupted by the intervention of the Zīrid amīr Al-Mu‘izz in Africa, who sent his son ‘Abd Allāh with his army to Sicily in 1036. The Kalbite wālī Aḥmad al-Akḥal (1019–†1036) was killed during the war against the Zīrids, and the Zīrid prince ‘Abd Allāh was elected wālī in the same year. In 1040, however, al-Ḥaṣan al-Ṣimṣām, brother of Aḥmad al-Akḥal, defeated ‘Abd-Allāh, who fled to Africa, and became wālī (1040–1044). Thus the Kalbite dynasty was revived, but its authority no longer extended over the whole island. Local governors and leaders of the army gained more power and independence. Among them four powerful local rulers emerged: the qā’id ‘Abd Allāh b. Mankūd (or Mankūt), the independent ruler of Trapani, Marsala, Mazara, Sciacca and the western plains; the qā’id ‘Alī b. Ni‘ma, better known as Ibn al-Ḥawwās, the powerful master of Castrogiovanni, Agrigento, Castronuovo and their neighborhoods; the qā’id Ibn Maklātī, the ruler of Catania; and the qā’id Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm b. al-Thumna, better known as Ibn al-Thumna, the master of Syracuse (Figure BM1.1).
In 1044 the wālī al-Ṣimṣām was deposed and the Kalbite dynasty came to an end. The government of Palermo was put in the hands of its nobles. Now, Ibn al-Ḥawwās became the most powerful local ruler. But the balance of power among local rulers was changed by Ibn al-Thumna, who first attacked and killed Ibn Maklātī, the ruler of Catania, and then defeated ‘Abd Allāh b. Mankūd and took all his territory in the western part of Sicily.
Thus, Ibn al-Thumna became the most powerful ruler in Sicily. His name was proclaimed in the Friday sermon in Palermo, and he was called al-Qādir billāh. However, a domestic conflict between Ibn al-Thumna and his wife Maymūna, Ibn al-Ḥawwās’ sister, led to a conflict between himself and Ibn al-Ḥawwās. Ibn al-Thumna, defeated by Ibn al-Ḥawwās, asked for help from the Normans, offering the island in return. This enabled the Norman conquest of Sicily.5
Figure BM1.1 Struggles among powerful local rulers in Sicily (ca. 1040–ca. 1060)
1. Al-Ḥasan b. ‘Alī b. Abī al-Ḥusayn al-Kalbī (948–953)
Al-Ḥasan was appointed wālī by the caliph al-Manṣūr, and arrived in Sicily from Africa in AH 336 (23 Jul. 947–10 Jul. 948) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’] and in AM 6456 (1 Sep. 947–31 Aug. 948) [“Cronica di Cambridge”]. He was recalled to Mahdīya in AH 342 (18 May 953–6 May 954) after having spent two years and some months in Sicily [Abū al-Fidā’], or in AH 341 (29 May 952–17 May 953) [Ibn al-Athīr]. According to “Cronica di Cambridge” al-Ḥasan went back to Africa in AM 6469 (1 Sep. 960–31 Aug. 961), but returned to Palermo in AM 6473 (1 Sep. 964–31 Aug. 965), and died there in November of the same year (964) [“Cronica di Cambridge”] or in the month of Dhū al-Qa‘da of AH 353 (9 Nov.–8 Dec. 964) [Abū al-Fidā’]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 129–130, anno 325); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 2, p. 463, faṣl 8, pp. 479–480 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §2, p. 168; §8, pp. 193–194); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 407–409, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 89, 91, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 256–257, 262, sana 336, 340 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 415–416, 423, anno 336, 340); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 173–176, sana 6456, 6469, 6473 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 289, 292–293, anno 6456, 6469, 6473). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
2. Abū al-Ḥusayn Aḥmad b. al-Ḥasan (954–969)
Aḥmad, son of Al-Ḥasan, was appointed wālī by the caliph Al-Manṣūr in AH 343 (7 May 954–26 Apr. 955), but recalled to Africa at the end of AH 358 (23 Nov. 968–13 Nov. 969) after having governed Sicily for six years and nine months [Abū al-Fidā’]. According to “Cronica di Cambridge” Aḥmad returned to Africa in August of AM 6471 (Aug. 963). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 325, 358 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 129–130, 135, anno 325, 358); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 2, p. 464, faṣl 8, p. 481 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §2, p. 169, §8, p. 196); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 407–409, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 89–91, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 262, sana 340 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1 p. 423, anno 340); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 175–176, sana 6470, 6471 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 292, 293, anno 6470, 6471). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
3. Ya‘īsh (969–970)
Ya‘īsh, a freedman of al-Ḥasan, was entrusted with Sicily by Aḥmad b. al-Ḥasan in AH 358 (23 Nov. 968–13 Nov. 969) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’] or in AH 359 (14 Nov. 969–3 Nov. 970) [Ibn al-Athīr], but soon recalled to Africa. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 358 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 135, anno 358); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo,
faṣl 8, p. 482 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 197); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 409, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 91, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 266, sana 359 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 429, anno 359). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī and “Cronica di Cambridge.”
4. Abū al-Qāsim ‘Alī b. al-Ḥasan (970–†982)
Abū al-Qāsim, son of Al-Ḥasan and brother of Aḥmad, arrived in Sicily as deputy of Aḥmad on the 15th day of the month of Sha‘bān of AH 359 (23 Jun. 970) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’]. In the same year, Aḥmad having died, Abū al-Qāsim received a diploma from the caliph Al-Mu‘izz and his promotion to amīr was confirmed. He died in the month of Muḥarram of AH 372 (26 Jun.–25 Jul. 982) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 359 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 136, anno 359); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 369, sana 372 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 30, anno 372); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 482 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 197); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 409–410, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 91, 92, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 267, 269–270, sana 359, 371 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 429, 434, anno 359, 371).
5. Jābir b. Abī al-Qāsim (982–983)
Jābir, son of Abū al-Qāsim, was elected amīr by the nobles of Sicily after the death of Abū al-Qāsim (Muḥarram of AH 372 [26 Jun.–25 Jul. 982]), and confirmed by the Faṭimid caliph al-‘Azīz (975–996) in Egypt, but deposed by the caliph in AH 373 (15 Jun. 983–3 Jun. 984) [Nuwayrī, Ibn Khaldūn]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 359 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 136, anno 359); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 369, sana 372 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 30, anno 372); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 482 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 198); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 410, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 92, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 270, sana 371 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 434, anno 371).
6. Ja‘far b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. ‘Alī b. Abī al-Ḥusayn (983–†985)
Ja‘far, a Kalbite, was appointed amīr by the caliph al-‘Azīz and arrived in Sicily in AH 373 (15 Jun. 983–3 Jun. 984). He died in AH 375 (24 May 985–12 May 986, Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’, Ibn Khaldūn). Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 359 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 136, anno 359); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 482 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, pp. 198, 199); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 410, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 93, anno 336). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī and Ibn al-Athīr.
7. ‘Abd Allāh b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan b. ‘Alī b. Abī al-Ḥusayn (985–†989)
‘Abd Allāh, brother of Ja‘far, succeeded Ja‘far as amīr in AH 375 (24 May 985–12 May 986), but died in the month of Ramadān of AH 379 (3 Dec. 989–1 Jan. 990) [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 359 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 136, anno 359); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 369, sana 379 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 31, anno 379); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 483 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 199); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 410, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 93, anno 336). No mention in Ibn al-Athīr.
8. Abū al-Futūḥ Yūsuf b. ‘Abd Allāh, Thiqat al-Dawla (989–998)
Abū al-Futūḥ, son of ‘Abd Allāh, became wālī immediately after his father’s death (Ramadān of AH 379 [3 Dec. 989–1 Jan. 990]), and was confirmed by the caliph al-‘Azīz. He fell seriously ill and was succeeded by his son Ja‘far in AH 388 (3 Jan.–22 Dec. 998) [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 442, sana 379 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 137, anno 379); Ibn ‘Adhārī in BAS testo arabo, p. 369, sana 379 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 31, anno 379); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 483 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 199); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 410, 413, sana 336, 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 93, 96, anno 336, 484); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 273, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 442, anno 484).
9. Ja‘far b. Abī al-Futūḥ, Tāj al-Dawla, Sayf al-Milla (998–1019)
Ja‘far, son of Abū al-Futūḥ, succeeded his father as wālī when the latter became seriously ill in AH 388 (3 Jan.–22 Dec. 998). But the Muslims in Palermo rose against him and chose Aḥmad al-Akḥal, brother of Ja‘far, as wālī in place of him on the sixth day of the month of Al-Muḥarram of AH 410 (14 May 1019) [Nuwayrī]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 442, 444, sana 379, 410 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 137, 139, anno 379, 410); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 484, (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 199); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 411, 413, sana 336, 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 94, 97, anno 336, 484); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 274, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1 pp. 442–443, anno 484). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
10. Aḥmad al-Akḥal b. Abī al-Futūḥ, Tāyīd al-Dawla (1019–†1036)
Aḥmad, son of Abū al-Futūḥ and brother of Ja‘far, was chosen wālī on the sixth day of the month of Al-Muḥarram of AH 410 (14 May 1019), confirmed later by the Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥākim. He died in AH 427 (5 Nov. 1035–24 Oct. 1036) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’]. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 444, sana 410, 410 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 139, 141, anno 410, 410); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 200); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 411, 413, sana 336, 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 94, 97, anno 336, 484); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 274, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 443–444, anno 484). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
11. ‘Abd Allāh b. al-Mu‘izz b. Bādīs (1036–1040?)
‘Abd Allāh, son of the Zīrid amīr al-Mu‘izz b. Bādīs, arrived in Sicily with his army from Africa in AH 427 (5 Nov. 1035–24 Oct. 1036) [Nuwayrī, Abū al-Fidā’]. He returned to Africa. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 445, sana 410 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 141, anno 410); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, pp. 483–484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 200); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 213, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 97, anno 484); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 275, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 445, anno 484). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
12. Al-Ḥasan al-Ṣimṣām al-Dawla (1040?–1044)
Al-Ḥasan al-Ṣimṣām, son of Abū al-Futūḥ and brother of Ja‘far and Aḥmad, was chosen wālī by the Muslims of Sicily, but was expelled. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 445, sana 410 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 141–142, anno 410); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §8, p. 200); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 411, 414, sana 336, 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 94, 98, anno 336, 484); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, p. 275, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 445, anno 484). No mention in Ibn ‘Adhārī.
Notes
Appendix I–2 is the latter part of my study on Islamic Sicily, which originates from an appendix (Appendix 3: Islamic Sicily) to my Ph.D. dissertation entitled Medieval Kingdom of Mystery: The Norman Kingdom of Sicily and Its Administration (Yale University, New Haven, Conn., 1990). The former part of Islamic Sicily is scheduled to appear in Annals of Japan Association for Middle East Studies, vol. 7 (1992), with the title of “The Aghlabid Governors in Sicily: 827–909 – Islamic Sicily I.” I should like to thank Dr. Jonathan Rotondo-McCord of Xavier University of Louisiana for his help.
1 He had been deposed by the Aghlabid amīr in 903. Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 434, sana 255 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 124, anno 255); “Cronica di Cambridge,” BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6417 (BAS versione italiana, pp. 280–281).
2 Ibn al-Athīr, vol. 8, p. 38, or in BAS testo arabo, pp. 250–251, sana 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 408, anno 296); Al-Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 434–435, sana 255, 296, 297 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 124–126, anno 255, 296, 297); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 476 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, § 8, pp. 188–189; Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, p. 406, sana 296 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, p. 88, anno 296); “Cronica di Cambridge,” BAS testo arabo, p. 168, sana 6417 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 280–281, anno 6417). Cf. Aziz Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily (Edinburgh, 1975), p. 25.
3 Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, p. 435, sana 325 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 129–130, anno 325); Ibn Khaldūn in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 2, p. 463, faṣl 8, pp. 479–480 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, §2, p. 168; §8, pp. 193–194); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 407–9, sana 336 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 89, 91, anno 336); Ibn al-Athīr in BAS testo arabo, pp. 256–257, 262, sana 336, 340 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 415–416, 423, anno 336, 340); “Cronica di Cambridge” in BAS testo arabo, pp. 173–176, sana 6456, 6469, 6473 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, pp. 289, 292–293, anno 6456, 6469, 6473).
4 Amari, SMS, vol. 2, pp. 276, 330–331; Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, pp. 30–31.
5 Ibn al-Athīr, vol. 10, pp. 131–132 or in BAS testo arabo, p. 275, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 1, p. 275, anno 484); Al-Nuwayrī in BAS testo arabo, pp. 444–449, sana 410, 440 (BAS versione Italiana, vol. 2, pp. 140–146, anno 410, 440); Abū al-Fidā’ in BAS testo arabo, pp. 413–414, sana 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, pp. 96–99, anno 484); Ibn Khaldūn, vol. 4, pp. 207–8 or in BAS testo arabo, faṣl 8, p. 484 (BAS versione italiana, vol. 2, § 8, pp. 200–203); Aimé, L’Ystoire de li Normant, vol. 5, chap. 8; Gaufridus a Malaterra, De rebus gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae Comitis et Roberti Guiscardi Ducis (Bologna, 1927), vol. 2, chap. 3. Cf. Francesco Gabrieli, “Storia e cultura della Sicilia araba,” Libia, vol. 1–4 (1953), p. 5; Umberto Rizzitano, “Ibn al-Hawwās,” EI 2, vol. 3, p. 788; Umberto Rizzitano, “Ibn al-Thumna,” EI 2, vol. 3, p. 956; Ahmad, A History of Islamic Sicily, pp. 36–37.