Notes

Introduction: Hitler’s World

Nothing can be known Space: Second Book, 8. “Innere abgeschlossenheit” and desire of nature for races to separate: Mein Kampf, 281–82. See Chapoutot, Le nazisme, 428; Chapoutot, “Les Nazis et la ‘Nature,’ ” 31. The American consul general Raymond Geist was right to speak of an antisemitic “cosmology”: Husson, Heydrich, 121. The argument of this book proceeds from an idea of a planetary Jewish threat to the enabling condition of statelessness by way of the new forms of politics that united the antisemitic idea and the anti-political condition. Sémelin (in Purifier, 135) is right that the history of mass killing must be international. But in the special case of the Holocaust, it seems important first to define how its originator understood the planet. Hitler’s scheme of international relations was derivative of his ecology. The ideas do seem to have been fundamentally constant; as Kershaw writes, “Hitler retained at the core an extraordinary inner consistency.” End, 281. Burrin speaks similarly of “la consistence et la continuité étonnantes que manifesta cette vision du monde.” Hitler et les Juifs, 19.

In Hitler’s world For English and French thinkers such as Hobbes and Rousseau, an imaginary state of nature is a literary device to enable us to consider human choices about power. We are to imagine, as an exercise, what life must have been like before humans came together to make rules. Then we should think our way through to the structures we actually desire. Hitler’s understanding of nature also had little to do with German traditions of thought. For Kant, perfect knowledge of an external natural world is unattainable, and wisdom consists in striving towards it in full awareness of our limitations. For Hegel, the state of nature was a barbaric stage of prehistory that gave way to institutions that man is constantly perfecting. According to Marx, nature is that which surrounds us and resists us. We know it and ourselves insofar as we work to change it. On Schmitt, see Zarka, Un détail, 7, 36. See also Neumann, Behemoth, 467.

“Nature knows,” wrote Hitler Quotation: Mein Kampf, 140. Charles Darwin did on one occasion write that empire would eliminate “the savage races.” Descent of Man, 1:201. From context it can be seen that his concerns in making this remark were far from political. Darwin, the author of the powerful notion of evolution by natural selection, did not think that races were like species; on the contrary, he held that all humans belonged to a single species capable of applying reason and thereby selecting for survival on grounds other than the biological. See Tort, L’effet Darwin, 75–80. I am distinguishing between Marx and Engels, his friend and popularizer, who codified the “scientific” version of Marxism. On the long encounter of second-generation Darwinism with second-generation Marxism, see Kołakowski, Main Currents, vol. 2, Golden Age.

Yet these liberals “Feige Völker”: Mein Kampf, 103. See Koonz, Nazi Conscience, 59. Cf. Sternhell, Les anti-Lumière s, 666–67.

Hitler’s worldview dismissed Daily bread: Mein Kampf, 281; Second Book, 15, 74. See also Hilberg, Destruction, 1:148. Riches of nature and commandment: Table Talk, 51, 141. One aim of this presentation is to avoid a problem identified by Arendt: “the failure to take seriously what the Nazis themselves said.” Origins, 3. See also Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen, 279.

Hitler exploited images Cf. White, “Historical Roots.”

Knowledge of the body See Engel, Holocaust, 15.

When paradise falls See Valentino, Final Solutions, 168, Jäckel, Hitler in History, 47. Cf. Sarraute, L’ère du soupçon, 77, and Arendt, Origins, 242: “The hatred of the racists against the Jews sprang from a superstitious apprehension that it might actually be the Jews, and not themselves, whom God has chosen, to whom success was granted by divine providence.” On wordview as faith, see Bärsch, Die politische Religion, 276–77.

Hitler’s presentation Mein Kampf, 73. This invocation of divine will, the last sentence of chapter 2 of Mein Kampf, was cited by Carl Schmitt as he opened his conference on the struggle of German jurisprudence against the Jewish spirit: “Eröffnung,” 14. Cf. the concept of “redemptive antisemitism” in Friedländer, Years of Extermination.

Hitler saw the species “Unnatur”: Mein Kampf, 69. See also Mein Kampf, 287; Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen, 462–63; Chapoutot, “La loi du sang,” 391; Poliakov, Sur les traces, 212, 217; Bauman, Modernity, 68; Arendt, Origins, 202.

Hitler’s basic critique On Himmler, see Kühne, Belonging, 60; Chapoutot, “La loi du sang,” 374, 405. Cf. Steiner, In Bluebeard’s Castle, 45.

If states were not impressive Hans Frank quotations: “Ansprach,” 8; “Einleitung,” 141. For Schmitt see “Neue Leitsätze,” 516. Cf. Arendt, Essays in Understanding, 290, 295.

Insofar as universal ideas Child: Table Talk, 7. For Hitler’s claim that “Jewish” ideas are all the same: Mein Kampf, 66 and passim. On Jesus: Bärsch, Die politische Religion, 286–87; on Saint Paul: Chapoutot, “L’historicité nazie,” 50. See also Thies, Architekt, 29.

Indeed, for Hitler there was No history: Mein Kampf, 291. Always destroys: Table Talk, 314, similarly at 248; see also Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen, 907; Thies, Architekt, 42. No future: Second Book, 10. It is true that Hitler calls history his favorite subject in Mein Kampf, but what he means is his hazy intuition of the forces behind the facts.

Though Hitler strove to define Mann cited after Poliakov, Histoire de l’antisémitisme, 357. Stein: Self-Portrait in Letters, 9. See Zehnpfennig, Hitlers Mein Kampf, 128; Burrin, Hitler et les Juifs, 23.

For Hitler, the conclusion Gassing: Husson, Heydrich, 41.

Hitler saw both the struggle “Geistiger Pestilenz”: Mein Kampf, 66. Healthy reaction: cited after Govrin, Jewish Factor, 7. Entire continent: Staatsmänner, 557.

The fall of man Table Talk, 314. Cf. Friedländer, “Some Reflections,” 100.

Equating nature and politics Zehnpfennig’s interpretation is similar: Hitlers Mein Kampf, 116. See also Neumann, Behemoth, 140.

Hitler accepted that scientists See Jonas, Imperative of Responsibility, 29.

Hitler understood that agricultural Best case, limit, scientific methods, own land: Second Book, 16, 21, 74, 103. “Todgefährliche Gedankengänge”: Mein Kampf, 141.

Hitler had to defend Mein Kampf, 282–83.

The world’s problem Anarchic state: Husson, Heydrich, 256. “Wohin man die Juden schicke, nach Sibirien oder nach Madagascar, sei gleichgültig,” July 21, 1941, Staatsmänner, 557.

1. Living Space

Although Hitler’s premise was See Vincent, Politics of Hunger, 126ff; Offer, Agrarian Interpretation, 2, 24, 25, 59. These works emphasize moral and political discomfort brought by the blockade. Leonhard estimates 700,000 dead, which is considerably more than Vincent and Offer seem to suggest. Die Büchse der Pandora, 518.

The world political economy Peaceful economic war: Second Book, 10. Cf. Offer, Agrarian Interpretation, 82, 83, 217.

Hitler understood that Germany Autarkic economy: Table Talk, 73. German peasants: Mein Kampf, chap. 2.

The British were to be respected Division of the world: Hildebrand, Vom Reich, 654. Armageddon: Second Book, 76. See also Mein Kampf, 145.

It was also reassuring The Japanese, for example, tried without success to persuade Hitler to treat the British rather than the Soviets as the main enemy. See Hauner, India in Axis Strategy, 378, 383–84.

America taught Hitler that need Benchmark: Second Book, 21. Cf. Guettel, “Frontier.” Guettel is quite right that the number of references to the United States in Mein Kampf is limited, though the passages are very powerfully suggestive. Hitler proclaims, for example, that the United States is the model of the new kind of empire, mastering contiguous territories by racial unity (144). The logic described here is even more apparent in the Second Book. And as Guettel himself notes, the treatment of Americans as masters of space was ubiquitous in the rhetoric of German colonialists; Hitler’s references would have been clear. In any case the point is that America defined a global situation in which standards of living were comparative and relative. See also Fischer, Hitler and America, 18, 21, 28; Thies, Architekt, 50.

Globalization led Hitler Wildenthal, German Women, 177; Sandler, “Colonizers,” 436.

The inevitable presence Land as limit of science: Second Book, 21; also Mein Kampf, 282. Hitler made the point directly to Roosevelt in his Reichstagsrede of April 28, 1939; Franz Neumann stressed this in his Behemoth, 130.

If German prosperity Bleak: Second Book, 105. Racially pure: Mein Kampf, 282. Younger and healthier: Second Book, 111. For a contemplation of the importance of myths of the soil in the whole history of mass killing and ethnic cleansing, see Kiernan, Blood and Soil. On the word Lebensraum see Conrad, Globalisation and the Nation, 61.

While Hitler was writing Cf. Arendt, Origins, 353, 469; and Smith, “Weltpolitik,” 41.

The twentieth century See Longerich, Davon, 160–61. More beauty: Ziegler, Betting on Famine, 263. Goebbels was discussing the goals of the invasion of the USSR: “für einen voll gedeckten Frühstücks-, Mittags-, und Abendtisch.” Cited in Koenen, Russland-Komplex, 427. For an admirable comparative history, see Collingham, Taste of War.

“One thing the Americans have” American spaces: Table Talk, 707. See Guettel, “German South-West Africa,” 535; Simms, Europe, 339, 343.

All that remained Europe itself: Mein Kampf, 145. May: Table Talk, 316. See McDonough, Hitler, 22; Mosse, Nationalization, 196. Cf. Arendt, Origins, 183.

In the late nineteenth century Iliffe, “Effects of the Maji Maji Rebellion,” 558–59. Gerwarth and Malinowski note that the scorched-earth starvation campaign is neglected. “Ghosts,” 283. Military history: Zimmerer, Von Windhuk, 43. Numbers of Herero and Nama from Guettel, “German South-West Africa,” 543. See also Chirot and McCauley, Why Not Kill, 28. Trotha quotation and conditions on Shark Island: Hull, Absolute Destruction, 30, 78; see also Levene, Rise, 233. Comparison to American states by Theodor Leutwein and quotation of Bernhard Dernburg from Guettel, “German South-West Africa,” 550, 524. “Vernichtungsoperation” and “Endlösung” and 70 percent figure from Lower, “German Colonialism,” 5, 2.

A famous German novel Novel: Sandler, “Colonizers,” 162. French: Second Book, 144. An extended consideration of the differences and connections is Conrad, Globalisation, especially 174, 177, 182. Those who apply Freudian or Girardian arguments to explain the extrusion of German Jews might also consider German relations with Poles.

When Hitler wrote Kopp, “Constructing a Racial Difference,” 84–85 and passim.

During the First World War Mein Kampf, 144. On the Polish question during the First World War, see Niemann, Kaiser und Revolution, 25–36; and Rumpler, Max Hussarek, 50–55. On the cleansing of border zones, see Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 125–46. On the politics of the German-Austrian occupation of Ukraine, see Snyder, Red Prince.

The complete loss See Sandler, “Colonizers,” 19, 35, 149–50, and passim; Wildenthal, German Women, 172–73.

“The Slavs are born” Slavish mass: Zimmerer, Von Windhuk, 137. Last war: Kay, Exploitation, 40. Inconceivable: Table Talk, 38. Beads and dance: Table Talk, 34, 425. Nazi song: Ingrao, Believe, 117. Koch: Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 167. See generally the discussion in Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 24–29. Conrad’s Heart of Darkness is not actually about Europeans and Africans as races, as its opening passage makes unmistakably clear. Conrad was a Pole from Ukraine.

When German occupation came Diary: Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair. States: Mein Kampf, 140. See Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen, 219.

Some states, claimed Hitler Foreign intelligentsia and rabbits and leadership in Jewry: Second Book, 34, 149, 151. Worldview: Müller, Der Feind, 44. See also Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 152.

Communism was the proximate Control point: Govrin, Jewish Factor, 30. Fortunate: Second Book, 153. Preparation for domination: Table Talk, 126. See also Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen, 163. Alexander Stein was making this point in 1936: Adolf Hitler, 111.

Hitler’s interpretation Churchill and Wilson: Cała, Antysemitizm, 175; Zaremba, Wielka Trwoga, 71. Times: Schlögel, “Einleitung,” 15. Destruction of German people (1936): Dieckmann, “Jüdischer Bolschewismus,” 55. Immediately: Second Book, 152. Cards and clay: Römer, Der Kommissarbefehl, 204. Similar process: Kershaw, Hitler, 651.

In this racist collage Interestingly, the quotation about rivers is often given as “Our Mississippi must be the Volga,” without the final phrase. This alters the meaning and narrows the range of reference quite substantially. See Kershaw, Hitler, 650. For a history of the United States that reminds us that Hitler was not wrong in every respect: Mann, Dark Side of Democracy, 70–98. The history of the United States also demonstrated that slaves could outnumber free settlers. McNeill, Global Condition, 21.

The destruction of the Soviet Union Mein Kampf, 73. The fundamental work on the Hunger Plan is Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde. Quotation from Kay, Exploitation, 133; see also 162–63. On Generalplan Ost see Madajczyk, “Generalplan Ost,” 13; and more recently Wasser, Himmlers Raumplanung; and Aly and Heim, Vordenker der Vernichtung.

If the war did not See Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 57.

The Judeobolshevik myth Cf. Koselleck, Futures Past, at 222, where he notes that Hitler distinguished between three levels of secrecy: what he told his immediate circle, what he kept to himself, and what even he himself did not dare to think through.

From the perspective of Berlin The Bolshevik Revolution is known as the “October Revolution” because it took place, according to the Julian calendar in force at the time in the Russian Empire, in October. By the Gregorian calendar the revolution began in November.

Before the revolutions of 1917 This compresses a long and complex history that is expertly told in Polonsky, Jews of Poland and Russia. Lohr estimates that a Jewish subject of the Russian Empire was 184 times more likely to emigrate than a Russian subject of the Russian Empire. Russian Citizenship, 86.

Jews inhabited the western Poliakov, Histoire de l’antisémitisme, 379; Lohr, Nationalizing, 14, 16, 24, 138, 139, 146. The special feature of the pogroms of 1915 was the direct role of the army: Lohr, “1915,” 41–42. On theft: Wróbel, “Seeds of Violence,” 131. See also Prusin, Nationalizing, 42, 55; Wasserstein, On the Eve, 309. Two of Marc Chagall’s most famous paintings, Cemetery Gates (1914) and Newspaper Seller (1917) are associated with the Holocaust; in fact they portray this period.

In the minds of Europeans Creates a Jewish question: Pergher and Roseman, “Imperial genocide,” 44. Begin: Shilon, Menachem Begin, 6; Stern: Heller, Stern Gang, 100. Sixty thousand: Budnitskii, Russian Jews, 76. See also Stanislawski, “Russian Jewry,” 281. The continuities of violent practice are a major theme of Holquist, Making War.

The other side generally Budnitskii, Russian Jews, 90, 176, 213 and passim; Herbeck, Das Feindbild, 285–87; Beyrau, “Der Erste Weltkrieg,” 103, 107; Lohr, “1915,” 49; Lohr, Russian Citizenship, 122, 130; Lohr, Nationalizing, 150; Wróbel, “Seeds of Violence,” 137; Dieckmann, “Jüdischer Bolschewismus,” 59–64. Hitler on the Protocols: Mein Kampf, 302. He seems to be aware that they are not authentic, but accepts their logic. The Protocols are often described as a forgery. But a forgery is an imitation of something real, and here nothing is real. The Protocols were a fiction that enabled life within a fictional world.

Germany backed Offer, Agrarian Interpretation, 50; Golczewski, Deutsche und Ukrainer, 240ff. Some Germans found it possible even in 1918 to imagine Ukraine as empty space: see Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen, 165; but compare Liulevicius, War Land. German war aims in the East are still a matter of much discussion. The debate centers around Fischer, Griff nach der Weltmacht.

Once Germany was defeated See Abramson, Prayer for the Government; Dieckmann, “Jüdischer Bolschewismus,” 59–61. The association of Jews, Bolshevism, and pogroms reached even the best of minds. Vladimir Nabokov, for example, explained pogroms by the prominence of Jews in the revolution. Schlögel, “Einleitung,” 15–16.

The vanquished adherents January 1920: Schlögel, “Einleitung,” 15. On the Soviet representative Viktor Kopps and the “destruction” (unichtozhenie) of the Jews: ibid., 18. On Scheubner-Richter’s plans for Ukraine and Russia, see Snyder, Red Prince, chap. 6. See generally Stein, Adolf Hitler, 104–8; Kellogg, Russian Roots, 12, 65, 75, 218; Liulevicius, German Myth, 176; Dieckmann, “Jüdischer Bolschewismus,” 69–75.

The Judeobolshevik idea On the adaptation of Christian images to political purposes see Herbeck, Das Feindbild, 105–65. For a military history of the Polish-Bolshevik War, see Davies, White Eagle. On the European settlement as of 1921 see Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921; and Borzęcki, Soviet-Polish Peace.

The Judeobolshevik myth seemed I am instructed by Jäckel’s judgment: “Perhaps never in history did a ruler write down before he came to power what he was to do afterward as precisely as did Adolf Hitler,” in Hitler in History, 23. But within Hitler’s two books there is a political logic that must be explicated before the next two problems can be solved: how Hitler could come to power (a minor subject here), and how he could implement his ideas after he came to power (a major subject here). What might seem to be weaknesses in the thought proved to be opportunities in practice, and so the thought must be presented first.

In Hitler’s ecology Cf. Pollack, Kontaminierte Landschaften.

During a death march Ozsváth, In the Footsteps of Orpheus, 203, translation at 207.

2. Berlin, Warsaw, Moscow

In the six years after Müller, Der Feind, 43.

After the failure of his coup Hitler’s tactical reticence: Koonz, Nazi Conscience, 11, 12, 21, 25, 22. See also Mosse, Nationalization, 183; Confino, World Without Jews, 151; Engel, Holocaust, 20. On the actual theological compromises that later followed, see Heschel, Aryan Jesus.

After his release Kershaw, Hitler Myth, 230, 233, and passim; Sémelin, Purifier, 89; Koenen, Russland-Komplex, 390, 413, 415; Bloxham, Final Solution, 143; McDonough, Hitler, 79. On Hitler’s voters, see King et al., “Ordinary Voting Behavior.” Cf. Hagen’s judgment that Hitler was a “dangerously self-confident, indefatigable and politically canny man.” German History, 275.

In reality, National Socialism Quotation: Deutschösterreichische Tageszeitung, March 3, 1933. See Koenen, Russland-Komplex, 415.

In 1933, Hitler emerged For a precise discussion see Pauer-Studer, “Einleitung,” 15–17.

In the weeks and months Exemptions and numbers of Polish Jews: Maurer, “Background for ‘Kristallnacht,’ ” 49–51. Counterboycott: Weiss, Deutsche und polnische Juden, 169–79.

An initial inspiration Second Book, 27, 37, 66. See Bloxham, Final Solution, 59–65; Piskorski, Wygnańcy, 34–60; and more broadly Ferrara and Pianciola, Migrazioni forzate, 39–95.

Hitler was, to a point Second Book, 17. A sophisticated discussion is Tooze, Wages of Destruction.

He respected the Balkan Model Citation from Neumann, Behemoth, 139; “sticky mass” from Karin von Schulmann, cited in Harvey, Women, 119. Cf. Jäckel, Hitler in History, 30: “There is abundant evidence that all the major decisions in the Third Reich were made by Hitler, and there is equally abundant evidence that the regime was largely anarchic and can thus be described as a polycracy. The misunderstanding is to suppose that the two observations are contradictory and that only one of them can be true.”

The theoretical reconciliation I consider the consequences of this difference in Bloodlands.

In 1934, Hitler was 1934: Evans, Third Reich in Power, 42. Civil servants: Bloxham, Final Solution, 156–57.

The classic definition of the state The perceptive observer Antoni Sobański also noticed that the uniforms were a way to cover previous affiliations, especially in Berlin. Cywil w Berlinie, 53.

Hitler’s third innovation Cf. Arendt, Origins, 131, 155.

The outlines of this For the larger setting of the SA-SS-Wehrmacht interaction, see Evans, Third Reich in Power, 21–39. Schmitt: Zarka, Un détail, 11.

Whereas the SA had stood Cf. Wildt, Uncompromising Generation, 127.

This mission of deferred supremacy Ingrao, Believe, 65, 101.

After its triumph Himmler: Wildt, Uncompromising Generation, 135. Iron heart: Fest, Das Gesicht, 139.

In 1937, Himmler established Buchheim, “Die Höheren SS-und Polizeiführer,” 563, 570, 585. See Angrick and Klein, “Final Solution,” 41; Bloxham, Final Solution, 204; MacLean, Field Men, 12.

Among the limited responsibilities Dachau: Goeschel and Wachsmann, “Introduction,” 14; Roseman, “Lives of Others,” 447.

Hitler’s sixth political innovation See Wildt, Uncompromising Generation, 128.

After Hitler’s takeover This subject, at the heart of Holocaust studies, has been developed superbly elsewhere, and so is treated briefly here. These examples from Husson, Heydrich, 50, 65. My argument here follows the analysis of Longerich in Politik der Vernichtung. On Schmitt, see Zarka, Un détail, 19–20.

At the same time Weltjudentum: One of the many acute observations in Klemperer, Language of the Third Reich, here at 26–27. Book burnings: Confino, World Without Jews, 46–47.

Hitler’s final innovation SS: Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen, 395. 1938: Heim, “Einleitung,” 16.

The German calamity of 1918 The fundamental study of statebuilding remains Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland. On the National Democratic mindset, see Porter, When Nationalism. Porter notes the significance of chronotopes, making a case similar to the one I try to make in the opening and closing chapters. On the politics of culture, see Shore, Caviar and Ashes.

Poland was a new state Taxes: Rothschild, “Ethnic Peripheries,” 602. Generally: Polonsky, Jews of Poland and Russia, vol. 3.

The question of loyalty Benecke, Ostgebiete, 95–100.

Polish patriotism spread Rothschild made a number of these points concisely in East Central Europe.

Their differences For a forthright study of antisemitic language in the interwar church, see Porter-Szücs, Faith.

Dmowski’s opponent For introductions to the old commonwealth and the period of the partitions that followed, see Stone, State; and Wandycz, Lands.

Piłsudski’s moment was The surest guide remains Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland.

When Piłsudski returned to power See generally Rothschild, Coup; Chojnowski, Piłsudczycy u władzy. On Agudat, see Bacon, Politics of Tradition. On the BBWR and Jews: Dowództwo Okręgu Korpusu II, “Referat o sytuacji politycznonarodowościowej DOK II,” August 1, 1929, CAW, I.371.2/A.88; Dowództwo Okręgu Korpusu II, “Referat o sytuacji politycznonarodowościowej DOK II,” November 10, 1930, CAW, I.371.2/A.88; Spektor, “Żydzi wołyńscy,” 570. On Ukrainians, see Snyder, Sketches.

Piłsudski brought a fake Tomaszewski, “Civil Rights,” 125.

Piłsudski’s fundamental respect The guide to the intellectual background is Walicki, Philosophy.

For Piłsudski neither Russia A profound study of Piłsudski’s visions of Russia is Nowak, Trzy Rosje.

Piłsudski was perfectly aware On his relationship with Marxism and Marxists, see Snyder, Nationalism.

Piłsudski and his comrades I am in accord with Daniel Beauvois that the basic relationship between the early modern Polish-speaking aristocracy and the Ukrainian populations was a colonial one. But after four centuries, the end of the commonwealth, generations of common experiences under the Russian Empire, and the emergence of modern ideas of socialism and nationalism, it no longer makes sense to use this reductive framework in the twentieth century. Many of the Poles of this milieu were able to see Ukraine by analogy as a fellow nation. The National Democrats saw Ukrainians as pre-national but as human, and as such possibly assimilable to the Polish nation. Here the difference between the Polish and the German elites might be seen as postcolonial versus precolonial.

After Piłsudski’s return to power See Snyder, Sketches; Copeaux, “Le mouvement”; and the continuing stream of publications by Kuromiya and Pepłoński. See also Mędrzecki, Województwo wołyńskie; Kęsik, zaufany Komendanta; Schenke, Nationalstaat und nationale Frage.

The Soviet, Polish, and German On this transformation, see Viola, Unknown Gulag; Khlevniuk, Gulag; Werth, La terreur; Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain.

In Moscow, Warsaw, and Berlin Collectivization was the central element of the First Five-Year Plan of 1928–1933. It began in earnest in the first weeks of 1930.

This policy brought massive The sequence of events is described in Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 1, which cites a number of the primary sources. On resistance, see, for example, Graziosi, “Révoltes paysannes.” For a broad sample of published Soviet archival sources, see Zelenin et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni.

From the beginning A village flees: Protokół wywiadowczy, 28 March 1930, CAW, I.303.4.6982. Kiss feet and European states: “Protokół,” 23 April 1930, CAW, I.303.4.6982. Misery and oppression: K.O.P., Placówka Wywiadowcza Nr. 10, “Protokól,” 25 November 1933, CAW, I.303.4.6906.

A deliberate mass starvation Forces at border: Placówka Wywiadowcza 9 Czortków, K.O.P., “Wiadomości wojskowe,” 3 April 1930, CAW, I.303.4.6982; “Wiadomośći zakordonowe,” Równe, 1 April 1930, CAW, I.303.4.6982.

Polish diplomats in Soviet Ukraine Five million: J. Karszo-Siedlewski, “Sytuacja na Ukrainie,” 2 October 1933, CAW, I.303.4.1881. Weep: J. Karszo-Siedlewski, Kharkiv, 4 February 1933. On the streets: [Józefina Pisarczykówna] to [Jerzy Niezbrzycki], 13 June 1933, CAW, I.303.4.2099. Villages: [Leon Mitkiewicz] to [Second Department, Referat Wschód, Warsaw], 6 June 1933, CAW, I.303.4.1928. Militia: Falk, Sowjetische Städte, 298–300. Loyal: [Jerzy Niezbrzycki] to [Piotr Kurnicki], 16 March 1933, CAW, I.303.4.1993.

The withdrawal of the Poles Ukrainians: [Piotr Kurnicki], Report on public opinion in Soviet Ukraine, 1935, CAW, I.303.4.1993, quotation at 1. The Polish government had reports from its border guards as well as from Ukrainians who had fled the famine. Its sources of information were bountiful. See, for example, the reports from Ukrainians in CAW, I.303.4.5559 and “Zagadnienie Ukrainizacji,” 12 December 1933, CAW, I.303.4.2011.

The political famine Preemptive attack: Pasztor, “Problem wojny prewencyjnej”; Simms, Europe, 346.

For Polish leaders Memoirs: Müller, Der Feind, 75. Hitler and generals: Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 2. See also Simms, Europe, 361; Cienciala, “Foreign Policy,” 136.

Moscow had its own Kuromiya, Stalin, 141 and passim. For a longer discussion see Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 3.

In the five years between See Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 3. For an introduction to the Great Terror, see Gellately, Stalin’s Curse, 34–46. On numbers of arrests, see Khaustov, “Deiatel’nost’ organov,” 229.

As the Polish Operation began Naumov, Stalin i NKVD, 299.

3. The Promise of Palestine

Naturally, there were Polish [Jerzy Niezbrzycki], 8 June 1935, CAW, I.303.4.1926.

The end of a political life I am using “National Democrats” to describe the party known as Stronnictwo Narodowe. On the goals of pogroms, see Cała, Antysemityzm, 349; Melzer, No Way Out, 22; Korzec, Juifs en Pologne, 247; Rudnicki, Równi, 148. For a first survey of their extent, see Żyndul, Zajścia antyżydowskie.

In 1935, responsibility Transfer of responsibility: Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 7. OZON: Melzer, No Way Out, 27–29; Hagen, “Before the ‘Final Solution,’ ” 373; Jabotinsky, War and the Jew, 86. Jewish wife of Miedziński: Wynot, “ ‘Necessary Cruelty,’ ” 1051.

The man responsible All citizens: HI, Polish Embassy Washington, Jews alphabetical files, Refugees, Warsaw to Washington, 20 May 1938. Beck’s analysis of global political economy: New York Times, 30 January 1937; JPI, 34/7, Józef Beck, “Wspomnienia,” 143. Drymmer’s analysis: “Zagadnienie żydowskie,” 66. 150,000: Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 45. First of all: New York Times, 14 June 1937.

The question of the settlement 1885, Madagassez, Blum, explorers: Brechtken, Madagaskar, 16, 57, 98, 120; see also Korzec, Juifs en Pologne, 250.

Polish authorities also allowed 1926: Friedman, Roads, 44. Blum’s understanding: JPI, 34/7, Józef Beck, “Wspomnienia,” 146. Nationalists: Drymmer, W służbie, 153. French nationalists: Marrus and Paxton, Vichy, 61. Understanding Zionism: “Palestine: Polish Attitude,” NA, CO/733/352/6.

Hitler’s Jewish policy 130,000: Heim, “Einleitung,” 13. 50,000: Husson, Heydrich, 68. Riots: Morris, Righteous Victims, 128–38.

London at first reacted British and German position: Yisraeli, ha-Raikh, 2; Yisraeli, “Germany and Zionism,” 158–59. German consul: Herf, Jewish Enemy, 27–28; Mallmann and Cüppers, Halbmond und Hakenkreuz, 51, 53.

The Polish position differed A good summary of the Polish position in 1937 is Szembek to London, 18 March 1937, AAN, MSZ 322/18497/35. Boundaries: Drymmer, “Zagadnienie,” 66, quotation at 70. Sinai and Jordan: NA, CO/733/368/5/30 and 34; also on extension “towards the south,” Aveling to Eden, 26 July 1937, NA, CO/733/352/6/46. The British were completely aware of public and official opposition to their policy, but did not seem to suspect where it would lead: Aveling to Eden, 14 July 1937, NA, CO/733/352/6. Arms and training to Haganah: Melzer, No Way Out, 142, 152; Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 158. See also New York Times, 9 July 1937. It seems there were two distinct aspects of the Polish policy of military support of Zionism: (1) more or less open support of the Haganah, and thus the left wing, with arms and training, arranged by the general staff, with some payment from the Jewish side; and (2) clandestine support of the Revisionists, and thus the right wing, arranged by the consular section of the ministry of foreign affairs, with no payment from the Jewish side.

The world Zionist movement Evacuation plan: Melzer, No Way Out, 136. See also Engel, “Historical Objectivity,” 578.

Jabotinsky wanted Poland Syria: Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 113.

Jabotinsky’s power base The basic work on this subject is now Heller, “Rise of the Zionist Right”; for these details see 19, 20, 35, 54, 144, 149, 158, 246. Model: Shindler, Military Zionism, 131, 138, 191; Shindler, Military Zionism, 129. Dream: Heller, Stern Gang, 24.

Both Menachim Begin and another Shapira, Land and Power, 196–202, 242. Romantic poets: Shamir, Summing Up, 6; Shilon, Menachem Begin, 11, 16.

After Piłsudski’s death Heller, “Rise of the Zionist Right,” 144, 145, 162. Also Heller, Stern Gang, 26; Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 35. On Trempeldor: Zertal, Israel’s Holocaust, 13–14.

Yet disagreement about the meaning Legacies of Piłsudski: Shindler, Military Zionism, 138, 205. Confrontation: Shilon, Menachem Begin, 18; Heller, “Zionist Right,” 93.

By 1938, the Polish ruling elite Decisive significance of riots: Segev, One Palestine, 384. Origins and name of Irgun: Shindler, Military Zionism, 189; Shilon, Menachem Begin, 12; Kaplan, Jewish Radical Right, 9; Shapira, Israel, 128. Betar and Irgun: Shavit, Jabotinsky, 56.

Irgun liaised with the Polish Instructions to Hulanicki: Warsaw to Jerusalem, 8 April 1937, AAN, MSZ 322/B222532/35. See also Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 128, instrument quotation at 135; and Drymmer, W służbie, 155–56.

Avraham Stern was a child Heller, Stern Gang, 100–103; Golan, Stern, 12. University: M. Schwabe and H. Pflaum to Dr. Magnes, Jerusalem, 19 December 1929, YMA, 1393/1/4/47/333.

Although he was a talented linguist Poems and literary exercises: YMA, 1393/1/4/43/230; YMA, 1393/1/4/45/282, 302, 303. Reality: cited in Golan, Stern, 17.

Hulanicki, the Polish consul Ideological leader quotation in Hulanicki to Warsaw, 5 January 1937 [1938], AAN, MSZ 322/B18516/32. Plan: Shavit, Jabotinsky, 229; Bell, Terror, 44. Landing quotation: Lankin, To Win, 7. The projected size of the Jewish force varies in the sources; the highest figure I have seen is 45,000: Heller, “Zionist Right,” 95.

Drymmer endorsed Drymmer, “Zagadnienie,” 71; Korboński, “Unknown Chapter,” 374; Giedroyc, Autobiografia, 45; Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 145; Heller, Stern Gang, 43; Spector, “Holocaust,” 20; Spektor, “Żydzi wołyńscy,” 573; Snyder, Sketches, 66; and Snyder, “Volhynian Jews.”

Although Polish leaders The shift from one to the other and the attendant anti-Jewish element can be seen in Studentowicz, Polska idea, 12, 29, 46, 47; see also Giedroyc, Autobiografia, 62–63, for a frank description of the ideas of his milieu, at the time essentially the junior league of the Polish ruling class.

There was some continuity On Drymmer: Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 125. Apostle: Józewski, “Zamiast pamietnika,” 10.

The continuities were ideological Common anti-communism: AAN, MSZ 322/18497/35, Szembek to London, 18 March 1937. Emotional appeal: “Notatka z rozmowy wicedyrektora T. Gwiazdowskiego z. p. Dr. Goldmanem,” AAN, MSZ 322/B18415/21. See also Giedroyc, Autobiografia, 62.

Yet there were some telling See Paweł, II Rzeczpospolita wobec ruchu prometejskiego, 62, 65, 282.

In the first Prometheanism Porter-Szücs, Faith and Fatherland, 295.

Unlike the Nazi regime Hagen, “Before the ‘Final Solution,’ ” 373, 375. Opposition: Wynot, “ ‘Necessary Cruelty,’ ” 1043–44.

This was a misunderstanding May 1934: Roos, Polen, 151. Grand design: JPI, 34/7, Józef Beck, “Wspomnienia,” 93.

It quickly became obvious Debicki, Foreign Policy, 90; Roos, Polen, 209; Müller, Der Feind, 64.

Göring would later return to Białowieża Beorn, Marching into Darkness, 97.

Cults of personality are open Quotation: Weinberg, Foreign Policy, 404.

The hope was that if Poland Totalistic states: Kornat, Polityka równowagi, 147. Stalin: Kuromiya, Stalin, 141 and passim.

Right after Piłsudski’s Natural ally: JPI, 67/3/9, Jan Szembek, “Uwagi i obserwacje,” August 1936. Propositions to join the Anti-Comintern Pact: Wojciechowski, Stosunki, 389; Kornat, Polen, 156.

This was a trying time for Polish Arrest instructions: [To Outpost E-15 in Ukraine], 7 August 1936, CAW, I.303.4.1956.

General instructions from the Warsaw Military intelligence: [To Outpost K-10, Leningrad], 19 November 1937, CAW, I.303.4.1983.

In summer 1938 Göring in August and discussions of October: Wojciechowski, Stosunki, 423, 510. Ribbentrop-Lipski discussion: Lipski, Diplomat in Berlin, 453. Texts of Polish fallback negotiating positions on the highway: JPI, 67/76. Weinberg argues that the unwillingness to join the Anti-Comintern Pact was the key issue. Foreign Policy, 484.

The side talk between German Lipski, Diplomat in Berlin, 411, 453; Husson, Heydrich, 125; Loose, “Reaktionen,” 48.

In these negotiations Historians of these negotiations often quote Lipski’s remark that Poland would build a monument to Hitler if he found a way to resolve the Jewish question. With knowledge of the Holocaust we can find this remark even more revolting than it, in fact, was. Lipski was expressing the hope that, despite the overwhelming difficulties, Germany could induce some maritime power to open some overseas colony to Polish Jews. It never occurred to him that Hitler’s “resolution” could be total mass murder. The remark is evidence of Lipski’s incomplete understanding of Hitler, which was hardly unique to him, and not of Lipski’s desire for a Holocaust of the Jews. See Lipski to Beck, 20 September 1938, in Lipski, Diplomat in Berlin, 411; and Melzer, No Way Out, 143. After the invasion of Poland, Lipski enlisted as a private in France and fought against the Wehrmacht in 1940.

Most important was what the Poles See Staatsmänner, 557; JPI, 67/3/14, “Krótkie sprawozdanie z rozmowy Pana Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych z p. Himmlerem w Warszawie,” 18 February 1939. The Himmler quotation is from somewhat later, May 1940, but it conveys the basic difference in attitudes. Kühnl, Der deutsche Faschismus, 329.

Warsaw’s political vision reached HI, Polish Embassy London, Jewish Emigration 1938, Consular Department Warsaw [Drymmer] to Jerusalem, 16 December 1938. See also HI, Polish Embassy London, Polish Consulate General in Jerusalem, Jerusalem to Warsaw, 4 July 1939.

4. The State Destroyers

The Austria where Erika Erika M. quotations: FVA, 2617. On the idea of Lebensunfähigkeit: Pauley, “The Social and Economic Background.” Figures: Heim, “Einleitung,” 27, 31.

The contradictory Austria These themes are developed at lurid length in the second chapter of Mein Kampf.

Although Hitler did not For richer discussions, contrast Steininger, “Road to the Anschluss” and Gehl, Austria, Germany, and the Anschluss. See also Stourzh, Vom Reich zur Republik. On National Socialism in interwar Austria, see Pollack, Der Tote im Bunker.

Yet for Erika M. See Rabinbach, Crisis.

Beyond Vienna, the leading On Friedrich von Wiesner and Jews and monarchism, see Vasari, Leidenschaft, 114; Snyder, Red Prince, chap. 7.

Austria’s major political conflict On interwar Austrian politics, see Goldinger and Binder, Geschichte der Republik Österreich; and then Steininger, Der Staatsvertrag.

The Nazis were never Heim, “Einleiting,” 31–32.

The rise of Hitler Ibid., 17.

Erika M. was right Klamper, “ ‘Anschlusspogrom,’ ” 25; Botz, Nationalsozialismus in Wien, 136. A spiritual portrait of the moment is Stefan Zweig’s Schachnovelle, in which the action takes place in the year between the destruction of Austria and the destruction of Czechoslovakia.

The next morning the Hecht, “Demütigungsrituale,” 41, 43; Raggam-Blesch, “Anschluss-Pogrom,” 112, 119; Botz, Nationalsozialismus in Wien, 127. Amusement: FVA, 1224, Ernest Pollack. Journalist: Gedye, Betrayal, 9–10.

The symbolic destruction of Jewish status Hecht, “Demütigungsrituale,” 53, 67; Heim, “Einleitung,” 35.

The “scrubbing parties” were FVA, 1371, Herman R.; Gedye, Betrayal, 297. See also Petscher, Anschluss, 43–47; Der Standard, 2 March 2013; and Botz, “ ‘Judenhatz,’ ” 19.

The Austrian satirist Karl Kraus All of a sudden: FVA, 3970, Charles H.

What Austrian Nazis managed See Dean, Robbing the Jews, 86, 94, 105, 109. Göring: Aly and Heim, Vordenker, 33.

In 1938, some sixty thousand Jews Figures: Heim, “Einleitung,” 44.

Avraham Stern, the radical Zionist See Wasserstein, On the Eve, 371; Stern: FVA, 226, William N.

On March 15, 1938 Polish approaches to the United States: HI, Polish Embassy Washington, Jewish alphabetical files, Warsaw to Washington, “Notatka do rozmowy z sekretarzem stanu,” 15 March 1938; HI, Polish Embassy London, Jewish Emigration 1938, Warsaw to Washington, 20 May 1938.

Polish diplomats worked Drymmer, W słuzbie, 151; Tomaszewski, Preludium, 70; Weiss, Deutsche und polnische Juden, 195; quotation of Drymmer from Skóra, Słuniba konsularna, 582. Mechanism: JPI, 67/76, Lipski to Beck, 12 November 1938.

The Nazis understood the implications Tomaszewski, Preludium, 114; Weiss, Deutsche und polnische Juden, 200. See also chapter 3. The SS had learned lessons from two prior and smaller attempts at expulsion in 1938: Soviet Jews and Jews from the Burgenland.

In European capitals in 1938 The mutual reinforcement is a theme of Wasserstein, On the Eve.

The Grynszpan family Kirsch, Short Strange Life, quotation at 82–83.

Some of the top Nazis saw an See Hilberg, Destruction, 1:94–95.

With Kristallnacht, Goebbels Benz, “Pogrom und Volksgemeinschaft,” 13; Jäckel, “Der November pogrom,” 67–71; Engel, Holocaust, 21; Husson, Heydrich, 100; Kershaw, Hitler Myth, 238; Bajohr and Pohl, Der Holocaust, 43.

Hitler did nothing to defend Friedman, Roads, 45. Göring now spoke of Madagascar: see Polian, “Hätte der Holocaust,” 4; Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 45. See also Hilberg, Destruction, 1:46. Henryk Grynberg notices this chain of events: Monolog, 10.

Czechoslovakia was thus like Ragsdale, Munich Crisis, 167.

Czechoslovakia was a creation See Khlevniuk, Stalin, 162–63.

Unfortunately for the French 50 percent of officers killed: Wieczorkiewicz, Łańcuch, 296. See Ragsdale, Munich Crisis, 36.

Even as London and Paris Troikas: Petrov and Roginskii, “Pol’skaia operatsiia,” 30–31. Completely destroyed: Jansen and Petrov, Loyal Executioner, 96.

Throughout the territory of Soviet Ukraine Village to village: Stroński, Represje, 235; Iwanow, Pierwszy naród, 153; Kupczak, Polacy na Ukrainie, 327. 1,226: Nikol’skij, “Die Kulakenoperation,” 635.

That was the day that Hitler Ragsdale, Munich Crisis, 167.

Czechoslovakia had no part Osterloh, Reischsgau Sudetenland, 186–98; Husson, Heydrich, 84. Seventeen thousand and banking: Rothkirchen, Jews of Bohemia, 78–79 and 105–6.

Poland bordered all parties Artificial creation: JPI, 67/3/11, Beck to Lipski, 19 September 1938. Absurdity: Zarański, Diariusz, 225.

Poland looked like a German Position: JPI, 67/76, Lipski to Beck, 12 November 1938; Moltke to Berlin, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945, D, 5:87.

The destruction of Austria Segal, “Imported Violence,” 315–17; Jelinek, Carpathian Diaspora, 227; Roos, Polen, 375. Lukacs is unusual among scholars writing in English in drawing attention to this admittedly complicated issue. Last European War, 34 and passim.

As 1939 began, Hitler Hitler and Beck, Memorandum of Conversation, 5 January 1939; and Ribbentrop and Beck, Memorandum of Conversation, 9 January 1939; [conversation of 6 January], Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945, D, 5:153, 160. See also Müller, Der Feind, 110.

Hitler’s problem was Ribbentrop and Beck, Memorandum of Conversation, 1 February 1939 [conversation of 26 January], Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945, D, 5:168; Zarański, Diariusz, 484; New York Times, 25 January 1939. On 25–26 January as the turning point: Roos, Polen, 395–96; Kershaw, Hitler, 475.

The day of Ribbentrop’s return This interpretation is more or less standard among diplomatic historians such as Roos, Cienciała, Kornat, and Karski who use the Polish as well as the German sources. These leave no doubt that Polish diplomats were working hard to keep up an appearance of rapprochement with Germany while never considering joining Germany in an offensive war. The idea of a German “illusion” also appears in Korzec, Juifs en Pologne, 255.

Hitler decided to eliminate Kornat, Polen, 158, 169, 174.

On March 21, 1939, Press coordination: Roos, Polen, 135. As late as 1938: JPI, 67/3/11, “Sprawozdanie P. Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych z Ministrem Propagandy Rzeszy Dr. Goebellsem w obecności Amb. R. P. w Berlinie Lipskiego,” 13 January 1938. Historians of Germany often treat March 1939 rather than January as the moment of the decisive break with Poland. This confuses the mass politics with the diplomacy. In March, Hitler publicized demands that he knew that the German public would find popular and that he could expect that Western states might find reasonable, but which were already irrelevant to the German-Polish discussion, the main subjects of which had been the USSR and the Jews. This is clear from the diplomatic correspondence on both the German and the Polish sides and unmistakable in the Polish memoir material. The confrontation of September 1939 was never about Danzig and the corridor; presenting it that way requires an indulgently literal reading of limited German sources and the exclusion of two important contexts: Hitler’s prior convictions and, of course, the subsequent Second World War.

The Poles were in a relatively Satellite status: Roos, Polen, 380–81. Pasture: Cienciala, Lebedeva, and Materski, Foreign Policy, 148. Honor: Wandycz, “Poland,” 203.

Yet neither the collapse HI, Polish Embassy London, Jewish Emigration from Poland 1939, Consular Department Warsaw to Washington, 10 June 1939; HI, Polish Embassy London, Jewish Emigration 1938, Consular Department in Warsaw to Paris, 23 November 1938; HI, Polish Embassy London, Jewish Emigration 1938, “Problem emigracji żydowskiej,” official policy paper, 20 December 1938. See also JPI, 67/3/14, “Krótkie sprawozdanie z rozmowy Pana Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych z p. Himmlerem w Warszawie,” 18 February 1939.

Polish relations with Britain Geneva: NA, CO/733/368/5/29–31; NA, CO/733/368/5/37–39.

When Beck flew to London Ambassador in Warsaw: Kennard to Cadogan, 7 March 1939; Halifax to Kennard, 8 March 1939, in Documents on British Foreign Policy, Third Series, 3:203, 205. For the broader setting: Pedersen, “Impact of League Oversight,” especially at 60. See also Mallmann and Cüppers, Halbmond und Hakenkreuz, 27; Wasserstein, On the Eve, 413.

Despite Warsaw’s new A million: Wasserstein, On the Eve, 412. Make the case: Shavit, Jabotinsky, 221.

Between February and May Details of training: Lankin, To Win, 35–37; Shilon, Menachem Begin, 149. See also Yisraeli, “ha-Raikh,” 317; Drymmer, “Zagadnienie,” 71; Heller, Stern Gang, 46. Significance: Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 146–49. A list of the Irgun members trained is in Niv, M’arkhot ha-Irgun, 172. Unfriendly quotation: Lankin, To Win, 32.

The men to whom Stern Bell, Terror, 48. For discussions among British diplomats and intelligence officers on the provenance of the weapons, see NA, CO/733/375/5.

Polish military intelligence There is a broad literature on Enigma in Polish and English. See, for example, Körner, Pleasures of Counting, chap. 13; Gondek, Wywiad polski, 262–63; Kozaczuk and Straszak, Enigma, and Pepłoński, Kontrwywiad.

After 1933, Polish Mein Kampf, 145.

The Poles could be forgiven Decisive: Govrin, Jewish Factor, 33. 20 August: Haslam, Soviet Union, 227. Propaganda: Herf, Jewish Enemy, 104. See also Weissberg-Cybulski, Wielka Czystka, 520. Litvinov was fired on 3 May 1939.

By chance the World Zionist Congress Wasserstein, who recalls the scene in On the Eve, 427, departs a bit from the quotation as reported by Yiddish newspapers at the time.

Just as pertinent On propaganda harmony: Govrin, “Ilya Ehrenburg.” Equilibrium and blood: Weinberg, World at Arms, 25, 57.

Aside from Soviet Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 92.

Avraham Stern in Palestine Stern on pact: Heller, “Zionist Right,” 101. Tank: Shapira, Land and Power, 198. See generally Hazani, “Red Carpet, White Lilies.”

Stern was about to lose Quotations: Mallmann, Einsatzgruppen, 54. See also Böhler, Der Überfall, 15.

The invasion of Poland Parade: Moorhouse, Devils’ Alliance, 10–11. Bombing: Böhler, Der Überfall, 169–72. Seven thousand: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 18.

The German invasion of Poland Klafkowski, Okupacja niemiecka, 38, 41, 52, 55, 72, 73, 85, 95; Madajczyk, “Legal Conceptions,” 138, 143; Mazower, “International Civilization,” 556, 562. Mazower’s important arguments draw from Madajczyk, who draws in his turn from Klafkowski’s pioneering work, written immediately after the war. Klafkowski’s study was a response to Carl Schmitt, written from the perspective of an international lawyer who had experienced firsthand the practical implications of Schmitt’s arguments.

The nullification of statehood Virgin territory: Chapoutot, “Le loi de sang,” 330. Italians: Madajczyk, “Legal Conceptions,” 144.

The destruction of the Polish Massive extermination: Mańkowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 7. See Weitbrecht, Der Executionsauftrag, 17. Heydrich’s instructions: Husson, Heydrich, 201, 207.

The Einsatzgruppen killed about Heydrich quotation: Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 69. On the combination of intentions and accidental discoveries in the German progression from Austria through Czechoslovakia to Poland, Mazower’s account is pioneering and persuasive. On the transition to stationary police, see Biskupska, “Extermination and the Elite.”

The first fragmentation Soup and bread: Sauerland, Polen, 90.

Much of Poland’s west More freedom of action: Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 227. For the pidgin German and other examples, see Epstein, Model Nazi.

In the annexed zones Property and professions: Salmonowicz, “Z problemów,” 49; Salmonowicz, “Tragic Night,” 13; Engelking and Grabowski, Przestępczość, 14.

The creation of ghettos Urynowicz, “Stosunki,” 555; Klukowski, Zamojszczyzna, 135. On property acquisition and hostility: Staub, “Origins and Evolution of Hate,” 52. Rape: Böhler, Der Überfall, 19; Löw and Roth, Juden in Krakau, 27–30. On ghettos, cf. Michman, Emergence, 95. It is worth considering Arendt’s discussion of colonialism in Africa in this light: Origins, 206.

For most Poles, the ghettoizations Löw and Roth make similar points in Juden in Krakau, 19, 27.

The Jews sent to the ghettos See generally Trunk, Judenrat; also Löw and Roth, Juden in Krakau, 16.

New Jewish police forces Szeryński: Friedländer, Extermination, 156. Revisionists: Trunk, Judenrat, 490; this was the case in Lithuania as well, according to Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 2:1056. Duties: Engelking and Leociak, Warsaw Ghetto, 204, 207. Informers: Finkel, “Victim’s Politics,” 192.

Then that order changed Hempel, Pogrobowcy, 24, 20, 38, 43, 85, 87, 168, 170, 183, 184, 435. Thirty thousand: Curilla, Judenmord, 837. On the siege of Warsaw, see Biskupska, “Extermination and the Elite.” Racialization: Seidel, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 184ff. No punishment of Germans: Browning, Ordinary Men, 170.

Jews, not seen as a race Rickshaws: Engelking and Leociak, Warsaw Ghetto, 108. Tourism: See Harvey, Women, 131. There was a Baedeker guide to the General Government.

The Nazi racial policy See Rutherford, Prelude, 56–88.

In practice, Himmler Figures from Rutherford, Prelude, 9. Heydrich: Brandon, “Deportation,” 77–78, 86. Eichmann: Polian, “Hätte der Holocaust,” 3, 4, 19.

The ghettos became Eichmann: Husson, Heydrich, 253. Cf. Müller, Der Feind, 107–10.

This was the latest surprise Planning for Madagascar: Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 447.

When Hitler understood that Quotations: Lukacs, Last European War, 105; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 133. 31 July 1940 preparations for attack on USSR instead: Müller, Der Feind, 216–21; Megargee, War of Annihilation, 22.

5. Double Occupation

During the war Arendt, Eichmann, 240; see also Arendt, Origins, 22. It is interesting to note that the scholars who were most influential in the foundation of Holocaust studies did not themselves use east European languages, including Yiddish. Hilberg’s parents spoke Polish but he did not. Friedländer hails from Prague but does not use Czech. No major historian of the Holocaust learned an east European language after 1989, even as a vast wealth of sources became available and new secondary literatures emerged. Some of the consequences of this are the subject of my “Commemorative Causality.”

Like succeeding historians Arendt, Origins, 447. See also Bloxham, Final Solution, 283.

In 1939, when Hitler On state destruction by proxy, cf. Stein, Adolf Hitler, 99. Hitler on Soviet practices: Mein Kampf, 320. On Himmler: Kühnl, Der deutsche Faschismus, 329.

The Germans found the conditions See Levin, Lesser of Two Evils, xi. A body of sociological literature supports the kindred thesis that strong local institutions prevent crime. See Lafree, “Social Institutions,” 1349, 1367.

When the Germans and the Soviets Numbers from Morris, “Polish Terror,” 759. This subject is treated in Snyder, Bloodlands, chaps. 2 and 3. See also Gurianov, “Obzor,” 202; Nikols’kyi, “Represyvna diial’nist’,” 337–40; Martin, “Origins.”

In 1938, Stalin In the Ukrainian NKVD, for example, sixty of the ninety ranking officers were Jewish in 1936. Zolotar’ov, “Nachal’nyts’kyi sklad,” 326–31. Other figures from Gregory, Terror, 63. Stalin achieved here one of his great political successes, the consequences of which are still felt today. Ethnic operations that he ordered were blamed on Jews, because Jews were among the officers who carried them out; but immediately thereafter Jewish officers were purged from the NKVD. Thus, people who oppose communism but do not wish to oppose Stalin, the Soviet Union, or Russia can always combine it with antisemitism; this opportunity for National Bolshevism or east European fascism was opened then, and remains open today.

It was this NKVD See Gross, Revolution from Abroad, 37–44, and Carynnyk, “Palace,” 266–67; and for primary sources HI, Anders Collection, 209/1/4835; 209/6/5157; 209/6/2411; 209/6/4724; 209/7/4112; 209/7/799; 209/7/6601.

Against this backdrop Calm after chaos as policy: “Komandiram, Komissaram, i Nachpolitorganov Soedinenii,” 24 September 1939, CAW, VIII. 800.7.15; as experienced: HI, Anders Collection, 209/13/3960. Majorities: Głowacki, Sowieci, 292; Khlevniuk, Gulag, 236.

Unlike the Germans Total figure from Deportatsii pol’skikh grazhdan, 29. 139,794 and percentages: Hryciuk, “Victims 1939–1941,” 184, 191; Wnuk, Za pierwszego Sowieta, 13, 372.

One of the individuals Herling, World Apart, 39, 65, 131, 132. On spontaneity, see Arendt, Origins, 438.

From the Soviet perspective Quotations: Cienciala, Lebedeva, and Materski, Katyn, 118, 140.

In April 1940 For Strasman: Korboński, “Unknown Chapter,” 375. For the Engelkreis, Brandwajn, and Proner families, see Spanily, Pisane miłością, 49, 112, 387.

With one exception Social background and Blokhin: Cienciala, Lebedeva, and Materski, Katyn, 25, 124. Deportation of families: Goussef, “Les déplacements,” 188; Jolluck, Exile, 15 and then passim on the experience of women; Cienciala, Lebedeva, and Materski, Katyn, 173–74. Strasman: Korboński, “Unknown Chapter,” 375. Jewish neighbor helps: Spanily, Pisane miłością, 187. Janina Dowbor, a daredevil glider and parachutist, was the one woman. She trained as a pilot in 1939, and enlisted in the Polish air force reserve. Her plane was apparently shot down by the Germans. After parachuting to safety, she was arrested by the Soviets as a Polish second lieutenant. On 21 or 22 April 1940, she was shot at Katyn, and buried along with 4,409 men.

There was also continuity On the Great Terror in Moscow: Schlögel, Terror und Traum, 602; Baberowski, Der rote Terror, 195.

The Soviets, at least some Moral sublimity: Fest, Das Gesicht, 162. For further reflections on similarity and difference, see Snyder, Bloodlands.

In western and central Frank quotation: Longerich, Unwritten Order, 47.

An empire on Nazi principles Prison to power: HI, Anders Collection, 209/1/10420, 209/1/2660, 209/1/3571, 209/1/3817/19, 209/1/3517, 209/1/6896 (Dubno County); 209/3/6238 (Horochów); 209/6/5157, 209/6/2376, 209/6/2652, 209/6/4303, 209/6/4284, 209/6/9083 (Kostopol); 209/11/4217, 209/11/3887, 209/11/4049, 209/11/3238, 209/9/6105 (Krzemieniec); 210/14/10544, 210/14/4527, 210/14/2526 (Zdołbunów); 209/13/2935, 209/13/8034 (Luboml); 210/12/1467, 210/12/9728, 210/12/5945.

The Soviet decapitation See Danylenko and Kokin, Radians’kyi orhany, 233–55, for examples of agents at work. See also Wnuk, “Za pierwszego Sowieta”; Nowak-Jeziorański, “Gestapo i NKVD”; revealing though on a later period: Burds, “Agentura.”

After the obligatory Butchers: Margolin, Reise, 14.

The Soviets behaved RAF: Moorhouse, Devils’ Alliance, 154–55. Song: Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror, 258.

In putting an end to capitalism Revisions: HI, Anders Collection, 310/14/4908. Cygielman: HI, Anders Collection, 210/9/4061. Kovel shops: HI, Anders Collection, 209/7/4775. Arms searches: HI, Anders Collection, 210/12/8117.

The end of the Polish On the rapid change in property regime, see Gross, Revolution, 37; Sauerland, Polen, 72. Szef: HI, Anders Collection, 210/1/5331.

The massive scale of Soviet Gunpoint: HI, Anders Collection, 209.

Most Jews in eastern Poland Volhynia figures from 1937 in “Omówienie wydawnictwa Wołyńskiego Urzędu Wojewódzkiego p. t. ‘Wołyń,’ ” June 1937, CAW, I.371.2/A.100. Abolition of the złoty and generally: Bender, Jews of Białystok, 60–62, 70, 83.

In altering the character Cf. Mędykowski, W cieniu, 243.

In other ways Soviet policy For a theoretical reflection on the Polish historiography of double occupation, see Shore, “Conversing with Ghosts,” 5–28.

Even as Soviet power Excellent examples in Wnuk, ‘Za pierwszego Sowieta’; see also Gross, Sąsiedzi, 35.

In the Ukrainian case See Martin, Affirmative Action Empire; and Snyder, Sketches.

That said, the Ukrainian Ideological confusion: Dowództwo Okręgu Korpusu II, “Sprawozdanie o ruchu komunistycznym na terenie DOK. Nr. II za czas od dn. 15 VI do 15 × 1933 r.,” 13 November 1933, CAW, I.371.2/A.91; Dowództwo Okregu Korpusu II, “Sprawozdanie o ruchu komunistycznym na terenie DOK. Nr. II za czas od dn. 15 × 1934 do 15 I 1935 r.,” CAW, I.371.2/A.92; “Nastroje wśród oddziałów 13 D.P,” Równe, 14 April 1937; CAW, I.371.1.2/A.103. Szprynger and “Hitler”: Dowództwo Okregu Korpusu II, “Sprawozdanie o ruchu komunistycznym na terenie DOK. Nr. II za czas od dn. 15 VII 1937 do 15 × 1937 r.,” CAW, I.371.2/A.92. This is a subject of Snyder, Sketches.

The Soviet invasion of eastern Destruction of legal parties and UNDO: Danylenko and Kokin, Radians’kyi orhany, 214–18, 251. Every village: Il’iushyn, OUN-UNP, 17.

During the first few months Jewish mayors: Levin, Lesser of Two Evils, 44. On collectivization and changing attitudes: “Meldunek specjalny—Sprawa Ukrainíska,” 25 November 1941, SPP, 3/1/1/1/1. For an example, see Shumuk, Perezhyte i peredumane. Revolution from Abroad is the title of Gross’s classic study.

All in all, Soviet occupation Arrests of Zionists: “Calendar of Pain,” Sefer Lutsk. Begin: Shilon, Menachem Begin, 25, 29; Shindler, Military Zionism, 218. NKVD and Irgun: Hrynevych, Nepryborkane riznoholossia, 296.

Betar was quickly powerless Letter of 27 December 1939, NA, KV/2/2251/7a. See Lankin, To Win, 40; Bell, Terror Out of Zion, 52; Weinbaum, Marriage of Convenience, 140.

Of the three European states Shamir’s hope: Shamir, Summing Up, 54.

The appeals sent by Jewish Stern’s proposal: Yisraeli, “ha-Raikh,” 315.

Stern assumed that Hitler See Bell, Terror Out of Zion, 69.

Every method of changing See Heller, Stern Gang, 19. Jabotinsky was simultaneously urging the British to accept the inevitable wave of Polish-Jewish refugees (without success). See, for example, Jabotinsky to MacDonald, 5 September 1939, NA, CO/733/368/5/9.

These Jewish and Ukrainian See Mallmann and Cüppers, Halbmond und Hakenkreuz.

In 1940, the application A boy called Joseph remembered that his family fled the German zone after laughing Germans had burned down the synagogue. His father had decided to flee east and take refuge with a friend. He did not want to take Soviet passports because he wanted to be able to return home after the war. The family was deported to the Gulag. First Joseph’s brother died, then his parents. Gross and Gross, War Through Children’s Eyes, 221.

In the first half of 1940 NKVD: Hrynevych, Nepryborkane riznoholossia, 299.

With the wider world unattainable Quotation: Rabin, Vishnivits: sefer zikaron, 315. See Melnyk, “Stalinist Justice,” 231. The Lesser of Two Evils is the title of Levin’s classic work.

Before the consecutive Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:87, 95, 127, 128. On absence of pogroms see Sirutavičius and Staliūnas, “Was Lithuania,” 146–50.

By the standards of Europe 23,000: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:144. 1,500: Łossowski, Kraje bałtyckie, 145–47. Lemkin: See his Totally Unofficial, 29.

As a result of the German-Soviet On the pogrom, see Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:142.

In late 1939 and early 1940 Quotations: Levin, Lesser of Two Evils, 198; Klarman to Levin, 8 November 1939, NA, KV/2/2251/4a; NA, KV/2/2251/1a. Zionists: Bender, Jews of Białystok, 66; also the memoir of Good, “ ‘Jerushalayim,’ ” 13–14. Base: Hrynevych, Nepryborkane riznoholossia, 294. On the Lithuanian-Polish question in Vilnius, see Snyder, Reconstruction of Nations, chaps. 1–4.

The position of Jews Ezergailis, Holocaust in Latvia, 63, 69, 83. Angrick and Klein, Final Solution, 12. On the Agudat movement see Bacon, Politics of Tradition.

The subsequent and rapid Weiss-Wendt emphasizes humiliation in his account of Estonia (Murder Without Hatred, 39), as does Plavnieks in his fine dissertation “Nazi Collaborators,” 41. Dieckmann favors the notion of shame: Deutsche Besatzsungspolitik, 1:114.

The political resource included Repatriation: MacQueen, “White Terror,” 98. Lithuanians: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 92–95. Weiss-Wendt estimates at least 1,821 Latvians (and 2,055 Estonians; Estonia will be discussed in a later chapter). Murder Without Hatred, 36.

The timing of the Soviet Dieckmann gives a range of 16,989 to 17,500: Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:152. A Soviet report gives the figure of 9,817 shot in prison, 1,439 shot on the convoys, and another 1,059 who died on the convoys for an unspecified reason. Vladimirtsev, NKVD-MVD, 67–68.

6. The Greater Evil

“The epoch of statehood” In his famous Der Begriff des Politischen of 1932, discussed in Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen, 358. It is true that Schmitt was criticized from within the party for being too attached to the conventional state. But what he meant by a “total state” is not an ever larger one, but rather one that is defined by the animal, pre-political energy of the racial party, which is to create a “total revolution.” See Faye, “Carl Schmitt,” 164, 171.

Beyond manipulation itself Quotations: Schmitt, “Grossraum Order,” 105, 124, 101. See Gross, Carl Schmitt and the Jews, 147–49, and Nunan, “Translator’s Introduction.” Cf. Sternhell, Les anti-Lumières, 618.

Schmitt believed that the Infection: Schmitt, “Eröffnung,” 15. Jurists: Chapoutot, “Le loi de sang,” 310–12. Seyss-Inquart quotation: Liulevicius, German Myth, 171.

Frank, Hitler’s personal Frank quotations: Frank, “Einleitung,” 141–42; Frank, “Ansprach,” 9. Theft of silver: Snyder, Red Prince, chap. 9. His wife’s robbery of the ghetto: Löw and Roth, Juden in Krakau, 27.

Lawyers were extremely Mallmann, Einsatzgruppen, 23.

Germany at war remained This argument from politics is influenced by Longerich’s Politik der Vernichtung; what seems crucial is to extend political argument beyond the borders of the prewar Reich to the lands where the Holocaust took place, and beyond German actors to those with whom they interacted.

As the Einsatzgruppen followed Churchill quotation: Saviello, “Policy,” 24.

The Holocaust has Calculation of one million: Brandon, “First Wave.” See Benz, Kweit, and Mathäus, Einsatz, 33. In March 1941, Heydrich proposed to Göring a plan for the deportation of Jews to Siberia. Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 747; Kay, Exploitation, 109.

Sometimes the Einsatzgruppen who followed Basic task is state destruction: Husson, Heydrich, 310.

Antisemitism cannot fully Benz, Kweit, and Mathäus, Einsatz, 73. See Angrick, Besatzungspolitik.

Even the most hidebound Nazis This nazified line of reasoning is resonant today. I try to explain why in Snyder, “Commemorative Causality.” On Lithuanian pogroms: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 2:1512 and passim.

After the war, Soviet On the postwar campaigns against Ukrainian and Lithuanian nationalists, which form the backdrop for these arguments, see Snyder, Reconstruction.

It is tempting to imagine The most useful synthesis is now Polonsky, Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. 3. Cf. Longerich, Davon, 161; Ezergailis, Holocaust in Latvia, 13–15.

The commencement of mass killing What is meant is not the rationalities involved in what Foucault calls governmentality, but rather the deliberate destruction of government in a traditional sense in the name of biology and in the expectation that biology can then reassert itself. This destruction does not end politics but does create a new setting in which a new kind of politics emerges. See Naissance de la biopolitique, 316.

In a dark irony German beliefs: Benz, Kweit, and Mathäus, Einsatz, 34.

To a degree The important notion of double collaboration was introduced by Gross in Sąsiedzi and has since figured in local studies such as Snyder, “Causes”; Brakel, Unter Rotem Stern und Hakenkreuz; Penter, Kohle; and Weiss-Wendt, Murder Without Hatred. It should be the topic of detailed empirical study.

The Soviet system was not See Mędykowski, W cieniu, 160.

What local people expected An Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) informer on OUN intelligence cooperation with Germany: “Komunikat Informacyjny,” 3 June 1932, AAN, MSW/1040/50–57.

As Ukrainian nationalists Propaganda inside Germany: Longerich, Davon, 159. Himka makes the point about ethnicization in “Ethnicity and Reporting.” The case of Oleksandr Kohut: Kachanovs’kyi, “OUN(b),” 220, 223. On the calculation of shooting prisoners: Carynnyk, “Palace,” 280–81.

In Lwów on July 25, 1941 Kill one Jew: Prusin, Lands Between, 158. Mizoch: HI, Anders Collection, 210/14/7746; HI, Anders Collection, 210/14/3327. On Mizoch in the Soviet period, see ŻIH, 301/1795.

By reducing actual Ukrainian Klevan: ŻIH, 301/1190, Abraham Kirschner. Dubno: ŻIH, 301/2168, Pinches Fingerhut; Adini, Dubno: sefer zikaron, 698–701. On German confusion in Dubno: Carynnyk, “Palace,” 293. On police continuity: Bauer, The Death of the Shtetl, 64. For development of the double collaboration theme, see Snyder, “Causes,” 208–9.

Jews were ordered This recounting draws from Curilla, Judenmord, 246–51; and Bender, Jews of Białystok, 90; see also Matthäus, “Controlled Escalation,” 223; Machcewicz, “Rund um Jedwabne,” 73–74. Ten men in small synagogue: FVA, 2903, Leon F.

In those days of late June Heydrich on 29 June: “Spurenlos auszulösen, zu intensivieren wenn erforderlich und in die richtigen Bahnen zu lenken, ohne dass sich diese örtlichen ‘Selbstschutzkreise’ später auf Anordnungen oder auf gegebene politische Zusicherungen berufen können.” Cited in Justiz und NS-Verbrechen, vol. 43, 2010, Lfd. Nr. 856, 177–78. Score settling political but not ethnic: Machcewicz, “Rund um Jedwabne,” 72–73. The same was true in Romania; this will be discussed in a later chapter.

If Heydrich’s order Presence of Himmler with Kurt Daluege, the head of the Ordnungspolizei in Białystok on 8 July: Bender, Jews of Białystok, 94. Himmler’s disappointment: Rossino, “Violence,” 6. Himmler, Heydrich, Göring interest: Dmitrów, “Die Einsatzgruppen,” 127, 145, 155.

The presence and preferences Police units: Dmitrów, “Die Einsatzgruppen,” 112–27; Machcewicz, “Rund um Jedwabne,” 75.

The Germans were learning The empirical argument is in Kopstein and Wittenberg, “Intimate Violence,” chap. 4. Local polarization seems to have general explanatory power: see Croes, “Holocaust in the Netherlands,” 484.

The most notorious pogrom Conditions: Kopstein and Wittenberg, “Intimate Violence,” chap. 4; Bikont, My z Jedwabnego; also Gross, Sąsiedzi, 29. Traitor: Gross, Sąsiedzi, 35; Sauerland, Polen, 83.

The scenography Flag: Gross, Sąsiedzi, 12. Cf. Cała, Antysemitizm, 433.

In northeastern Poland Machcewicz, “Rund um Jedwabne,” 65, 69, 70, 72.

The Jedwabne method Sauerland, Polen, 66; Machcewicz, “Rund um Jedwabne,” 86.

The presence or absence About 1,100 of the Jews murdered in Lithuania were killed in pogroms: less than one percent of the total number killed. Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 2:1512.

The Germans understood According to Łossowski, Kraje bałtyckie, 164, some 50,000 people left Lithuania as Germans during the Soviet period, of whom one-half returned.

The Lithuanian activists arrived Business figures from Levin, Lesser of Two Evils, 69.

The politics of mass killing In June 1941, the Lithuanian Communist Party was almost 40 percent Russian, about 46 percent Lithuanian, and 13 percent Jewish. The communist security police was about 46 percent Lithuanian, 36 percent Russian, and 17 percent Jewish in 1940. So in both cases Jews were considerably overrepresented by comparison to their share of the population but about a third as numerous as Lithuanians. Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:165–69.

Actual political experience Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:248–53; see also Lower, “Pogroms,” 224. Communist youth: Eidintas, Jews, 257.

Double collaboration Wette, Karl Jäger, 82; Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:297.

The Germans never did Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:534. Knyrimas and Baranauskas: Eidintas, Jews, 256.

Vilnius, the Jerusalem On the Polish-Lithuanian-Jewish question in wartime Vilnius, see Snyder, Reconstruction, chap. 4.

This innovation took place Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 2:906, 1511. Hitler, Goebbels, marking of Jews: Longerich, Davon, 165–68. On perceptions in the field about the course of the war, see inter alia Römer, Kommissarbefehl, 204.

If the Soviet Union Ingrao, Believe, 236. Cf. Fritzsche, “Holocaust and the Knowledge,” 603. In Germany: Longerich, Davon, 160–61. Filbert and translation: Kay, “Transition to Genocide,” 413–25; see also Ingrao, Believe, 81, 158–59; Ingrao “Violence de guerre,” 236–37; Römer, Kameraden, 410, 414, 448, 462.

Their hesitations about Kay, “Brothers.”

The Nazi conviction Large numbers of Latvians return: Ezergailis, Holocaust in Latvia, 48; see also 155, 165–66. Liberation from the Jews: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:513. See also Silberman, “Jan Lipke,” 87.

By now Stahlecker Naturally: Breitmann, “Himmler,” 436. Channeling: Wette, Karl Jäger, 78.

The Arājs Kommando On Arājs and his commando, see Justiz und NS-Verbrechen, vol. 43, 2010. Lfd. Nr. 856, 173–83; Kaprāns Vita Zelče, “Vēsturiskie cilvēki,” 169–70, 173–74; Plavnieks, “Nazi Collaborators,” 41–49, 72–85; Vīksne, “Members of the Arājs Commando,” 189–202; Angrick and Klein, Final Solution, 74 and passim; Ezergailis, Holocaust in Latvia, 177, 183, 188. Russians: Kudryashov, “Russian Collaborators,” 3. Looting: Bender, Jews of Białystok, 95.

The Einsatzgruppen were a hybrid Quotation: Ezergailis, Holocaust in Latvia, 206. See Bloxham, Final Solution, 130.

Aside from the Einsatzgruppen 12 August: Kruglov, “Jewish Losses,” 275.

Jeckeln’s innovation See Pohl, “Schauplatz Ukraine,” 142–44; Angrick and Klein, Final Solution, 130.

The easternmost part Segal, “Beyond,” 5–9, quotation at 5; Jelinek, Carpathian Diaspora, 234. See also Mędykowski, W cieniu, 287. Between 1867 and 1918, the Habsburg domains were a dual monarchy known as Austria-Hungary. The government in Budapest was sovereign in its domestic affairs. The king of Hungary was the same person as the emperor of the entire realm, Franz Josef.

Hungary made Jews stateless Vladimir P.: FVA, 2837. Béla Kun: Ingrao, Believe, 153.

If the Judeobolshevik Breitmann, “Himmler,” 433–44. Thirty-three thousand: Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 456. Letter home: Schneider, Auswärts eingesetzt, 215. More than EG: Lower, “Axis Collaboration,” 186. See also Pohl, Herrschaft der Wehrmacht, 152; Curilla, Judenmord, 851.

On September 28, 1941 Pohl, Herrschaft der Wehrmacht, 259; Pohl, “Schauplatz Ukraine,” 147; Pohl, “Ukrainische Hilfskräfte,” 213. Rape and party: Schneider, Auswärts eingesetzt, 465, 471. Already bloodied: Dina Pronicheva, “Stenogramma,” 24 April 1946, TsDAVO, 166/3/245/115–34; see also Dina Pronicheva, Darmstadt, 29 April 1968, IfZ, Gd 01.54/78/1758–76. For a description of the experience from Jewish perspectives, see Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair, 61–68; and Berkhoff, “Dina Pronicheva’s Story.”

Many of the aged and infirm More research is needed on the pogroms in the prewar Soviet Union in 1941. On Kyiv see Melnyk, “Stalinist Justice,” 230, 238.

At the end of 1941 Angrick and Klein, Final Solution, 114.

7. Germans, Poles, Soviets, Jews

“The East belongs to the SS!” Wasser, Himmlers Raumplanung, 51. See generally Gerwarth, Heydrich.

Organized massacres involving Percentages derived from Arad, Holocaust, 521, 524. For examples of collaboration, see the cases below. On the NKVD, see Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror, 268.

The Germans reached The Estonian case will be discussed at greater length in the next chapter.

The prewar Soviet Union Bemporad, “Politics of Blood,” 4–5, 8.

In an unhappy sequence Three hundred thousand estimate: Pohl, Herrschaft der Wehrmacht, 119. Denunciations: Reid, Leningrad, 125. Ideological interval: Hrynevych, Nepryborkane riznoholossia, 111–20; Moorhouse, Devils’ Alliance, 130. Kyiv example: Schneider, Auswärts eingesetzt, 462; Prusin, “Community of Violence,” 1.

The Judeobolshevik myth Rabin, Vishnivits: sefer zikaron, 300.

In doubly occupied western Valuable on the entire period and on the question of nationalism beyond western Ukraine is Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair.

In Zhytomyr, the major city On the terror in Zhytomyr, see chapter 2. Leaflets: Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 34.

When war came to Zhytomyr For the exchange see Lower, “German Colonialism,” 22. See also Lower, Nazi Empire-Building, 34–35.

Kharkiv was the major city Terror and bread and salt: FVA, 3272, Pyotr Borisovich L.

In any large Soviet city Gangsters: Radchenko, “Accomplices,” 445.

When the Kharkiv Radchenko, “Accomplices,” 443–58; details about the march from FVA, 3270, Lydia G.

The mass shooting of the Jews Lower, “German Colonialism,” 26; Radchenko, “Accomplices,” 443–58, trash quotation at 454.

No matter where the Germans arrived Tyaglyy, “Nazi Occupation,” 127, 141.

Because Army Group South of the Wehrmacht On the Gypsies, see Holler, Völkermord, 68–69.

In Stalino, as elsewhere Penter, Kohle, 270–81; Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror, 263–88.

The initial German policy Pripiat: Matthäus, “Controlled Escalation,” 225; Der Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers, 189. Nebe: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 544, 549, 567. See Mędykowski, W cieniu, 231. Belarusians and Poles: Dean, “Service of Poles.”

With less local collaboration Beorn, Marching into Darkness, 73.

Not long afterwards Ibid., 97.

By October 1941 Megargee, War of Annihilation, 99.

Unlike Operation Barbarossa Quotation: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 588.

Once Operation Typhoon Beorn, Marching into Darkness, 7, 60, 62, 73, 120, 133.

In Minsk 7 November and other symbolic dates in Minsk: Rubenstein and Altman, Unknown Black Book, 238, 245, 251, 252. Communists: Rein, “Local Collaboration,” 394; see also Brakel, Unter Rotem Stern und Hakenkreuz, 304. On Soviet Jews in Minsk, see Bemporad, Becoming.

With the advance of Operation Identification of Jews with partisans, beginning September 1941: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 566.

The policy of mass Vans: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 1075. The “black crow” reference is ubiquitous; see, for example, USHMM, RG-31.049/01, Evgenia Elkina. The killing with vans was also an extremely grisly business; some Germans preferred shooting. See Prusin, “Community of Violence.”

By the end of 1941 Rasch: Lower, “German Colonialism,” 24.

Whereas the Germans Kudryashov, “Russian Collaboration,” 4–5, 15; Penter, Kohle, 275; Reid, Leningrad, 125. The Germans murdered Gypsies in the outskirts of Leningrad as well; with what degree of local cooperation remains to be seen. See Holler, “Nazi Persecution,” 157.

In the cities of Soviet Russia Cohen, Smolensk, 64, 68, 78, 79, 122.

In nature, thought Hitler German starvation policies are covered in Snyder, Bloodlands, chapter 5.

The German invasion Quotation: Arnold, “Die Eroberung,” 35. Dieckmann develops the idea of the distribution of scarcity; see Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:536, 579–83.

Like the politics of Judeobolshevism Cf. Gerlach, “Wannsee Conference.” I agree that December was a turning point and am inclined to see it as Hitler’s decision to announce an intent to eliminate all Jews rather than an explicit order to kill them all, but taken at a time when killing them was proving to be easier than deporting them. In early 1942, Heydrich and others were still discussing deportations to Siberia, which would have been senseless had there been an explicit order to murder; the failure of German offensives and Heydrich’s assassination must have made such a deportation seem unrealistic. The technique of fixed gassing facilities then developed in Poland was not initially meant as a total solution, but it proved more feasible than anything else, and was pursued to the end. In my understanding, Hitler’s determination from the beginning was to eliminate the Jews from the planet; it was a matter of indifference whether this was achieved through murder or through deportation to some inhospitable place. What is chilling is not a diabolical plan that was followed to the letter; there was no such thing. What is chilling is a worldview in which individuals are defined as a supernatural collectivity such that their removal is seen as ethical and the method of removal makes no moral difference.

The autumn of 1941 FVA, 368, Iurii Israilovich G.

The battle for Kaluga Stieff cited after Edele, “States,” 374.

That very day Common front: Herf, Jewish Enemy, 132 and passim. Hitler’s 12 December speech as recorded by Goebbels: Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 376; see also Witte et al., Der Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers, 289. Cf. Friedlander, Extermination, 281. Once the United States was in the war it had to be presented by Hitler not as a distant model but as a fragile enemy, “half Judaized and half negrified”: Fischer, Hitler and America, 37.

In the occupied zones Pity quotation: Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 376. Reckoning of the number of Jews killed by the end of 1941: Brandon, “First Wave.”

The lessons of the USSR Some 1,500 Poles were among the collaborating police forces in the territories that are now Belarus. The Germans sought to reduce this number when they could, favoring Belarusians. See Dean, “Service of Poles,” 6. The main collaborating Polish formations were the 107th and the 202nd Schutzmannschaft Battalions. In general, Poles were recruited to such formations in times and places where Ukrainian policemen deserted in 1943 to form a Ukrainian partisan army. In some cases Poles joined such formations to avenge ethnic cleansing by Ukrainian nationalists. See Snyder, “Origins,” and Snyder, Reconstruction of Nations.

On January 30, 1942 Hillgruber, “Grundlage,” 286. Arendt noticed the problem with prophecy; see Origins.

That same month Quotation: Table Talk, 235. Leningrad estimate: Reid, Leningrad, 231. Estimate of about a million: Pohl, Herrschaft der Wehrmacht, 181; similarly Arad, Holocaust, 311. Africa and hunger motivation: Kuwałek, Vernichtungslager, 110–11. See also Madajczyk, “Generalplan Ost,” 17. Askaren: Black, “Askaris,” 279; Sandler, “Colonizers,” 8. The Germans said “Askaren”; in English “Askaris.”

No one had to say October: Heydrich, Husson, 437. See also Rieger, Globocnik, 60–61 and 103, where he dates the meeting to late September. For a list of the sites of oppression in the district, see Poprzeczny, Hitler’s Man, 208.

In the occupied Soviet Union Wasser, Raumplanung, 61, 77; Schelvis, Vernichtungslager Sobibór, 32, 41; Arad, Reinhard, 14; Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 468; Black, “Handlanger der Endlösung,” 315. For the ethnic groups, see Black, “Askaris,” 290. Some western and Polish historians inexcusably follow the ethnicizing Soviet propagandistic and current Russian nationalist practice of referring to the Trawniki men as “Ukrainians.” Ukrainians were certainly among these people, but so was everyone else whom the Germans asked, including of course Russians.

From the west Poprzeczny, Hitler’s Man, 163, gives the figure of 94 staff from T-4; Berger, in the now-standard Experten, gives 120. Kuwałek in Vernichtungslager gives a total staff count of 453.

The program of mass killing On the process, see Arad, Reinhard, 44, 56; Młynarczyk, Judenmord, 252, 257, 260; Pohl, Verfolgung, 94.

The practice of extermination Rieger, Globocnik, 115.

Many Jews yielded Productive: FVA, 147, David L. Ten people: FVA, 404, Marion C.

Most likely there was never February 1942: Witte et al., Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers, 353. See Pohl, Verfolgung, 95; Friedländer, Extermination, 343, 430. The foundational study of Operation Reinhard is Arad, Belzec. I provide descriptions of the murder at Treblinka in Bloodlands.

In Warsaw in late December See Moczarski, Rozmowy, 200. The course and suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is discussed at greater length in Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 9. See especially Bartoszewski, Warszawski pierścień; Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations; Engelking and Leociak, Warsaw Ghetto; and, for a sense of how much work remains to be done on the subject, Libionka and Weinbaum, Bohaterowie.

The man who suppressed Quotation: Kershaw, Final Solution, 66.

That winter, Jews Orpo: Curilla, Judenmord, 837. Lange: Kuwałek, Vernichtungslager, 49. Stars of David: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 686. See Mallmann, “Rozwiązać,” 85–95; Friedländer, Extermination, 314–18.

In the General Government On the Łódż ghetto, see Löw, Juden im Getto Litzmannstadt. Main task and dogs: Grabowski, Judenjagd, 9, 59.

In 1943 and 1944 Orpo responsibility: Browning, Ordinary Men, 121. Masses: Engelking and Grabowski, Przestępczość, 195.

There was a politics Markiel and Skibińska, Zagłada domu, 23, 48. Posters: Cobel-Tokarska, Bezludna wyspa, 90. See also Skibińska, “Self-Portrait,” 469–71; Engelking, Losy Żydów, 162, 188; Grabowski, Judenjagd, 24.

Poles were not always Krosno: Rączy, Pomóc Polaków, 44. Żbikowski, “Night Guard,” 513, 515, 517, 520, 524; Grabowski, Judenjagd, 82. Chronicle of collective reprisals: Madajczyk, Hitlerowski terror, 9 and passim.

Sometimes Poles in the countryside Order: Engelking and Grabowski, Przestępczość, 194–95. Engelking gives the example of a Polish policeman who refused to shoot a seven-year-old who begged for death, and instead rescued the boy. Losy Żydów, 198. Examples of help in Rączy, Pomóc Polaków; and Hempel, Pogrobowcy.

In these conditions Grabowski, Judenjagd, 11, 69. The notion of the privatization of power, an Arendtian argument developed by Gross in Revolution from Abroad, might be useful applied in other settings.

Wherever the state Some Dutch Jews were sent to Sobibór, which is one more way that the Dutch situation resembles the Polish one. Almost all of the other victims of Sobibór were Polish Jews. Most Dutch Jews were sent to Auschwitz.

8. The Auschwitz Paradox

Auschwitz has been a relatively See Longerich, Davon, 222 and passim; on property: Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries.

For similar reasons Cf. Veidlinger, In the Shadow.

Auschwitz was one of the few See the final chapter of Snyder, Bloodlands.

In the history of the Holocaust More than two hundred thousand Polish Jews were murdered at Auschwitz; they were the second largest victim group, after Hungarian Jews. The third largest was non-Jewish Poles.

Auschwitz arose Steinbacher, Auschwitz, 27; Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 275, 293.

The purpose of Auschwitz On the development of the camps and death facilities at Auschwitz, see Dwork and Van Pelt, Auschwitz, 166, 177, 219, 240, 275, 290, 293, 313, 326, 351.

Intuitions fail See Valentino, Final Solutions, 234 and passim; and Croes, “Holocaust in the Netherlands,” 492; in another setting, Straus, Order of Genocide, 128. The level of antisemitism, insofar as this can be ascertained, does not seem to correlate with Jewish death rates; what does strongly correlate is the degree of state destruction. Helen Fein developed an asynchronous argument similar to the one here in her valuable study Accounting for Genocide. Where she writes of “the lack of counterauthorities resisting” German plans (90), I have sought in previous chapters to describe the process and consequences of the destruction of those authorities as one of the causes of the Holocaust as such. State destruction created opportunities for innovation, decapitated and perverted existing institutions, and left fragments that could be deployed for other purposes. But my findings certainly confirm her general case. As in so many other matters the suggestion for further research was to be found in Hilberg, Destruction, 2:572–99. See also Birnbaum, Prier, 130.

Estonia shared the fate Fate of leaders: Kaasik, “Political Repression,” 310. Fate of ministers: Paavle, “Estonian Elite,” 393. See also Łossowski, Kraje bałtyckie, 46–55.

Soviet law was applied Penal code: Maripuu, “Political Arrests,” 326; Maripuu, “Deportations,” 363. 10,200: Weiss-Wendt, Murder Without Hatred, 40.

Double collaboration Weiss-Wendt, Murder Without Hatred, 131.

Former employees Ibid., 115–16.

In Estonia, as everywhere Ibid., 132. Lithuanian policemen and POW camps: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:525.

The German occupation of Denmark Quotation: Haestrup, “Danish Jews,” 22. Vilhjálmsson and Blüdnikow, “Rescue,” 3, 5, 7. Wiking: Wróblewski, Dywizja, 143–47. A field surgeon in that unit was a certain German physician named Joseph Mengele. Alongside Estonians: Strassner, Freiwillige, 15.

When the Final Solution Haestrup, “Danish Jews,” 23, 29.

There was a will A sober accounting of these events is Herbert, Best, 360–72.

Denmark’s neighbor Sweden German stance: Dwork and Van Pelt, Holocaust, 327. In custody: Haestrup, “Danish Jews,” 52.

Jews who were Danish Vilhjálmsson and Blüdnikow, “Rescue,” 1, 3.

These lists of actions and absences Antisemitism in the states at war with Germany and in the neutral states probably worsened rather than improved during the war; Americans, according to one public opinion poll, considered Jews during the war a greater enemy than the Germans or the Japanese. Nirenberg, Anti-Judaism, 457–58.

Citizenship is the name See chaps. 5 and 6 of Snyder, Bloodlands.

In states allied with Germany Frank’s decree of 15 October 1941 in Paulsson, Secret City, 67. Compare to Moore, “Le context du sauvetage,” 285–86. In the Rzeszów region of the General Government in occupied Poland, some two hundred Poles were executed for sheltering Jews. See Rączy, Pomóc Polaków, 61.

Compare the fates of Victor Klemperer On Jews permitted to live in Nazi Germany, see Longerich, Davon, 252–53. Quotation from Kassow, Rediscovering, 13.

Because Klemperer was Kassow, Rediscovering, 360. Bartoszewski makes the point about Anne Frank: “Rozmowa,” 16. Cf. Fein, Accounting for Genocide, 33.

Legal discrimination On Schmid, see Wette, Feldwebel, 67.

Citizenship in modern states Soviet bureaucracy might seem to be an exception. But it is in fact an exception that proves the rule. First, the Soviet state was not, constitutionally or in practice, a traditional state bound by law. It was subordinate to the communist party, and thus in the end to the subjective reading of history by party leaders. Second, in times of massive state terror, such as 1937–1938, conventional Soviet legal practices were set aside in favor of a state of emergency.

Even German bureaucracy Bloodstream: “Endlösung der Judenfrage,” in Pauer-Studer, Rechtfertigungen, 439. Breitman notes that it was a major mass murderer, Bach-Zelewski, who began the intellectual association of death with bureaucracy. “Himmler,” 446. Wasserstein provides the startling example of a Jewish bureaucracy, a council to aid Jewish emigration, that in personnel and in mode of operation was similar to the Judenrat of Amsterdam. What changed in the meantime was the arrival of the German state destroyers, who had created a stateless zone to which Dutch Jews were now sent. Westerbork, at first a refugee camp, became a transit camp for death facilities in occupied Poland. See his Ambiguity, passim.

Bureaucracies in Germany Gerlach, “Failure of Plans,” 68.

9. Sovereignty and Survival

Germany invaded Yugoslavia See Manoschek, Serbien, 39, 51, 55, 79, 86, 107, 186; and Pawlowitch, New Disorder, 281.

Croatia as a state had no hope Korb, Im Schatten, 439–49 for summary of major findings; see also Korb, “Mass Violence,” 73; Dulic, “Mass Killing,” 262, 273.

Slovakia was the other Ward, Priest, Politician, Collaborator, 209, 214, 221.

Slovakia joined the Axis Himmler and 20 October 1941 meeting: Witte et al., Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers, 278. See generally Ward, Priest, Politician, Collaborator, 227, 230, 233, 235.

Romania, Germany’s major Tradition of “securitized” Jewish policy: Iordachi, “Juden,” 110.

Romania had been regarded On Romanianization, see Livezeanu, Cultural Politics.

Traditionally Romania had been See Geissbühler, Blutiger Juli, 46, 49.

When on July 2, 1941 Deportation figures: Olaru-Cemiertan, “Wo die Züge,” 224. Iasi and 43,500: Geissbühler, Blutiger Juli, 54, 119.

The Romanian political Solonari, “Patterns,” 121, 124, 130, “killing all Jews” quotation at 125. “Nobody except Jews”: Dumitru, “Through the Eyes,” 125. See also Prusin, Lands Between, 154.

Romanian soldiers quickly Glass, Deutschland, 144–47, 266–67; Dumitru, “Through the Eyes,” 206–13; Geissbühler, “He spoke Yiddish.”

From the perspective of Bucharest Numbers and analysis: Glass, Deutschland, 15. See also Hilberg, Destruction, 2:811; Bloxham, Final Solution, 116.

Romanian policy Ancel, Holocaust in Romania, 479, 486; Solonari, “Ethnic Cleansing,” 105–6, 113. Hitler trying: Hillgruber, “Grundläge,” 290. Diplomatic protection: Glass, Deutschland, 230.

Under their longtime ruler For a convincing analysis, see Case, Between States, especially 182–88. For an example, see Antonescu’s conversation with Hitler on 23 March 1944, cited in Staatsmänner, 392.

Budapest passed anti-Jewish Forty thousand: Lower, “Axis Collaboration,” 194.

The expropriation Gerlach and Aly, Letzte Kapitel, 81, 83, 104, 114, 126, 148, 188–89. New York Times: Bajohr and Pohl, Der Holocaust, 115.

Like all of Germany’s allies Ungváry, Siege of Budapest, 286–91; Segal, “Beyond,” 16; Kenez, Coming of the Holocaust, 244–48, 257. 320,000: Pohl, Verfolgung, 107. Arrow Cross: Jangfeldt, Hero of Budapest, 240.

Jews who were citizens Kenez comes to a similar conclusion: Coming of the Holocaust, 234.

When the war turned 29 April: Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 469. “Weltvergifter aller Völker”: Hillgruber, “Gründlage,” 296.

Hitler was seeking to lift Cf. Bloxham, Final Solution, 7; Ther, Ciemna strona, 19.

Hitler was not Changing character of USSR: Table Talk, 587, 657, 661; Hitler to Antonescu, 26 March 1944, in Staatsmänner, 398. Stronger man: Steinberg, “Third Reich,” 648; Kershaw, The End, 290; see also Jäckel, Hitler in History, 89.

Here, as with Estonia Van der Boom, “Ordinary Dutchmen,” 32, 42. Van der Boom argues that Dutch Jews were killed in such large numbers because they feared hiding more than deportation. As he points out, a Jew who tried to hide was sixty times more likely to survive in the Netherlands than a Jew who did not. But punishment for hiding was not unique to the Netherlands, and Jews survived in higher numbers elsewhere in German-dominated Europe without going into hiding. The fear of hiding might indeed be a special Dutch circumstance, but it cannot alone explain why a higher percentage of Dutch Jews were killed than, say, German or Romanian Jews. On Dutch antisemitism, see Wasserstein, Ambiguity, 22.

The Netherlands was, for several reasons Kwiet, Reichskommissariat Niederlande, 51–52.

Amsterdam was the only Michman, Emergence, 95, 99; Moore, Victims and Survivors, 191, 193, 195, 200; de Jong, Netherlands and Nazi Germany, 12–13; Griffioen and Zeller, “Comparing,” 64.

The situation of rescuers Romijn, “ ‘Lesser Evil,’ ” 13, 14, 17, 20, 22; Griffioen and Zeller, “Comparing,” 59.

The murder of Greek Jews Mazower, Salonica, 392–96. On the cemetery, see Saltier, “Dehumanizing,” 20, 27; for more direct German material interests, consult Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries, 251–56.

In the first weeks Mazower, Salonica, 402–3. This account of the war in Greece follows generally Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 1, 14, 18, 20, 235, 238, 240, 244, 250, 251, 259, and Rodogno, Fascism’s European Empire, 364, 390.

The French case Hitler quotation, Vichy’s foreign recognition, and number of civil servants: Rousso, Vichy, 15, 47. See also Birnbaum, Sur la corde raide, 252.

France did introduce Rousso, Vichy, 79–81. Madagascar: Marrus and Paxton, Vichy, 14, 60, 113. Same people: Bruttman, Au bureau, 199–201. I cannot enter here into the interesting issue of relationships between the French state’s treatment of its Jewish and Muslim subjects. See Surkis, Sexing the Citizen; Shepard, Invention.

The reasoning behind 7,055: Personal communication from Patrick Weil, 11 October 2012; on the denaturalization process see his How to Be French, 87–122. Camps in France in 1939 and 1940: Grynberg, Les camps, 11, 35 and passim.

Under the Vichy regime Paris and Drancy: Wieviorka and Laffitte, Drancy, 21, 106, 118–19.

French and German policies Ibid., 120, 209.

In summer 1942 Weil, How to Be French, 122; Rousso, Vichy, 92–93.

The decisive matter See Marrus and Paxton, Vichy, 325. The case of Belgium, where 60 percent of the Jews present survived, is midway between the Netherlands and France. The occupation was crucially military rather than civilian, as in France. The sovereign remained in the country, unlike the Netherlands. In Belgium, unlike in France but like the Netherlands, the Germans were able to place their own people atop the police. Like France, in Belgium there were a large number of Jews who were not citizens; unlike in France they were not specially targeted by a sovereign authority. Unlike in the Netherlands, however, the Germans did not assemble a large police force of their own. Belgian Jews seem to have been better informed than Dutch Jews about the meaning of deportation; thus Van der Boom’s explanation of the unwillingness of Dutch Jews to go into hiding would not apply to Belgian Jews. See Griffioen and Zeller, “Comparing,” 54–64; also Conway, Collaboration, 24; Fein, Accounting, 156–67.

The Holocaust in France Rousso, Vichy, 93. Thronged: Marrus and Paxton, Vichy, 85, also 364. Soviet citizenship: Sémelin, Persécution et entraides, 208–9.

Considerably more Polish Jews Klarsfeld gives 26,300 Polish and 24,000 French Jews. Many of the 5,000 he classifies as Soviet would have been Polish Jews who took Soviet citizenship after the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. Le mémorial, 19.

10. The Grey Saviors

In the world that Hitler According to Otto Ohlendorf, the commander of Einsatzgruppe D, Himmler said that responsibility rested with Himmler and Hitler alone. See Rzanna, “Eksterminacja.”

Every Jew who survived Cf. Dwork and Van Pelt, Holocaust, 348.

Almost every Jew Hanna Krall recalls forty-five people who helped her, in one way or another. Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 299.

In Einsatzgruppe D Christian Ingrao has developed this theme, especially in his Les chasseurs noirs.

In 1938 in Germany Los Altos Town Crier, 15 April 2009; Ralph Bernstein, personal communication, 15 April 2013; Justiz und NS-Verbrechen, vol. 37, 2007, Lfd. Nr. 777, 397, 398, 405, 407–9, 417, 431, 438, 439; Angrick, Besatzungspolitik, 422. About twenty-six thousand Jews were sent to camps in November 1938. Goeschel and Wachsmann, Introduction, 28.

Most German Jews emigrated Rumbula: Michel’son, Ia perezhila, 84.

No one can know See Snyder, “Commemorative Causality.”

Only about three percent For this and other reckoning, see Snyder, Bloodlands. Experience: Głowiński, Black Seasons, 170.

The degree of statelessness Bremen police: Bremens Polizei, 124. See also Russ, “Wer war verantwortlich,” 486, 494, 503. Cf. Browning, Ordinary Men, 165, 202.

A lesser known Maubach, “Expansion weiblicher Hilfe,” 93–94.

A few German women Koslov, Gewalt im Dienstalltag, 482–84.

Further east Lower, Hitler’s Furies, 163 and passim, for all of the conceptual issues.

If statelessness drew YIVO, RG 720, Hirshant Papers, 1/52, Syda Konis. For meditations on forced labor, see Pollack, Warum; Buber-Neumann, Under Two Dictators, 331.

The end of states Body and soul: Hryciuk, Polacy we Lwowie, 59.

In eastern Europe Matz, “Sweden,” 106–9; Jangfeldt, Hero of Budapest, 161. Fifteen thousand to twenty thousand is the estimate in Dwork and Van Pelt, Holocaust, 316–18.

Wallenberg, an exceptional One exception is the French case of Le Chambonsur-Lignon.

One such man Chan, “Ho Feng-Shan,” 1–15, quotations at 5 and 15.

After the German occupation See Wasserstein, Ambiguity, 165; McAuley, “Decision,” 4, 7, 32; Fralon, Good Man, 60, 79.

A diplomatic rescuer April 1940 number: Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 1:145.

In the 1930s For Daszkiewicz’s memoir see MWP, Kolekcja Rybikowskiego, syg. 6233 [Leszek Daszkiewicz], “Placówka wyw. “G,” 3, 4, 7–10, 18, 21, 22. On Rybikowski, see Pięciach, “Szpieg ze Sztokholmu” and for background, see Dubicki, Nałęcz, and Stirling, Polsko-brytyjska współpraca wywiadowcza, 100, 305, 342.

One of Rybikowski’s MWP, Kolekcja Rybikowskiego, syg. 6233 [Leszek Daszkiewicz], “Placówka wyw. ‘G,’ ” 21.

The scheme that the Polish MWP, Kolekcja Rybikowskiego, syg. 6233 [Leszek Daszkiewicz], “Placówka wyw. ‘G,’ ” 22.

In the chaos Quotations here from MWP, syg. 1675, Sugihara memoir, 9; Rybikowski’s memoir, at MWP, Kolekcja Rybikowskiego, syg. 6233 [Leszek Daszkiewicz], “Placówka wyw. ‘G,’ ” 70.

Once they had done MWP, Kolekcja Rybikowskiego, syg. 6233 [Leszek Daszkiewicz], “Placówka wyw. ‘G,’ ” 50–52, 64, 67. On Sugihara, his colleagues, and his actions, see also Pepłoński, Wywiad, 231–33; Kuromiya and Pepłoński, Mitędzy Warszawą a Tokio, 393; Levine, Sugihara, 117, 132, 218, 273; Sakamoto, Japanese Diplomats, 107, 114, 395.

When Nazi Germany See Gross, Revolution from Abroad; Gross and Grudeińska-Gross, War Through Children’s Eyes; and Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 4.

The arrival of these Begin, Revolt, 25; Drymmer, “Zagadnienie,” 74; Korboński, “Unknown Chapter,” 377. On Begin and the Polish army in Palestine: “Palestine: Counter Intelligence: Menahem Begin,” 24 September 1937, NA, KV/2/2251/50a. Uniform and other details of journey: Shilon, Menachem Begin, 40–45.

Now that the war Shilon, Menachem Begin, 48. Meridor in Poland: Bell, Terror Out of Zion, 44–45. Lankin: Bell, Terror Out of Zion, 111. Nechmad and Lankin: Niv, M’arkhot ha-Irgun, 172. Lankin’s memoir is To Win; on the Polish encounter 31–40. Meridor confirmed that he was number two under British interrogation: NA, KV/2/2251/14a.

During the Second World War These interactions are well described in Davies, Rising ’44. On the reaction of Varsovians to the flight, see Biskupska, “Extermination and the Elite.”

The Polish government in London Crushing majority: “Prosze przyjąć jako fakt zupełnie realny że przygniatająca wiékszość kraju jest nastrojona antysemicko.” Cited in Skibińska and Szuchta, Wybór żródeł, 397. For a sober analysis, see Brakel, “Was There a ‘Jewish Collaboration’?”

All the same See Puławski, W obliczu Zagłady, 412 and passim; also Engelking and Leociak, Warsaw Ghetto, 667; and Engel, Facing a Holocaust.

On November 27, 1942 10 and 17 December: Stola, Nadzieja, 174; Bartoszewski, Warsaw Ghetto, 49. Times: Bajohr and Pohl, Der Holocaust, 99; “Extermination” and moment of silence: Saviello, “Policy,” 1, 24, 27.

This warning, issued Significance: Fein, Accounting, 77.

The availability of plausible Secretary of Drymmer: Jan Karski, “Dziecko sanacji,” Tygodnik Powszechny, 24 April 2012. Cf. Żbikowski, Karski, 10–11.

Upon his return to Poland Severe: “przeważnie bezwzględny, często bezlitośny,” cited in Skibińska and Szuchta, Wybór żródeł, 390. See Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 77; Leder, Rewolucja, 23, 44; Bartov, “Eastern Europe,” 575. Also worth considering is Thomas Bernhard’s Heldenplatz, especially at 112.

Most of the Jews FVA, 1107, Jan K.

In October 1942 Ibid. On Karski and his missions see Karski, Story of a Secret State; and Żbikowski, Karski.

The concentration camp Auschwitz Another English translation in Pilecki, Auschwitz Volunteer, 13. The Polish original can currently be found at http://www.polandpolska.org/dokumenty/witold/raport-witolda-1945.htm. German translation of the Polish original by Jan Skorup at http://pileckibericht.wordpress.com. Numbers: Bartoszewski, Warszawski pierścień, 124.

Pilecki was a patriot The passage is in Pilecki, Auschwitz Volunteer, 175; I translate here the Polish original.

Some 28,000 Jews 28,000 and 11,600: Paulsson, Secret City, 2, 5, 209, 212. 4,000: Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 28. Joint and money belts: Bartoszewski, “Rozmowa,” 35; Bartoszewski, Warsaw Ghetto, 59.

Among Żegota’s leaders PPS: Bartoszewski, Warsaw Ghetto, 46. Individuals: Prekerowa, Konspiracyjna Rada, 69–75.

At the same time On Kossak and the debate over antisemitic rescuers, see Podolska, “Poland’s Antisemitic Rescuers.” See also Cała, Antysemitizm, 447. Rescue of human beings rather than Jews: also a finding of Tec, When Light, 176. Nucleus: Paulsson, Secret City, 26, 40; Peleg-Mariańska and Peleg, “Witnesses,” 11; Oliner, Altruistic Personality, 6, 142.

Like Pilecki, Karski, and Bartoszewski Prekerowa, “Komórka,” 521–25, 531.

After the war was over The phenomenon of assimilated Jews helping other Jews was, at least in Warsaw, not uncommon. Another form of Jewish self-help that saved lives was organization inside the Warsaw ghetto. See Sakowska, Ludzie, 117–86.

11. Partisans of God and Man

Anszel Sznajder and his brother ŻIH, 301/2953.

The Sznajder brothers The point is made in Croes, “Pour une approche quantitative,” 95.

This bloody irony The complex histories of Jews in the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 are presented in Engelking and Libionka, Żydzi w powstańczej Warszawie. Amsterdam comparison: Paulsson, Secret City, 230.

The Soviet partisans See Brakel, “ ‘Das allergefährlichste,’ ” 403–16; Musial, Sowjetische Partisanen, 189, 202; Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 495; Slepyan, Stalin’s Guerrillas, 157.

Some distinguished soldiers On Józewski, see Snyder, Sketches; and his own memoir at BUW DR 3189. Długoborska: Bartniczak, From Andrzejowo to Pecynka, 138–40; Gawin, “Pensjonat.” Koźmiński: Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 310. Gieruła: Stanisław and Lusia Igeł, in Rączy, Pomóc Polaków, 280. Stanisław Igeł was in the Home Army.

The Home Army also carried Papers: FVA, 414, Alice H.; FVA, 538, Norman L.; FVA, 2700, Maria M. Woliński: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 36. On the Biuletyn Informacyjny: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 39, 43.

Thousands of Jews either joined Weapons from Home Army: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 57, 69. Quotation: Engelking and Libionka, Żydzi w powstańczej Warszawie, 91.

In the opening days of the Warsaw Kopka, Konzentrationslager Warschau, 82–115.

The Home Army was a continuation Bandits and death sentences: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 119–23.

The myth of Judeobolshevism Libionka, “ZWK-AK,” 136.

In villages where communism Nurse: Ełzbieta Burda, ŻIH, 301/2407.

Though communist ideology On recruitment of murderers, see generally Slepyan, Stalin’s Guerrillas, 209. Amnesty: Penter, Kohle, 273. On Brins’kyi, see his Po toï bik frontu. Worry of Ukrainian nationalists: OUN v svitli, 82. Policeman and girlfriend: ŻIH, 301/2879. On the highly complex methods used by the Soviet partisans, see Burds, “Agentura”; Armstrong, Soviet Partisans; see also Gazeta Wyborcza, 15 April 2002.

Jews who knew the local terrain ŻIH, 301/717. For other examples of side switching, see Musial, Sowjetische Partisanen, 266–67. Jews also recruited Poles to the Soviet partisans; see the case of Mojżesz Edelstein in ŻIH, 301/810.

Not every local Jew working For another example of a Jewish recruiter, see ŻIH 301/1795. For encounters with antisemitism, see ŻIH, 301/53, Abram Leder; ŻIH, 301/299, Zoja Bajer; ŻIH, 301/1046, Lazar Bromberg. See also Dieckmann, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik, 2:1469. For general reflections, see Weiner, Making Sense, 376–382.

Nevertheless, the Soviet partisans Jewish and non-Jewish communists: Jakub Grinsberg, ŻIH, 301/305. Max: Zoja Bajer, ŻIH, 301/299. The punitive expedition: ŻIH, 301 5737, Rena Guz.

A substantial number of the Jewish German liquidations in Volhynia: A striking record is the inventory of gasoline and oil used exclusively for travel from ghetto to ghetto to murder remaining Jews. “Ausgabeliste,” DAVO, Fond R-2, Opis 2, Delo 196. Volhynian Jewish partisans, male and female: ŻIH, 301/299; ŻIH, 301/718; ŻIH, 301/719; ŻIH, 301/1811. On family camps see Arad, “Original Form.” Feeling of the deed: Aron Perław, ŻIH, 301/955. Each dead German: Leon Jarszun, ŻIH, 301/1487.

One such person was Tuvia Bielski On Bielski, see Tec, Defiance, 5, 40, 63, 80, 110, 145, 185, 208.

This powerful myth could admit Chess and disarmament: Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 112. Correct understanding: Slepyan, Stalin’s Guerrillas, 210.

Although the Polish army 592: Petrow, Psy Stalina, 223. Seventeen thousand: Gurianov, “Obzor,” 205.

Between 1945 and 1949 For surveys, see Simons, Eastern Europe; and Applebaum, Iron Curtain.

Polish soldiers who had spent Executions: Skarga, Penser, 28. Double collaboration at the end of the war: Skibińska, “Self-Portrait,” 459; Grabowski, Judenjagd, 93, 109; Gross, Sąsiedzi, 115.

Any Marxist could have explained For articles that are suggestive of some of these interpretations, see Abrams, “Second World War”; and Gross, “Social Consequences.”

The Soviets entered a country On the Soviet and communist Polish attitudes to the Holocaust, see especially Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm; Brandenberger, “Last Crime”; Szaynok, Polska a Izrael; Shore, “Język.” For a longer discussion see Snyder, Bloodlands, chap. 11.

Poles who had rescued Jews Hulanicki: The case is made in Ginor and Remez, “Casualty.” Wallenberg: The latest evidence is in Matz, “Cables in Cipher.”

The Sheptyts’kyi brothers See Hentosh, “Pro vstavlennia,” 318–25, and Motyka, Cień Kłyma Sawura, 80–82, for these details; the state of the art is Himka, “Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky.” For the experiences of rescued children see Rotfeld, W cieniu, 53–54, 88; Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 118–55; Lewin, Przeżyłem, 155–59.

Yet the Greek Catholic Church On the origins of the Uniate Church, see Gudziak, Crisis and Reform, 209–22 and passim; Koialovich, Tserkovnaia uniia, 1:166–68 and passim.

In 1918, the Habsburg monarchy On Galicia, Ukraine, Poland, and Sheptyts’kyi, see Snyder, Reconstruction, chap. 3; Snyder, Red Prince, chap. 3; Himka, Religion and Nationality; Jobst, Zwischen Nationalismus und Internationalismus.

In its experience of alienation The case is made in Braun and Tammes, “Religious Deviance,” 3, 11; Cabanel, “Protestantismes minoritaires,” 455. On Germany, see Ericksen, Complicity, 95 and passim.

By contrast, church leaders On the famous French example of Le Chambonsur-Lignon, see Sémelin, Persécutions, 717–37.

In the occupied Soviet Union Baptist rescue: Spektor, “Zydzi wołyńscy,” 577; Spector, “Holocaust,” 243; ŻIH, 301/397, Jakub and Esia Zybelberg, Hersz and Doba Mełamud. See also Sefer Lutsk, testimony of Fanye Pasht; Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 242. Lea Goldberg and the Shtundists: ŻIH, 301/1011; also Siemaszko and Siemaszko, Ludobójstwo, 793. Cf. Cabanel, “Protestantismes minoritaires,” 446.

The dominant Roman Catholic Church On the tortuous reconsiderations, see Connelly, From Enemy to Brother.

Wilm Hosenfeld, a Roman Confino, World Without Jews, 198.

Aleksandra Ogrodzińska, a Polish ŻIH, 301/2502, Wala Kuźniecow.

Wonders and visions threaten YIVO, Hirshant Papers, 3/206.

For the nuns in their convents Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 226.

Rufeisen was taken This account is compiled from ŻIH, 301/3726 (also classified as ŻIH, 301/2827) and FVA, 1834; quotation from the former.

Andrei Sheptyts’kyi Sheptyts’kyi: Motyka, Cień Kłyma Sawura, 86. Iwaniuk: YIVO, Hirshant Papers, 3/206. Priest and Polish Roman Catholics: Rączy, Pomóc Polaków, 253, 100.

12. The Righteous Few

Ita Straż, a young woman Tomkiewicz, Zbrodnia w Ponarach, 203. Vova Gdud survived Ponary in the same way. He was helped in the first cottage. See Good, “Yerushalayim,” 17–18.

Who lives in the fourth For a typical and eloquent record of being turned away multiple times, see Pese Kharzhevski-Zlotnik, “Di Kristlekhe ‘hilf’ far di Kolbutsker yidn,” in Yasni, Sefer Klobutsk, 247–49.

Later Zelda was denounced YIVO, RG 104/MK547/7/200, Zelda Machlowicz-Hinenberg.

At that point the host YIVO, RG 104/II/5, Alicja Gornowski.

A wife might save Rubenstein and Altman, Unknown Black Book, 60–61. See Fogelman, Conscience, 260.

Love for children could also Romantic relationships that provided a structure for rescue could, of course, be homosexual, as in the case of the rescue of a Jew by a Polish Roman Catholic priest and his Ukrainian partner. See generally Paulsson, Secret City, 44.

One day when Katarzyna ŻIH, 301/1959.

Maria was now working YIVO, RG 104/MK538/1072.

Men sometimes took in children Seweryn: ŻIH, 301/2259. Jeromiński: ŻIH, 301/1468.

After climbing out ŻIH, 301/2877.

The last major transports For the case, see Ostałowka, Farby wodne. On the death marches, see Blatman, Death Marches.

And then, after a moment USHMM, RG-68.102M/2007.372/21/206–47.

In the invasion Cf. Engelking, Losy Żydów, 117.

Noema Centnewschwer Noema Centnewschwer: ŻIH, 301/2750. Chawa Rozensztejn: ŻIH, 301/1272. On prewar Łomża, see Gnatowski, “Niepokorni,” 156–57.

Szyja Flejsz was a boy On his life: ŻIH, 301/2739. On the problem of competitive recruitment: TsDAVO, 3833/1/87; AW II/1321/2K; AW II/1328/2K.

The commanders of the UPA On the origins of the UPA and its mass killing of Poles, see Snyder, “Origins”; and, above all, Motyka, Od rzezi. On its motivations, the primary sources are bountiful; see, for example, TsDAVO, 3833/1/86/19–20; TsDAVO, 3833/1/131/13–14. Soviet interrogation protocols offer confirmatory evidence: for example, Protokol Doprosa, I. I. Iavorskii, 14 April 1944, GARF, fond R-9478, opis 1, delo 398. For the rescue of a Pole by a Jew, see FVA, T-1645. On the Soviet continuation of the Ukrainian nationalist project, see Snyder, Reconstruction of Nations, chaps. 8–10.

All of the surviving residents ŻIH, 301/2739; Siemaszko and Siemaszko, Ludobójstwo, 280. For additional information on Woronówka, which no longer exists, see http://wolyn.ovh.org. These partings are a wrenching subject, very present in the sources. See Shore, Taste of Ashes. Sometimes people who loved the children they rescued encouraged them to go, following the same moral instincts that instructed them in the first place. And sometimes they later regretted it.

Seeing the peasant’s reaction ŻIH, 301/3598.

The Pole who owned the land ŻIH, 301/451.

The man approaching her ŻIH, 301/946.

Other rescuers, with more See Fogelman, Conscience, 73, 140.

Rena Krainik found herself ŻIH, 301/6035.

In the city of Stanisławów On Janina Ciszewska, see ŻIH, 301/2514; 301/2515; 301/4362.

When he received a request ŻIH, 301/6335.

Good people broke ŻIH, 301/1263.

The nature of an encounter ŻIH, 301/2270.

What Jewish survivors Bauman: Cobel-Tokarska, Bezludna wyspa, 76. Joseph Co: FVA, 1065.

Agnieszka Wróbel, who YIVO, RG 104/MK536/1064, Bronisława Znider.

If Jews had little to say Olha R.: FVA, 3268. Cf. Fogelman, Conscience, xvi, 6.

Helena Chorążyńska, an uneducated Chorążyńska: MJH, 1984.T. 137. Cywiński and Żuławska: Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 300, 330. Zboromiski: YIVO, RG 104/MK538/1066. Schmid: Wette, Feldwebel, 25, 27, letter at 121.

Karolina Kobylec: “That is just” “Mam już taki charakter.” Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 318.

Jan Lipke was a Latvian Lipke: USHMM, RG-68.102M/2007.372/21/165–205. Beyond the limits: Silberman, “Jan Lipke,” 100. Most normal thing: MJH, 1987.T.65. This confirms a finding of Monroe, Compassion, 221, and de Jong, Netherlands and Nazi Germany, 21. Cf. Arendt: “only ‘exceptions’ could be expected to act ‘normally.’ ” Eichmann, 26.

Deep in the forests A peasant who gambled a bit more than usual might also be thought to be taking money from Jews. See Good, “Yerushalayim,” 38.

Rescuers were risking USHMM, RG-31.049.01.

Miron Lisikiewicz, who Lisikiewicz: Rączy, Pomóc Polaków, 282. Sewer worker: USHMM, RG-68.102M/2007.372/29/2027–164. Kawka: YIVO, RG 104/MK538/1053. Ringelblum: Polish-Jewish Relations, 226. Lipke and money: USHMM, RG-68.102M/2007.372/16/150–63. On the issue of money and risk, see also the recollections of Blanche C. and Liubov Svershinskaia at FVA, 262, and USHMM, RG38/49/70, respectively. See also Tec, When Light, 88.

It is true that many Cf. Gross, Golden Harvest, 81.

Within this set of incentives Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 77, 121; Grabowski, Judenjagd, 136; Good, “Yerushalayim,” 18.

In the darkest of times I was led to this formulation by a paper on Teresa Prekerowa by Jadwiga Biskupska. Similar conclusions are reached by Tec, When Light, 154; Oliner, Altruistic Personality, 6; Fogelman, Conscience, 58. A profound study by a historian who was once a rescued child leads in the same direction: Redlich, Together and Apart.

Conclusion: Our World

In the small photograph Wanda Grosmanowa-Jedlicka: Bartoszewski and Lewinówna, Ten jest, 487. At least fifteen thousand Warsaw Jews never entered the ghetto. See Kermish, “Activities,” 374.

Most of the Jews of Warsaw Grossman, Life and Fate, 409. He continues: “Kindness is powerful only while it is powerless.” See Monroe, Compassion, 258.

Wanda J.’s judgment Compare Bauer, The Death of the Shtetl, 97.

Science in fact possesses At a methodological level, I have opposed forms of historical writing that permit exits into prior emotional convictions or newfound teleological comfort. That said, on the substantial issue of the relationship between technique and experience, I am with the Kantians and against Heidegger. For a close historical examination of a crucial debate: Gordon, Continental Divide, on the issues most pertinent to this study at 15, 17, 31, 35, 217, 220, 225, 238. The rapid conquest: Hitler was formed by but did not partake in the age of the frontier. See Webb, Great Frontier, 280. Even the German victories over the Herero were due in part to the spread of disease in cattle. See Levene, Rise, 247.

When science is disengaged Food prices: Evenson, “Economic Consequences,” 473. See also Federico, “Natura Non Fecit Saltus,” 24. For a history of these improvements, see Olmstead and Rhode, Creating Abundance, especially 64–66 and 388–98.

At precisely this point Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 594. Cf. Maier, Unmasterable Past, 7: “For almost four decades the Federal Republic has lived, so to speak, by bread alone.” Also Bartov, Mirrors of Destruction, 167: “Studying the Holocaust is the best means to prevent its mystification.” On the special 1950s: Federico, “Natura Non Fecit Saltus,” 21. Consider the word “calorie,” which in the West almost always means something of which people get too much. In the 1930s, people and planners counted calories to ensure that a household had enough of them to survive, or that laboring men, women, and animals received enough of them to power the economy.

The Green Revolution China net importer: Aliyu, “Agricultural Development.” Few months’ supply: Denison, Darwinian Agriculture, 11. Food riots: Moyo, Winner Take All, 109.

Though the world is not Of course, simple deprivation of food is bad enough; in the world of today, a child starves to death every five seconds. Ziegler, Betting on Famine, xiii.

It seems reasonable to worry Cf. Gumbrecht, Nach 1945, 245, 264, 305. See also Rousso, La dernière catastrophe; Berger, After the End.

The planet is changing Internal combustion engines and factories produce gases that trap the sun’s heat within the atmosphere. The ongoing destruction of forests and wetlands accelerates this warming, since plants absorb carbon dioxide and emit oxygen. A mass of global data demonstrates an increase in annual minimum temperatures of the surface of the earth, of the air at the surface of the earth, of the higher atmosphere, and of the surface of the oceans. Causality: Maslin, Global Warming, 1, 4, 57. Temperatures and causality: Alexander, “Global Observed Changes,” 31; Rohde, “A New Estimate,” 22; Rohde, “Averaging Process,” 1; Zhang, “Detection of Human Influence,” 461. Predictions too modest: Rahmsdorf, “Comparing Climate Projections,” 1; Economist, 22 September 2012; Guardian, 27 November 2012. Nonlinear effects: Maslin, Global Warming, 112, 116; Mitchell, “Extreme Events,” 2217; Latif, “El Niño,” 20853. The basic point about regionalism in Pitman, Arneth, and Ganzeveld, “Regionalizing,” 332. Species: Maslin, Global Warming, 99; also Clarke, “From Genes to Ecosystems,” 6. Coastlines: Cayan, “Climate Change Projections,” S71; Helmuth, “Hidden Signals,” 191; Rahmsdorf, “Comparing Climate Projections,” 1. Storms: Tebaldi, “Modelling Sea Level Rise,” 1. For an extremely impressive history of climate change in an earlier period, see Parker, Global Crisis.

Perhaps the experience Cf. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 477, 544, 549. As Mount points out, realist theories of international politics will have to account for the real changes on our real planet: “Arctic Wake-up Call,” 10.

Hitler was a child First globalization: Trentmann: “Coping with Shortage,” 15, 22, and passim; Federico, “Natura Non Fecit Saltus,” 23. Most affected: Brown and Crawford, “Climate Change,” 2. Useful in the future will be Kiernan’s reminder that all historical episodes of mass killing are connected in one way or another to an account of the value of land. Blood and Soil, especially chap. 4.

Mass killing in Rwanda The exhaustion of: New York Times, 14 December 1989. 1993: Campbell, “Population Pressure,” 2. Overpopulation and land motivation: Newbury, “Background,” 13. Land motivation: Rose, “Land and Genocide,” 64. Organization: Stanton, “Could the Rwandan,” 211–15; Hintjens, “Explaining,” 249, 261, 270. Organization and numbers: Straus, “How Many Perpetrators,” 86–87. Loyalty to group: Sémelin, Purifier, 314.

The starvation in Somalia Moyo, Winner Take All, 32–33; Economist, 21 May 2009; Brautigam, “Land Rights”; Horta, “Zambezi Valley.” 60 percent of world’s untilled arable land: Economist, 4 September 2013. Madagascar: Ziegler, Betting on Famine, 200.

One Asian country exhibits Land and water: Diamond, Collapse, 362–65. Hectares: Moyo, Winner Take All, 29. Famine: Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine; Yang, Calamity and Reform, 21–42.

In twenty-first-century China As during the drought of 2010: Sternberg, “Chinese Drought,” 8. Sensitivity: Ziegler, Betting on Famine, 41.

Facing some future crisis Sudan: Reeves, Dying, 3. Chinese involvement: Doriye, “Next stage,” 25; King, “Factoring Environmental Security,” 151. See also Zafar, “Growing Relationship,” 119.

China also faces Tropical regions and water cycle: Stern, Economics of Climate Change, 70, 74. Water shortages: Sullivan, “National Security,” 15–16. General crisis by 2050, current shortages, riots: Solomon, Water, 368, 370, 371. China: King, “Factoring Environmental Security,” 104; Moyo, Winner Take All, 41; Stern, Economics of Climate Change, 78; Solomon, Water, 440.

Less peaceful approaches to the problem Russia: Blank, “Dead End”; Kaczmarski, “Domestic Sources”; Lotspeich, “Economic Integration.” Test case of relations: Eder, China-Russia, 130–131.

Yet as climate change In 2007, the number of Chinese in low-elevation coastal zones was estimated at 11 percent of the population; if that percentage held in 2015 the figure would be about 149 million. The entire population of Russia is about 145 million. McGranahan, Balk, and Anderson, “Rising Tide,” 26.

None of these Chinese Voluntary targets: New York Times, 11 November 2014.

Russian governments of the early On Russian revenue from hydrocarbons: Gustafson, Wheel of Fortune, 1, 5.

In a new Russian colonialism, For maps see the newspaper Novorossiia, for example 1 August 2014.

President Vladimir Putin of Russia See Riabov and Riabova, “Decline of Gayropa?” For a chronicle of Russian policy to Ukraine in 2013 and 2014, see my forty or so articles in English, French, and German as collected on timothysnyder.org or in Ukrainian or Russian translation in the editions listed in the bibliography.

As Russia demonstrated I discussed this connection in several of the publications cited above, as well as in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of 15 December 2014. Many of the fundamental connections were drawn by Anton Shekhovtsov in a series of important commentaries.

All forms of counterglobal Poverty: Xenopoulos, “Scenarios,” 1562. Cf. Gerlach, Extremely Violent Societies, 263. Egypt and Libya: King, “Factoring Environmental Security,” 99, 100, 117, 359; Klare, “Climate Change Battlefields,” 358–59. Drought: Femia, “Climate Change,” 31. ISIS and water: New York Times, 14 October 2014.

The ambivalence of interwar Polish Spector, Evangelicals and Israel, 187–88; Clark, Allies for Armageddon, 5, 151, 170; Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 191. On attitudes towards climate change: Smith and Leiserowitz, “American Evangelicals,” 4; and Anthony Leiserowitz, personal communication, 26 August 2013.

As prime minister of Israel Weber, On the Road to Armageddon, 148; Clark, Allies for Armageddon, 190, 229.

Americans, when they think For wartime antisemitism, see Abzug, America Views the Holocaust, 87–92, 99–103, and passim. Mauthausen trial: Jardim, Mauthausen Trial, 123, 144, 189, 210. Bergen-Belsen: Damplo, “Prosecuting,” 24. For a balanced assessment of Roosevelt, see Breitman and Lichtman, FDR, 315–30.

A misunderstanding about One can infer from Collier’s Bottom Billion, especially at 126, that military intervention makes more sense after a state has failed than with the goal of making a state fail.

Mass killings generally Regime changes and civil wars: Goldsmith and Semenovich, “Political Instability,” 10.

The dominant stereotype Cf. Arendt, Origins, 310. In Bloodlands, I discuss all of these policies.

On the Left, the dominant Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialektik der Aufklärung, especially 212, 217; quotations at 1, 15. See also Horkheimer, Eclipse of Reason, 176–77. The same mistake in a less radical formulation can be found in Neumann’s reports to the OSS: Secret Reports, 28, 30. See Habermas, Der philosophische Diskurs der Moderne, 135, 138; Kołakowski, Main Currents, 347; Zehnpfennig, Hitlers Mein Kampf, 129.

On the Right, the dominant See the longer discussion in Judt and Snyder, Thinking.

The ideal capitalism Rand: Burns, Goddess, 175.

As all economists know See generally Powell, Inquisition, 63, 98, and passim; Oreskes and Conway, Merchants of Doubt, 169–215; Economist, 15 February 2012; Tollefson, “Sceptic,” 441. In 2011, the fossil fuel industry spent about $300 million to muddy the waters: Silver, Signal, 380. See Farley, “Petroleum and Propaganda,” 40–49. See also Union of Concerned Scientists, “Got Science?,” 18 October 2012; and Weart, “Denial,” 46, 48. Capitalism certainly registers the data of climate change. Insurance companies keep precise records of storms as they restrict the availability of flood insurance. Parker, Global Crisis, 691–92. The error of the libertarian Right is echoed, in a certain way, by some members of the Christian Right. Creationists oppose the theories of Darwin, as amplified by generations of scientists, with respect to nonhuman animals, instead applying the term “science” to their static portrait of a natural order created by God. This is one more conflation of science and politics. Meanwhile, in their support of unrestricted capitalism, many creationists apply Social Darwinian concepts to their fellow human beings. Humans have the right to dominate nature, and more competitive humans have the right to dominate less competitive ones. This is yet another merger of science and politics.

Though no American would deny Hitler denial: Hitler and His Generals, 62. See Thomä, “Sein und Zeit im Rückblick,” 285; Genette, Figures I, 101; Robbe-Grillet, Pour un nouveau roman, 133. The denial of climate science poses serious problems for the U.S. Navy, which faces the likelihood of flooding bases and the reality of competition for the waters of the melting Arctic. Christian Science Monitor, 2 March 2010.

The popular notion The market is not nature: Bloom, Closing, 84; Bauman, Modernity, 235. Cf. Moses, “Gespräch.” At this point in the argument I am demonstrating the relationships between the concepts rather than educing the historical relationship. Cf. Moyn, Last Utopia, 82–83.

When states are absent Nazi Germany murdered chiefly the citizens of other countries. What about the states that carried our mass murder of their own citizens? The three most horrifying twentieth-century cases—the People’s Republic of China, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Cambodia under Pol Pot—were all party-states, where both ideology and practice demanded that the state institutions be secondary to party institutions, and where the legitimacy of the state was completely undercut by the ideological appeal made by party leaders to the future of the collectivity. These histories follow a different trajectory than that of Nazi Germany and its neighbors but in one respect teach the same lesson: the significance of the state in the banal conservative sense of a monopolist of violence and an object of reciprocal duties and rights. The subject is vast and requires separate treatment; some of the relevant issues are raised in the Soviet chapters of my Bloodlands.

Gustaw Herling-Grudziński Herling, World Apart, 132.

In the case of climate Only the state can create the structures within which scientists and engineers can develop fruitful technologies. Individuals might follow market incentives in developing fusion and other technologies, but only insofar as the state molds those incentives. The simple decision by a state or states to invest in science would change the mood and deepen confidence in the future.

Understanding the Holocaust For case studies of the practical dilemmas of rescue, see Power, Problem from Hell.

Archives and Abbreviations

AAN	Archiwum Akt Nowych (Archive of New Files), Warsaw
AW	Archiwum Wschodnie, Karta (Eastern Archive, Karta Institute), Warsaw
BUW	Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Gabiner Rękopisów (Warsaw University Library Manuscript Department), Warsaw
CAW	Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe (Central Military Archive), Rembertów
DAVO	Derzhavnyi Arkhiv Volyns’koï Oblasti (State Archive of the Volyn Region), Lutsk
FVA	Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies, Yale University
GARF	Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation)
HI	Hoover Institution, Stanford University
IfZ	Institut für Zeitgeschichte (Institute for Contemporary History), Munich
JPI	Józef Piłsudski Institute, New York
MJH	Museum of Jewish Heritage, New York
MWP	Muzeum Wojska Polskiego (Museum of the Polish Army), Warsaw
NA	National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom
SPP	Studium Polski Podziemnej (Polish Underground Study Trust), London
SUSC	Shoah Collection, University of Southern California
TsDAVO	Tsentral’nyi Derzhavnyi Arkhiv Vyshchykh Orhaniv Vlady ta Upravlinnia (Central State Archive of Higher Organs of Government and Administration), Kyiv
USHMM	United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC
YIVO	Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York
YMA	Manuscripts and Archives, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University
YV	Yad Vashem, Jerusalem
ŻIH	Żydowski Instytut Historyczny (Jewish Historical Institute), Warsaw