Chapter Two
Few could argue that the majority of British tank designs of the Second World War did not compare well to their German equivalents, nor even, in many respects, to the American Stuarts and Shermans. British tanks of the period tended to be under-gunned and inadequately protected, and were often unreliable. The end of the war gave British tank designers the opportunity not only to take stock of the good and bad points of domestic tank production, but also, through the work of the Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee, to access all German technical research into aspects of tank design and technology. The emergence of the huge Soviet IS-3 main battle tank in 1945 had also caused the Allies to reassess some of the conventional wisdoms regarding levels of firepower and protection.
As might be expected, this led to some revisions in the Allied approach and, although there were some unfortunate cul-de-sacs along the way, notably the Conqueror heavy gun tank, the post-war years saw Britain produce two of the world’s best tanks in the shape of the Centurion and the Chieftain. When these became due for replacement there was talk of Anglo-German cooperation in tank design, but when the MBT-80 fell by the wayside it was replaced by Challenger – later to be known as Challenger 1. In truth this was little more than an update of the Chieftain and was superseded in turn by Challenger 2, which provided huge improvements in firepower and fire control. Although the name suggests that Challenger 2 was a development of the previous model, in fact it was an all-new design and was the first British tank to be designed, developed and constructed by the prime contractor, Vickers Defence Systems, with other work carried out under subcontract by the Royal Ordnance Factories.
The 1960s also saw the re-emergence of the light tank in the form of the Alvis combat vehicle reconnaissance tracked, or CVR(T). The light tank role had fallen from favour during the Second World War, with wheeled armoured cars increasingly used for reconnaissance duties. The CVR(T) was an air-portable aluminium-hulled tracked vehicle that was offered in a range of variants, including versions armed with a turret-mounted 76mm or 90mm rifled gun, or a 30mm RARDEN cannon. Finally, the development of the so-called infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) – or mechanised combat vehicle – showed that it was possible to transport infantry into battle and at the same time to provide fire support from a turret-mounted weapon on the same vehicle. The first purpose-designed machine of this type was the Soviet BMP-1, which appeared in 1967, but since that time all the major military powers have developed, or adopted, IFVs, with the British Army’s Warrior a typical case in point. Current thinking suggests that the IFV is more versatile in asymmetric warfare scenarios than is the main battle tank.
Second world war tanks in Post-war Service
Although work had started on Britain’s first real post-war tank in 1944, the first prototypes of what became the A41 Centurion arrived too late to see any action during the conflict and, by May 1945 the British Army’s front-line tank force still consisted of wartime infantry and cruiser tank designs, in the form of large numbers of Comets, Cromwells and Churchills, as well as the American Shermans and small numbers of Stuarts that had been adapted to specialised roles. Most of the older British tanks had either been scrapped, passed to Commonwealth units or assigned to training duties, and over the next two or three years there was considerable further rationalisation, with the best of the wartime cruiser and infantry tanks retained, and many surplus vehicles scrapped, converted to other roles or sold to other countries.
However, in May 1946 an official War Office publication listing armoured vehicle nomenclature showed that the fleet still consisted of Cromwell, Comet, Challenger, Churchill, Sherman and Stuart tanks, albeit by this time some may well have been in storage.
In 1948/49 all British military vehicles were renumbered, with the old wartime registrations replaced by a six-digit alpha-numeric system. Remaining Second World War tanks were renumbered, inter alia, in the series 00ZR00–99ZR99, and records of the period show that Comets, Cromwells and Churchills still remained in service, along with a handful of Valentines, Sherman beach armoured recovery vehicles (BARVs) and turretless Stuarts, the latter retained for use as gun tractors.
At the same time the A41 Centurion had started to enter service and there was a fresh wave of disposals. In 1948, for example, four Churchill XI gun tanks were ‘rented’ to the Irish Defence Force for a period of five years, and a number of surplus Comets were offered to various nations, including Finland, Burma, South Africa and Ireland, the latter eventually purchasing a total of eight. Nevertheless, the British Army still retained some Comet gun tanks, as well as the Cromwell close-support variant with its 95mm gun, in their original roles, with some surviving into the mid-1950s. A number of surplus Cromwells were fitted with a new turret mounting a 20-pounder (84mm) anti-tank gun and were renamed FV4101 Charioteer.
Although the Churchill survived, it was certainly out-gunned by all of the Warsaw Pact tanks and those examples that were retained had already been adapted for specialised roles. These included the Crocodile flame-thrower, bridgelayer, armoured ramp carrier (ARK) and armoured recovery vehicle (AVRE) variants. However, while its gun may have been made obsolete by post-war developments, the Churchill was still relatively well-armoured and for this reason the chassis was adapted for use as a mine-clearing flail during the mid-1950s, with a total of forty-two examples of what was known as the FV3902 Toad built between 1954 and 1956; these are described separately.
In 1941 the British Army started to receive supplies of the US M4 medium tank, better known as the Sherman. The first example to reach these shores, named ‘Michael’, was displayed in Whitehall and to this day remains in the collection of the Tank Museum. Although flawed and increasingly outdated, the Sherman was crucial to Allied successes in Europe following D-Day. (Tank Museum)
The Sherman was generally considered to be undergunned when compared to the later German tanks. However, when the British fitted the machine with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun, in the form of the Sherman Firefly, it was able to tackle both Tiger and Panther tanks on a more equal footing, and acquitted itself well in the Normandy campaign. (Warehouse Collection)
Although very much a Second World War design, the Rolls-Royce-powered Comet was armed with a big 77mm gun and was fast, agile and hard-hitting. It remained in service well into the 1950s, serving in Korea alongside the heavier Centurion. (Warehouse Collection)
The Churchill was another wartime design that saw post-war service, albeit often in specialised roles. Here, a trio of National Servicemen of 19 Company, Royal Army Service Corps, prepare to winch a Churchill off a tank transporter – in 1964! (Warehouse Collection)
Many Churchills ended their days as gate guardians. This Crocodile flame-thrower variant stands at the gates of the Muckleburgh Collection in North Norfolk. (Warehouse Collection)
Centurion A41: FV4000 Series
By rights, the Centurion should be regarded as a Second World War tank since the first mock-up had been constructed by May 1944 and the first six pre-production vehicles, retrospectively described as the Centurion Mk 1, were delivered in May 1945. But despite being rushed to Germany for a literal baptism of fire, the Centurion arrived too late to participate in the liberation of Europe. Nevertheless, and despite lacking a little in mobility, the type went on to be recognised as one of the best tanks of the post-war period.
The Centurion project had originated with a General Staff Policy Statement on tanks dated 8 September 1943. This emphasised the differing roles of cruiser and infantry tanks, as first laid down in 1938, but also recognised that previous cruiser tanks had been far from satisfactory. There was a call for all-round improvements in the key areas of firepower, mobility and protection, as well as in reliability and durability. At the same time the dimensional restrictions that had forced previous British tank designs to remain within the railway loading gauge were lifted, which provided a considerable degree of design freedom. The main gun was to be a dual-purpose weapon of at least 75mm calibre, capable of firing both high-explosive and armour-piercing projectiles, while the tank was also intended to be capable of accepting larger weapons, for example when adapted for the tank-destroyer and close-support roles.
A month later a more detailed specification was prepared, which stated, among other things, that the proposed future tank should be powered by a 650bhp Rolls-Royce Meteor engine in combination with a Merritt-Brown Z51R five-speed gearbox. It was specified that the maximum weight should not exceed 45 tons, and that the frontal armour should be at least 102mm, with the side armour at least 60 per cent of this figure and preferably more, with the express intention of being able to withstand the German 88mm tank gun. The main gun was to be the existing 17-pounder (76.2mm), together with a co-axial machine gun.
The design work for what was dubbed the A41 was carried out by the Department of Tank Design under Sir Claude Gibb, with AEC eventually appointed as design parent. In early 1944 the Ministry of Supply gave the go-ahead for the construction of twenty prototypes, with a variety of secondary armaments and other detail differences, together with two hulls, one of which was to be of mild steel. The last five vehicles of the series were fitted with a Sinclair-Meadows selfshifting Powerflow transmission in place of the Merritt-Brown unit and were designated A41S. Production was entrusted to the Royal Ordnance Factories at Woolwich and Nottingham, but the soft-skin hull was built at AEC.
The ‘soft’ hull was ready for inspection at AEC’s Southall factory by 24 May 1944 and automotive trials had started by September. Production of the prototypes was authorised to begin in January 1945, with the first vehicle delivered to the Fighting Vehicles Proving Establishment (FVPE) from Woolwich in April.
The increased weight compared to previous cruiser tank designs meant that the Christie suspension had to be replaced by a modified Horstman system, and the maximum speed was held down to little more than 21mph. Unlike previous cruisers, there was no hull gunner’s position, and the hull, which was of welded construction, provided space for a crew of four. The 17-pounder (76.2mm) main gun was mounted in a stabiliser (the first time this feature had been included in a British tank), and there was a 20mm Polsten cannon in a co-axial ball mount and a rearfacing 7.92mm BESA machine gun.
Production of the up-armoured A41A Centurion Mk 2 began in November 1945. The thickness of armour was increased to a maximum of 152mm, and the gun was mounted in a new cast turret. These changes increased the weight from 42 tons to 45 tons, and the final-drive ratio was reduced to compensate. The last Centurion Mk 2 was completed in early 1949, by which time Vickers-Armstrong had started work on the Centurion Mk 3, which was armed with a 20-pounder (84mm) gun in a revised turret.
The Centurion entered service with the British Army in December 1946 and saw its first real action in Korea. It remained in British service until as late as 1969, proving itself to be among the best tanks in the world, and was also exported to Australia, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, India, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland. In all, the Centurion was developed by gradual improvement through thirteen ‘marks’ and a total of twenty-five variants, with later versions having the 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun replaced by a 20-pounder (84mm) and then by the 105mm. Production eventually took place at the Royal Ordnance Factories at Woolwich, Leeds and Nottingham, at Leyland Motors and at Vickers-Armstrong, Newcastle-upon-Tyne:
· Centurion Mk 1: armed with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) main gun and a co-axial 20mm Polsten cannon in a partially cast turret; rear-facing 7.92mm BESA machine gun
· Centurion Mk 2: armed with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) main gun and a co-axial machine gun in a cast turret; no rear-facing machine gun
· Centurion Mk 3: armed with a 20-pounder (84mm) main gun and a co-axial machine gun
· Centurion Mk 4: close-support variant armed with a 95mm howitzer; no series production
· Centurion Mk 5: redesigned turret; armed with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) main gun and a co-axial .30in Browning machine gun; designated FV4001
· Centurion Mk 5/1: up-armoured Centurion Mk 5; FV4011
· Centurion Mk 5/2: as Centurion Mk 5, retro-fitted with 105mm L7 gun
· Centurion Mk 6: up-armoured Centurion Mk 5 with long-range fuel tanks and 105mm L7 gun
· Centurion Mk 6/1: as Centurion Mk 6, but with infrared night-vision equipment
· Centurion Mk 6/2: as Centurion Mk 6, but with ranging machine gun
· Centurion Mk 7: redesigned by Leyland Motors; armed with a 20-pounder (84mm) main gun; FV4007
· Centurion Mk 7/1: up-armoured Centurion Mk 7; FV4012
· Centurion Mk 7/2: as Centurion Mk 7, but armed with 105mm L7 gun
· Centurion Mk 8: improved version of Centurion Mk 7 with new gun mantlet and independent commander’s cupola; FV4014
· Centurion Mk 8/1: up-armoured Centurion Mk 8
· Centurion Mk 8/2: as Centurion Mk 8/1, but armed with 105mm L7 gun
· Centurion Mk 9: up-armoured Centurion Mk 7, armed with 105mm L7 gun; FV4015
· Centurion Mk 9/1: as Centurion Mk 9, but with infrared night-vision equipment
· Centurion Mk 9/2: as Centurion Mk 9, but with ranging machine gun
· Centurion Mk 10: up-armoured Centurion Mk 8, armed with 105mm L7 gun; FV4017
· Centurion Mk 10/1: as Centurion Mk 10, but with infrared night-vision equipment
· Centurion Mk 10/2: as Centurion Mk 10, but with ranging machine gun
· Centurion Mk 11: as Centurion Mk 6, but with ranging machine gun and infrared night-vision equipment
· Centurion Mk 12: as Centurion Mk 9, but with ranging machine gun and infrared night-vision equipment
· Centurion Mk 13: as Centurion Mk 10, but with ranging machine gun and infrared night-vision equipment
There were also a number of specialised variants, including armoured recovery vehicle (ARV), beach armoured recovery vehicle (BARV), ’dozer, canal defence light (CDL), armoured vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE), bridgelayer and armoured ramp carrier (ARK). The Centurion chassis was also used as the basis for the FV4004 Conway heavy gun tank, the FV4005 self-propelled heavy anti-tank gun, and the FV3802 and FV3805 self-propelled guns. By the time production ended in 1962 some 4,423 examples had been constructed. The Centurion hull was also used as a development vehicle for the Chieftain tank.
Israeli Centurions were upgraded by the use of a Continental AVDS-1790-2A diesel engine, combined with a GM Allison CD-850-6 fully automatic transmission.
The Centurion Mk 1 first appeared in 1944 in mock-up form, but did not enter production until November 1945. Powered by a Rolls-Royce engine and armed initially with a 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun, it saw its first real action in Korea. (Warehouse Collection)
The Centurion was of welded construction and was considerably heavier than earlier cruiser tank designs. In order to support the 42-ton weight, the earlier Christie suspension was replaced by a modified Horstman system. (Warehouse Collection)
With an increased thickness of armour that brought the weight up to 45 tons, but retaining the 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun, the Centurion Mk 2 was the first series production version. It remained in production until 1949. (Warehouse Collection)
Introduced in 1949, the Centurion Mk 3 was little changed from the earlier Mk 2, but the 17-pounder (76.2mm) gun was replaced by a harder-hitting 20-pounder (84mm) weapon, offering considerable improvement in armour-piercing capabilities. (Warehouse Collection)
A Centurion Mk 3 photographed from the rear. The rear-mounted engine was coupled to the rear sprockets via a five-speed Merritt-Brown gearbox. The vehicle is assigned to the Fighting Vehicles Proving Establishment (FVPE) for test. (Warehouse Collection)
Photographed in 1960, this is the Centurion Mk 8, an improved version of the redesigned Mk 7, with a new gun mantlet and an independent commander’s cupola. (Warehouse Collection)
Most National Service tank crews were trained on the Centurion. With the instructor sitting alongside the opened driver’s hatch, here we see a Junior Leader driving a Centurion Mk 3 across country during 1965. (Warehouse Collection)
With huge rear-mounted air-intake ducts and a snorkel on each exhaust pipe, a Centurion tackles a river crossing. Although the driver’s hatch is closed, the periscope remains above the waterline. (Warehouse Collection)
A Centurion Mk 3 in Tripoli, in front of the ruins of the Roman amphitheatre at Sabratha. (Warehouse Collection)
A forward repair team of the Royal Electrical & Mechanical Engineers (REME), attached to the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), attends to a disabled Centurion Mk 3. While a Scammell Pioneer SV2S recovery vehicle hoists a replacement Rolls-Royce Meteor above the rear deck, one man struggles with a ‘number 19’ radio set, and another repairs the damaged track guards. (Warehouse Collection)
The Type B barrel of the 20-pounder (84mm) gun had a distinctive fume extractor halfway up the barrel, and was introduced in December 1954. This barrel was eventually retrospectively fitted to most Mk 3 Centurions. This example is privately owned and was photographed at the annual War & Peace Show. (Simon Thomson)
A Centurion target tank with a dummy 17-pounder gun. A number of redundant Centurions were converted to this form at Warminster to allow infantry to fire small arms ammunition and dummy anti-tank missiles at them. The tank is heavily armoured to protect the driver. (Warehouse Collection)
Charioteer: FV4101
The FV4101 Charioteer tank destroyer was something of a hybrid, consisting basically of a refurbished Second World War late model welded Cromwell VII or VIII hull, to which had been fitted a new lightly armoured powered turret mounting the 20-pounder (84mm) anti-tank gun of the Centurion 3. Alongside the 20-pounder (84mm) gun, there was a co-axial .30 calibre Browning.
The Cromwell had originally been designed by the Birmingham Railway Carriage & Wagon Company, but design parentage was passed to Leyland Motors in late 1941, with the first pilot model delivered in March 1942. Two more pilot machines were completed by the end of the year, followed by a further twenty for training purposes; total production amounted to more than 4,000 units. The Cromwell was one of the better British tank designs of the Second World War, and the model was eventually produced in eight ‘marks’, with the original 6-pounder (57mm) gun giving way to a 75mm weapon, and with close-support variants mounting a 95mm howitzer. Development of the Cromwell-based Charioteer, which was intended as a tank destroyer, started in 1950 at the Royal Ordnance Factory Woolwich, with the actual conversion work on some 200 production vehicles carried out by Robinson & Kershaw Limited, based in Cheshire. The first example was accepted into service in 1952.
Like the donor Cromwell from which it was derived, the Charioteer was powered by a Rolls-Royce Meteor engine producing something like 600bhp from its 27 litres, installed in conjunction with the Merritt-Brown Z5 combined transmission and steering unit, driving the rear sprockets. The suspension was of the improved Christie type with angled swinging arms suspended on long helical springs, the suspension units being fitted between the twin skins of the hull sides, giving a measure of protection from damage. Five road wheels were fitted on each side, four of which were provided with shock absorbers; there were no track-return rollers. All-up weight was in the order of 28.4 tons and this gave a maximum speed on improved surfaces of 32mph, with 18mph available across country. The hull was 250in long and had a width of 120in.
The vehicles were issued to Royal Armoured Corps units in Germany, although apparently they were only ever used by the Territorials, and were phased out from 1956. Many were subsequently sold to Austria, Finland, Jordan and Lebanon.
The hybrid Charioteer consisted essentially of a Cromwell hull on which was fitted a new turret mounting a 20-pounder (84mm) gun. This rare example is preserved at the Israeli Armoured Corps memorial at Latrun. Charioteers remained in British service until around 1956. (Bukvoed)
Conqueror: FV214
The British FV214 Conqueror was a heavy gun tank armed with a 120mm rifled gun, and was designed in direct response to the appearance of the massive Soviet IS-3. It was a logical development of the A45/FV200 universal tank, the design of which had been mooted by Montgomery’s 21 Army Group in 1945 as a tank suitable for all situations, and the earliest manifestations of the project were based on an enlarged version of the A41 Centurion chassis, with additional road wheels and suspension units. To this end, the original mild-steel Centurion hull, which had been produced by AEC in 1944, was rebuilt and widened for use as a development vehicle, with the design work undertaken by the newly formed Department of Tank Design (DTD). English Electric was appointed as the main contractor, and the first A45 prototype was completed in 1948.
A year later the A45 project was cancelled, but the chassis was adapted to provide the basis for the FV214 Conqueror. Delays in finalising the specifications for the Conqueror led to the production of the FV221 Caernarvon, a test-bed vehicle which consisted of the hull of the Conqueror on which was mounted the turret of the Centurion 2 (and subsequently the Centurion 3). The Caernarvon allowed experience to be gained in operating vehicles of such extreme size and weight, and it was planned that once sixty Caernarvons had been constructed production would switch to the Conqueror. Both projects proceeded simultaneously despite much changing of minds, and during 1951 Vickers-Armstrong produced two Conqueror prototypes, one in mild steel and one hardened, along with four prototype turrets. The first production Conqueror was finally completed in 1955 and the first twenty vehicles were assigned for troop trials.
Designed for a crew of four, the Conqueror was a huge machine, measuring up at 456in in length, with a total width of 157in. The hull was of all-welded construction, with a maximum thickness of 178mm, and the turret was a one-piece casting, giving an all-up weight of more than 64.7 tons. Power came from an upgraded version of the Rolls-Royce V12 Meteor, designated M120 No 2 Mk 1A, developing 810bhp at 2,800rpm from 27,022cc by means of a fuel-injection system. Two different transmissions were used, the Z52 and the Z52R; both were of the Merritt-Brown type, and both offered five forward speeds and two reverse – but somewhat unhelpfully the Z52R’s gearshift pattern was laid out in a mirror image of the Z52’s! With its horizontal coil-springs acting in opposed pairs, the Horstman suspension was similar to that used on the Centurion, but with one extra wheel station and with the benefit of resiliently mounted steel-rimmed road wheels. Unfortunately the decision had been taken to adopt one-piece cast units and these soon exhibited cracks in service, leading to the replacement of every suspension unit that had been constructed. The huge 31in-wide manganese-steel tracks were driven via rear sprockets.
The 120mm L1 gun was derived from the American 4.7in T53 anti-aircraft weapon, with a separate projectile and charge, the latter being brass-cased rather than bagged, allowing space for just thirty-five shells inside the hull. The gun was capable of firing high-explosive (HE), high-explosive squash head (HESH), armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) and discarding sabot practice (DS PRAC) rounds and, in theory, it would have been more than capable of penetrating the armour of the Soviet IS-3 had it ever been called upon to do so. There were also two .30in Browning machine guns, one mounted co-axially with the main gun, the other on the commander’s cupola. The fire-control system was considered very sophisticated for the period, and the commander’s cupola was designed to rotate independently of the turret. This allowed the commander to select a target using the telescopic sight and rangefinder, before instructing the gunner. When the gunner traversed the turret and gun to the preselected lay he would find the target already under his sights; while this was happening, the commander was free to search for the next target.
Conquerors were constructed at the Royal Ordnance Factory Dalmuir, near Glasgow, with additional work carried out at the Royal Ordnance Factory Leeds, and at the Newcastle factories of Vickers-Armstrong; the hull and turret castings were produced by William Beardsmore and English Steel. The total number of vehicles constructed was just 180, or perhaps 185, between 1955 and 1959, including conversions of the Caernarvon. The first twenty vehicles were of Mk 1 configuration, while subsequent vehicles were designated Mk 2, although the differences were minor and included a single driver’s periscope and revised frontal armour. Of the various planned variants, only the FV219 and FV222 armoured recovery vehicles entered production.
Nine Conquerors were issued to each of the armoured regiments of the British Army on the Rhine from about 1956–7, generally as three troops each having three tanks. The vehicle proved unreliable in service, with the electrical system and the Mollins automatic ejector gear, which was intended to keep the turret clear of spent brass cases, proving particularly troublesome. The weight was also a problem, holding the maximum speed down to around 21mph, reducing the range to a mere 95 miles and restricting the use of the tank on roads and bridges. All had been withdrawn by 1966, and many ended up as hard targets, where the weak spots of the hull were mercilessly exposed!
Developed as a counter to the Soviet IS-3, FV201 was the gun tank variant of the A45 FV200 ‘universal tank’ series and was a logical development of the Centurion. There was no series production, but the design eventually evolved into the Conqueror. (Warehouse Collection)
An FV201 photographed from the rear. Note the distinctive Conqueror-type suspension, with horizontal coil springs acting in pairs. The turret is traversed to the rear, and the 20-pounder (84mm) gun is locked in the travelling position. (Warehouse Collection)
An overhead view of the FV201 showing the increased width when compared to the Centurion. (Warehouse Collection)
The A45 project was cancelled in 1949, but the hull was adapted to form the basis of the Conqueror FV214 heavy gun tank; this example carries weights on the turret, presumably to simulate the weight of the correct gun mantlet. There was considerable doubt regarding the ability of existing transporters to carry the 65-ton machine, but the Thornycroft Antar proved itself to be perfectly capable. (IWM, 28478/6)
Two prototype Conquerors were produced in 1951, with production starting in 1955. Following their withdrawal in 1966, many ended their days as very impressive gate guardians. (Warehouse Collection)
Even without any reference to scale, this illustration from the military User Handbook admirably shows off the massive size of the Conqueror, all examples of which were produced by the Royal Ordnance Factory Dalmuir. (Warehouse Collection)
Although none saw any real action, a Conqueror on the move must have been an awe-inspiring sight, with more than 800bhp of thunderous fuel-injected power driving the tracks. All of the vehicles were based in Germany, and this example, serving with 1st Royal Tank Regiment, was photographed in Hohne. (Tank Museum)
Total Conqueror production reached 180, and those examples not fortunate enough to survive as gate guardians after withdrawal made admirable range targets. (Warehouse Collection)
Believe it or not, there is more than one Conqueror in private hands. This example was rescued from gate-guardian duties in the 1990s, restored by RR Services in Kent and sold to a collector in the USA. (Warehouse Collection)
Another privately owned Conqueror recently changed hands through the offices of Army Jeeps, a military vehicle dealer based in Ohio in the USA. It was said to be in good running condition, if a little thirsty! (www.armyjeeps.net)
This Conqueror gate guardian can still be seen outside the Stanley Barracks of the Royal Tank Regiment at Bovington in Dorset … and it looks every bit as impressive in the metal! (Warehouse Collection)
Chieftain main Battle tank: FV4201
During the early 1950s the British Army planned to replace both the Centurion and the unsuccessful Conqueror tanks with a new design. In 1956 Leyland Motors, which had been appointed the design parent for the Centurion Mk 7, constructed three prototypes of a new tank, which was designated FV4202. The design was similar to the Centurion but the height of the hull was reduced (by placing the driver in a reclined position) and there was a new turret, lacking a mantlet. In 1958 the War Office issued a statement of characteristics for a new British tank that drew heavily on Leyland’s proposals and work began later that year.
Most of the design work was carried out by Leyland, but work on the turret was entrusted to Vickers-Armstrong. The first mock-up for what would become known as the FV4201 Chieftain appeared in 1959 and small changes were made to the specification; the first prototype was ready later that year. A further six prototypes were constructed between July 1961 and April 1962; following extensive trials, the Chieftain was accepted for service in May 1963, with production lines established at Vickers-Armstrong’s Elswick plant and at the Royal Ordnance Factory Leeds. The first examples did not enter service until 1967, but the Chieftain served as the main battle tank of the British Army for more than two decades, with the last examples leaving service in 1995.
The familiar Rolls-Royce Meteor engine of the Centurion and the Conqueror was eschewed in favour of a Leyland L60 unit, a vertically opposed six-cylinder two-stroke multi-fuel diesel engine producing 685bhp, and later upgraded to give 700–720bhp, from 11,365cc. The engine was coupled to a Merritt-Wilson, later David Brown, TN12 six-speed semi-automatic transmission and steering unit, driving the rear sprockets.
With a combat weight of 52.7–54 tons, the hull of the Chieftain was among the best protected of the period, consisting of cast sections welded together; the adoption of a single casting at the nose eliminated the weak spot on the Centurion where the driver’s roof joined the glacis plate. Overall, the hull measured 296in in length, with a width of 138in; the height was some four or five inches less than the Centurion. The turret consisted of a well-shaped front casting combined with rolled plate at the rear; the conventional mantlet was dispensed with, both to reduce the overall weight and improve the protection. Chieftains were subsequently retro-fitted with Stillbrew appliqué steel-ceramic composite armour to reduce vulnerability around the frontal arc. The fighting compartment included an NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) filtration system and automatic fire-detection, and there was fire-extinguishing equipment for the engine compartment.
The main gun was a 120mm L11A5, using a separate bagged charge that allowed it to fire kinetic energy (KE) or chemical energy (CE) rounds, including armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), high-explosive squash-head (HESH), smoke, illuminating, and armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds. The gun-control system supplied by Marconi provided four modes of control: power, stabilised power, emergency battery and manual. Marconi also supplied the fire-control system (FCS), which included a cupola-mounted periscopic sight for the commander, a pair of sights for the gunner and a fire controller.
The last Chieftains were constructed for Kuwait in 1975. During its fifteen-year production life, the tank was developed through a number of major ‘marks’, as follows:
· Chieftain Mk 1: original pre-production vehicle, powered by a 585bhp engine; armed with a 120mm L11A5 main gun, 0.5in co-axial machine gun and 7.62mm general-purpose machine gun (GPMG)
· Chieftain Mk 1/2: as Chieftain Mk 1, but with improved cupola and additional 7.62mm roof-mounted GPMG
· Chieftain Mk 1/3: as Chieftain Mk 1, but with 650bhp engine
· Chieftain Mk 1/4: as Chieftain Mk 1, but with 650bhp engine and modified 0.5in ranging machine gun
· Chieftain Mk 2: improved turret and 650bhp engine; this was the first Chieftain to enter service.
· Chieftain Mk 3: improved auxiliary generator, modified commander’s cupola with 7.62mm machine gun, and other technical improvements
· Chieftain Mk 3/G: prototype with engine air intake in the turret
· Chieftain Mk 3/2: modified Chieftain Mk 3/G
· Chieftain Mk 3S: production version of Chieftain Mk 3/G
· Chieftain Mk 3/3: Chieftain Mk 3, with modified 0.5in ranging machine gun, Barr & Stroud laser rangefinder, 720bhp engine, improved NBC filtration, and other technical improvements
· Chieftain Mk 3/3P: Chieftain Mk 3 for Iran
· Chieftain Mk 4: increased fuel capacity and minor modifications; only two constructed
· Chieftain Mk 5: as Chieftain Mk 3/3, but with strengthened transmission, modified gunner’s telescope and commander’s collimator, new exhaust system, new NBC pack, improved ammunition stowage, and other technical improvements. This was the definitive version of the tank
· Chieftain Mk 5/2K: Chieftain Mk 5 for Kuwait
· Chieftain Mk 5/5P: Chieftain Mk 5 for Iran
· Chieftain Mk 6: as Chieftain Mk 2, but with 720bhp engine
· Chieftain Mk 7: as Chieftain Mk 3 or 3S, but with 720bhp engine
· Chieftain Mk 8: as Chieftain Mk 3/3, but with 720bhp engine and modified 0.5in ranging machine gun
· Chieftain Mk 9: as Chieftain Mk 6, but with improved fire-control system
· Chieftain Mk 10: as Chieftain Mk 7, but with improved fire-control system
· Chieftain Mk 11: as Chieftain Mk 8, but with improved fire-control system
· Chieftain Mk 12: as Chieftain Mk 5, but with improved fire-control system
The Chieftain was also developed into an armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) and vehicle-launched bridge (AVLB) for the British Army, and provided the basis for the Rolls-Royce-powered Shir 1 and 2 and the Chieftain 900 main battle tanks, all of which were intended for export.
Chieftain prototype number four (P4) photographed during wading trials at the Fighting Vehicles Research & Development Establishment (FVRDE). One of six prototypes, this particular vehicle was delivered for trials in July 1961 and was the first Chieftain to be used for firing trials. (Warehouse Collection)
A Chieftain Mk 5 undergoing desert trials at the Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona. Among other features, the Mk 5 featured a strengthened transmission, a new exhaust system and improved ammunition stowage, and is generally considered to be the definitive version of the design. (Warehouse Collection)
Another Chieftain Mk 5, this time undergoing some kind of trials at the FVRDE Chertsey test track. The clue is the white-coated boffin! (Warehouse Collection)
A Chieftain being loaded on to the 65-tonne Crane Fruehauf semi-trailer of the Scammell Commander tank transporter. The tank is loaded forwards with the turret reversed to the rear. The Commander replaced the older Thornycroft Antar from late 1984 to become the British Army’s only tank-transporter outfit. (Warehouse Collection)
The 120mm L11A5 gun fitted to all Chieftains (the photograph shows another Mk 5) was fully stabilised to allow accurate firing on the move, and was carried in a fully traversing turret in a mount that provided an elevation arc of –10 degrees and +20 degrees. The barrel was fitted with a thermal sleeve and a fume extractor. (Warehouse Collection)
A Chieftain Mk 2, with an improved turret, of the Blues and Royals fording a shallow river during operations in Germany. The photograph was taken in 1969, soon after the formation of the Blues and Royals from an amalgamation of the Royal Horse Guards (Blues) and The Royal Dragoons (1st Dragoons). (Warehouse Collection)
The Chieftain was designed to permit wading to a depth of 42in (3ft 6in) without preparation. Following waterproofing treatment, and with the addition of a snorkel, the depth could be increased to 180in (15ft), which puts the tank completely under water. (Warehouse Collection)
A pair of Chieftains of 4th Royal Tank Regiment (4 RTR) photographed at Münster, Germany, in July 1975. 4 RTR merged with 7 RTR in 1959 and saw service in both the Middle East and the Far East. In 1969 the regiment returned to Hohne in Germany where it was issued with Chieftains. (Warehouse Collection)
Withdrawn Chieftains made splendid range targets. (Simon Thomson)
The Chieftain Mk 11 was an upgrade of the Mk 10 with the turret searchlight replaced by the thermal observation and gunnery system (TOGS). Manufactured by Barr & Stroud, originally as a private venture, the system was adopted in 1979/80 and more than 320 Chieftains were converted to carry the equipment. (Simon Thomson)
The Chieftain remained in production for fifteen years. Most went to the British Army, but more than 700 examples were sold to Iran, as well as to Kuwait, Oman and Jordan. The last British Army Chieftains left service in 1995. Many were scrapped or passed to museums and private collectors, but some ended up as hard targets on various firing ranges. (Simon Thomson)
As you might expect, the Tank Museum has more than one Chieftain in its collection, including one of the prototypes (99SP23), built in 1959. The example shown here, another Tank Museum exhibit, is a Mk 2 constructed at ROF Leeds and disposed of in August 1997. It is pictured at Tankfest. (Simon Thomson)
CHALLENGER 1 MAIN BATTLE TANK
In the late 1950s, with the Centurion and Conqueror clearly due for replacement, the War Office planned to replace both types with the FV4201 Chieftain, which entered production in May 1963. Development of the Chieftain continued through the life of the vehicle and in 1974 Iran placed an order for 125 improved Chieftain Mk 5/5 tanks, designated Shir 1 (the name derived from the Shah of Iran) or FV4032 (sometimes FV4030/2), and 1,225 examples of the improved Shir 2 (FV4033 or FV4030/3). Both types were to be fitted with a Rolls-Royce – later Perkins – Condor CV12 engine and had improvements made to the suspension, sighting system and transmission of the basic Chieftain. However, although production of Shir 1 was well under way and the development of Shir 2 was almost complete, the contract for both models was cancelled in early 1979 following the Islamic revolution and the overthrow of the Shah in Iran. However, the work was not entirely wasted since later that year the Royal Ordnance Factory Leeds received a contract from Jordan for 274 examples of the Khalid main battle tank, which was essentially a development of Shir 1.
Meanwhile, the British Army had reached the point where its Chieftains and any remaining Centurions were themselves due for replacement. Although the original plan had been to adopt the jointly developed Anglo-German main battle tank, this project was cancelled in 1977 and replaced by the MBT-80. Unfortunately, the MBT-80 project was no more successful and the development phase eventually became so extended that there seemed little prospect of the tanks entering service before the early 1990s. When the MBT-80 project was cancelled in March 1977, the British Army was forced to look elsewhere for a replacement for the Chieftain.
The replacement took the form of the Challenger FV4034 (or FV4030/4), retrospectively dubbed Challenger 1 when development of Challenger 2 started in 1988, notwithstanding the fact that there had already been a British Challenger tank dating from 1942.
Design work for the Challenger was carried out by the Royal Armament Research & Development Establishment (RARDE) during 1981, and production started at the Royal Ordnance Factory Leeds in 1982. The tank was effectively a development of Shir 2, using a version of the hull and running gear of the Chieftain. The major differences in appearance derived from the new ballistically shaped turret and the use of Chobham laminated armour (a composite of ceramics, metals and other materials designed to resist both chemical and kinetic armour-piercing rounds). However, the layout of the tank was absolutely conventional, with the driver seated at the front, the commander and gunner on the right-hand side of the turret and the loader on the left. The turret bustle included an NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) pack that would allow the tank to continue to operate in the most hostile battlefield conditions. At the rear was a huge Rolls-Royce (later Perkins) Condor CV12 TCA turbocharged diesel engine producing 1,200bhp from 26.11 litres, assembled in an easily removable power-pack, complete with David Brown TN37 four-speed automatic transmission and a Borg-Warner torque converter.
The main armament was the Royal Ordnance Factory 120mm L11A5 rifled tank gun as fitted to the Chieftain; Janes, the defence information specialists, reported that later tanks were to be fitted with the RARDE EXP 32M1 high-pressure gun, but it seems that this never happened. The gun was capable of firing high-explosive squash head (HESH), armour-piercing discarding sabot, tracer (APDS-T), and armourpiercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot, tracer (APFSDS-T) rounds, the latter particularly having better penetration characteristics than the old armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) rounds. There were also two 7.62mm machine guns, one mounted co-axially with the main gun and one on the commander’s cupola, together with a pair of five-barrel smoke dischargers on the turret. Electrical guncontrol equipment was supplied by Marconi, and there was a Barr & Stroud thermal observation and gunnery sight (TOGS).
A new hydro-pneumatic suspension, designed by the Military Vehicles Experimental Establishment (MVEE) and Laser Engineering Development, and manufactured by the Royal Ordnance Factory, gave a better cross-country ride than did the Chieftain. There were six aluminium road wheels, with the drive sprockets at the rear and the return sprocket at the front. Total battle weight was 61 tons, and the top speed on the road was 35mph, with the fuel tanks giving a range of 240 miles. The hull measured 455in in length and had a width of 139in.
The initial order, worth £300 million, called for 243 Challengers, with the first handed over in March 1983. Total production eventually topped 420 vehicles, and the last was delivered in mid-1990, all of them produced at the Leeds factory that had been taken over by Vickers Defence Systems in 1986. RARDE remained the design authority for the tank until June 1986, when responsibility for further development was passed to the Royal Ordnance Weapons & Fighting Vehicles Division. Challenger was demonstrated to various Middle Eastern countries but there were no export orders, and Challenger 1 saw service only with the British Army.
Challenger 1 was also adapted to provide an armoured repair and recovery vehicle (CR ARRV), with the first thirty examples produced by Vickers Defence Systems at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1985; total production of the CR ARRV amounted to eighty vehicles, forty-eight of which were built at Leeds and thirty-two at Newcastle.
The British Army Challengers saw service in the First Gulf War, with more than half the total fleet assigned to the action in Kuwait. Various purpose-designed improvement kits were fitted to counter the harsh conditions likely to be experienced in the Middle East and changes were made to the sighting and gunnery systems and to the engine and air-filtration equipment. Additional passive and reactive armour was fitted to counter close-range attack from anti-tank weapons. The average availability never dropped below 85 per cent during the campaign and the use of tanks was hailed as ‘the decisive battle winner of the land forces campaign’, with the Challengers of the British 1st Armoured Division making ‘an important contribution to this success’.
Challenger 1 was replaced by Challenger 2 between June 1998 and April 2002, and surplus British Army Challengers were gifted to Jordan, with the first batch of fourteen handed over in late 1999, to replace ageing Centurions.
FV4211 was an attempt to produce a lightweight, well-protected tank by constructing what was effectively a Chieftain hull in aluminium, incorporating Chobham composite armour. The automotive components were taken from a Chieftain Mk 3/3 and two prototypes were built, followed by nine development vehicles. The design evolved into Shir and then into the Challenger 1. (Warehouse Collection)
The first running prototype of the so-called FV4211 ‘aluminium Chieftain’ carried this mockup ‘Windsor’ turret, so called because of its resemblance to a certain Berkshire castle. The turret consisted of an empty shell that could be ballasted to represent the weight of the final form of the turret and gun. The vehicle was also described as the mobile test rig (MTR, or Miteron). (Warehouse Collection)
Khalid was derived from the abandoned Shir 1 project and was based on the Chieftain hull and turret, but modified at the rear to accept the Rolls-Royce (later Perkins) Condor CV12 TCA turbocharged diesel engine. In all, 274 vehicles were ordered by Jordan in 1974. (Warehouse Collection)
Meanwhile the more advanced Shir 2, also consisting of a modified Chieftain hull with a new power-pack but carrying a new angular turret incorporating Chobham composite armour, subsequently evolved into Challenger 1. (Warehouse Collection)
Challenger 1, initially designated FV4034, was designed by the Royal Armament Research & Development Establishment (RARDE), with prototypes constructed at ROF Leeds. The design was based on the modified hull and running gear of the Chieftain that had been developed for Shir 2. Production started in 1982. (Warehouse Collection)
Total production of the Challenger 1 amounted to some 420 units; although the vehicle was essentially a product of the Cold War, it saw its first real service in the Middle East. (Warehouse Collection)
More than 50 per cent of the British Army’s Challenger 1 fleet was deployed to Kuwait and Iraq in 1991. Following some frantic upgrading, which included the fitment of auxiliary fuel tanks, it acquitted itself well and not one was hit by an Iraqi tank gun. (Warehouse Collection)
One of the problems encountered when operating any tank at speed in desert or dry and dusty conditions is the large amounts of muck thrown up by the tracks. In Kuwait it was necessary to introduce modifications to prevent damage to the engine and air filtration systems. (Warehouse Collection)
A Challenger 1 stands outside Stanley Barracks in Dorset, still in the camouflage it wore during operations in Kuwait and Iraq. (Warehouse Collection)
Photographed during Operation Desert Storm, this Challenger 1 wears the distinctive explosive reactive armour (ERA) on the toe plate, with additional passive armour on the glacis and side plates. (Warehouse Collection)
A Challenger 1 undergoing a power-pack change. The complete engine, transmission and cooling system can be removed as a single unit, and a spare power-pack is carried on the rear deck of the Challenger armoured repair and recovery vehicle (CR ARRV). (Tank Museum)
Rear view of Challenger 1 showing the twin auxiliary fuel tanks fitted in Kuwait to extend the vehicle’s range. Without these tanks, the maximum range is 280 miles on the road. (Simon Thomson)
Most of the Challenger 1 fleet was gifted to Jordan, but a small number have ended up in the hands of museums and there are possibly even a couple in private ownership. (Simon Thomson)
CHALLENGER 2 MAIN BATTLE TANK
Design work for a successor to Challenger 1 started at Vickers Defence Systems in the mid-1980s. At the time the British Army had not announced that there was actually any requirement to replace Challenger 1, which continued to be operated alongside an upgraded Chieftain variant. However, in 1988 the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced that it intended to mount a competition to select a new main battle tank, with the four contenders being the French Leclerc from Giat Industries, the German Krauss-Maffei Leopard 2, the American General Dynamics Abrams M1A2 and the developing Challenger 2. As part of the competition, Vickers was awarded an £80 million contract in 1988 for the construction of nine prototypes, together with two additional turrets. Following a period of evaluation, which ended in September 1990, the MoD announced that Challenger 2 was felt to offer the best combination of performance and through-life costing.
Following a brief interlude, during which Saddam Hussein was forcibly ejected from Kuwait, a £520 million contract was awarded to Vickers in June 1991 for the construction of an initial 127 tanks and thirteen driver-training vehicles; a further 259 tanks were ordered in 1994. Construction took place at a new factory in Leeds, and deliveries were scheduled to begin in June 1994.
Challenger 2 is a completely new design, although the low, angular hull and turret bear a superficial resemblance to Challenger 1. As originally built, the hull was protected by Dorchester armour (a variation of Chobham armour), but it has subsequently been upgraded by the use of add-on explosive reactive armour (ERA) panels manufactured by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems of Israel. Like Challenger 1, the tank is powered by the Perkins (now owned by Caterpillar) Condor CV12 TCA turbocharged diesel engine, in conjunction with a David Brown automatic transmission, in the form of the six-speed TN54 unit. The tank measures up at 452in long and has a width of 138in; its combat weight is 62.5 tons or more. It has a top speed on improved roads of 40mph, with 25mph achievable across country; the range is 280 miles on roads and 150 miles across country. The use of hydrogas suspension provides a stable firing platform regardless of the terrain, and both the turret-and gun-drive systems are electric, thus avoiding the dangers associated with having high-pressure hydraulics in the fighting compartment. The hull also incorporates full heating, air-conditioning and NBC filtration systems.
The main armament is a 120mm L30A1 high-pressure rifled gun mounted in a new turret and capable of firing high-explosive squash head (HESH), armour-piercing discarding sabot, tracer (APDS-T) and armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot, tracer (APFSDS-T) rounds. Electrical gun-control and stabilisation equipment is supplied by BAE Systems, and the twin 32-bit digital fire-control computer comes from the Canadian company Computing Devices and uses a standard MIL STD1553B databus. There is also a co-axial 7.62mm Boeing chain gun, and a 7.62mm general purpose machine gun (GPMG), the latter fitted to the turret for anti-aircraft protection. Smoke-grenade launchers are fitted to the turret sides, and Challenger 2 can also create a smokescreen by injecting cold diesel fuel into the exhaust system.
In January 2004 the so-called CLIP project (Challenger lethality improvement programme) saw work begin on developing a new smooth-bore 120mm gun for Challenger 2. A single tank was fitted with the Rheinmetall L55 gun, as fitted to the German Leopard 2A6 tank, using the cradle, thermal sleeve, bore evacuator and muzzle reference system of the original L30A1 weapon. Firing trials started in 2006 and it has been suggested that it will cost £386 million to fit all British Army Challengers with the Rheinmetall gun.
In addition to the British Army Challengers, a total of thirty-eight vehicles have been supplied to the Royal Oman Army. The hull of the Challenger 2 has also been used to develop the Titan bridgelayer and the Trojan armoured engineer tank (formerly designated AVRE). The Challenger 2E variant, introduced in 2000 for export markets, was powered by an MTU 883 turbocharged diesel engine coupled to a Renk HSWL 295TN five-speed automatic transmission and was controlled by a steering wheel rather than the more conventional tillers. The engine is smaller, which allows the use of larger fuel tanks, increasing the range to a maximum of 340 miles. Marketing of this variant was discontinued in 2005.
From 2002 the production of Challenger 2 was undertaken by Alvis Vickers when Alvis took over Vickers Defence Systems, and then by BAE Systems from 2004 when Alvis itself was taken over.
With the addition of sand filters and various upgrades, Challenger 2 was used during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003, and was particularly important during the siege of Basra, as well as in various peace-keeping missions and exercises. However, the British coalition government’s Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) may well see the number of Challengers in service reduced by around 40 per cent.
Despite a superficial resemblance to its predecessor, Challenger 2 was a wholly new vehicle. Designed by Vickers Defence Systems, it is the first British tank to be designed and manufactured exclusively by a prime contractor. (Vickers Defence Systems)
A Challenger 2 in Iraq, with additional ERA armour attached to the hull and to the side panels. (Warehouse Collection)
A Challenger 2 photographed during manoeuvres on Salisbury Plain. The imaging camera for the TOGS system can be seen on the turret, above the gun barrel with which it is designed to move. (Andrew Skudder)
The Challenger 2 played a part in the 2003 siege of Basra. Note the thermal ‘friend or foe’ combat identification panels (CIP) fitted on the turret sides and rear, developed during the first Gulf War to reduce ‘friendly fire’ incidents. (Warehouse Collection)
Photographed in Basra during Operation Telic, this Challenger 2 has explosive reactive armour (ERA) panels fitted to the toe plate. (Warehouse Collection)
There are occasions when nothing beats covering a tank with a scrim net to conceal it from aerial observation. When not required, the netting is rolled up at the front of the hull. (Warehouse Collection)
With the benefit of the advanced Dorchester (formerly Chobham) composite armour, plus the addition of both explosive reactive armour (ERA) and slat armour protective guards around the rear of the hull and turret, this Challenger 2 of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards tries to live up to its description of being among the world’s best-protected tanks. (Warehouse Collection)
A pair of Challenger 2s photographed in Basra, with CIP identification panels, ERA side armour, dust skirts and rolled-up scrim netting. (Warehouse Collection)
ALVIS CVR(T): FV100 SERIES
Although, as the name might suggest, the Alvis ‘combat vehicle reconnaissance (tracked)’ or CVR(T) is probably more correctly described as a reconnaissance vehicle, it has proved itself to be an extremely versatile machine, capable of adaptation to cover a number of different tasks. Alongside vehicles suitable for the anti-tank, antiaircraft, ambulance, recovery and command roles, both the Scorpion and Scimitar variants have been marketed by Alvis as ‘light tanks’, while the extended Stormer was also available with a two-man turret, mounting either a 76mm or 90mm gun.
Work on what was to become the CVR(T) started in the mid-1950s, when the British Army indicated that it had a requirement for an armoured reconnaissance vehicle to cover a number of differing roles. Following a series of studies, the Fighting Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (FVRDE) concluded that, in fact, two separate vehicles were required to fulfil the range of roles described: one with tracks, which became the CVR(T), the other with wheels, which evolved into the combat vehicle reconnaissance (wheeled), or CVR(W). Three aluminium-armoured test rigs were constructed for the CVR(T), designed to finalise various features planned for the finished vehicle, including the possible use of the Rolls-Royce B60 petrol engine of the Ferret, a hydro-pneumatic suspension system and a scaled-down version of the David Brown TN15 transmission of the Chieftain tank.
In September 1967 Alvis was contracted to build thirty prototypes, seventeen of which were of the Scorpion variant, armed with a 76mm low-velocity gun, the others covering six of the other CVR(T) variants. The first prototype was completed in January 1969, with the remainder delivered by the spring of the following year. By this time the Rolls-Royce engine had given way to a militarised and de-rated version of Jaguar’s iconic XK engine, designated J60 and producing 190bhp from a capacity of 4.2 litres. The seven-speed TN15 hot-shift semi-automatic tranmission was retained, but the hydro-pneumatic suspension was replaced by a more conventional torsionbar set-up, with the 17in-wide steel tracks supported on five rubber-tyred road wheels, the first and last of these being fitted with hydraulic shock absorbers.
As with the test rigs, the vehicle was constructed around a three-man compact aluminium welded hull, measuring 190in in length, with a width of 88in. The driver was placed at the front, alongside the engine and transmission, while the fighting compartment was at the rear; some variants were fitted with NBC filtration equipment. A flotation screen could be erected around the perimeter of the hull to allow amphibious operation, with a maximum speed in the water of 4mph. The thickness of armour was not declared but was said to be resistant to attack from Soviet 14.5mm machine guns over the frontal arc, and 7.62mm armour-piercing rounds elsewhere. The combat weight of the Scorpion variant was 17,761lb and the maximum speed on the road was 50mph.
The CVR(T) was approved for service with the British Army in May 1970, with the first production vehicles delivered in January 1972; it was also accepted for service with the RAF Regiment. The first British contract called for 275 Scorpions and 288 Scimitars, and by the mid-1980s a total of 1,863 CVR(T)s had been constructed for the British Army and the RAF.
The Scorpion variant was equipped with a 76mm L23 gun in a two-man turret, capable of firing high-explosive (HE), high-explosive squash-head (HESH), smoke and canister rounds. There was also a co-axial 7.62mm L43A1 machine gun, and later versions had a second 7.62mm general purpose machine gun (GPMG) on a roof-mounted pintle; in the Scorpion 90, which was trialled for the British Army, the 76mm gun was replaced by a 90mm Mk 3 Cockerill gun. The Scimitar, deliveries of which started in March 1974, had a 30mm L21 RARDEN cannon in place of the 76mm gun, capable of firing armour-piercing (AP), armour-piercing secondary effects (APSE), armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), high-explosive (HE) and high-explosive incendiary (HEI) rounds.
The larger and heavier Stormer, the length of which was extended by adding an additional wheel station, was originally designed by Alvis as a private venture in the 1970s for use as an armoured personnel carrier (APC). It was selected by the British Army in 1986 to carry the Starstreak high-velocity missile (HVM) anti-aircraft system and other versions of Stormer are also currently available, including a light tank carrying a 30mm RARDEN cannon or 90mm gun, but no other variants have been specified for the British Army.
Scorpions served during the campaign to regain British control of the Falkland Islands in 1982, while the Scimitar has been deployed on UN and NATO peacekeeping missions in the former Yugoslavia and in Iraq, and is currently deployed in Afghanistan.
In 1988 Alvis was awarded a £32 million contract to carry out a CVR(T) lifeextension programme (LEP) covering more than 1,300 vehicles. The programme included replacement of the Jaguar engines with a Cummins BTA 5.9-litre 190bhp diesel, and some up-armouring. At the time of writing (spring 2011) the Scimitar remains in service with the British Army, primarily as a reconnaissance vehicle, with a life expectancy of a further four to five years. Samaritan ambulance, Sultan command vehicle and Sampson recovery vehicle variants also remain in British service, but have not been upgraded. Recent rumours in the defence media have suggested that the Ministry of Defence (MoD) has asked BAE Systems, which took over Alvis in 2004, to investigate the possibility of restarting production of the CVR(T) hull.
The CVR(T) has also been purchased by, among others, the armies of Brunei, Honduras, Iran, Ireland, Jordan, Kuwait, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Oman, Philippines, Tanzania, Thailand and the UAE. Various upgrade packages have been developed for expor t markets, including replacements for the engine and suspension system.
Produced by Alvis in an almost bewildering range of variants, all of which have names beginning with ‘S’, the CVR(T) – or combat vehicle reconnaissance, tracked – started to enter service in 1972. The Scimitar variant (FV107) is armed with the 30mm L21 RARDEN cannon. (Warehouse Collection)
The Scorpion variant (FV101) carries a 76mm L23 gun in a two-man turret, and is described as a light tank or a fire-support vehicle. (Simon Thomson)
For users requiring additional firepower, the Scorpion could be specified with a long-barrelled 90mm Cockerill Mk 3 gun, in which form it was described as a Scorpion 90 or Scorpion 2. (Alvis Vehicles)
The CVR(T) is surprisingly popular as an ‘entry level’ vehicle for collectors of tracked armour. This 76mm gun-equipped Scorpion was photographed at the War & Peace Show. (Simon Thomson)
A Scimitar in full desert-fighting mode, with CIP identification panels and appliqué armour panels on the sides of the hull. (Warehouse Collection)
An up-armoured Scimitar being put through its paces at the Tank Museum; the 30mm gun is capable of firing a variety of armour-piercing and high-explosive rounds. (Simon Thomson)
British Army CVR(T)s have been upgraded by up-armouring the hull and by replacing the original Jaguar engine with a Cummins diesel. This is a refurbished Scorpion variant, with the 76mm L23 gun. (Simon Thomson)
Rear view of the Scorpion 90 as trialled for the British Army; there were no series purchases. (Alvis Vehicles)
The first British Army regiment to be equipped with the Scorpion was the Blues and Royals in 1973; the last Scorpion was demobbed from the British Army in 1994, but the vehicle remains in service elsewhere. (Simon Thomson)
Scimitars remain in British service in the reconnaissance role and may continue to serve until 2015/16. (Simon Thomson)
The hull of the Stormer variant was extended by the addition of a sixth wheel station. This example, equipped as an infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), mounts a 30mm gun in an Alvis two-man turret; other weapons available included 20mm, 25mm, 76mm and 90mm guns. (Alvis Vehicles)
GKN WARRIOR INFANTRY COMBAT VEHICLE: FV510
Originally described as the MCV-80 (or ‘mechanised combat vehicle, 1980’), the GKN Warrior was designed to provide a replacement for the ageing FV430 series of armoured personnel carriers (APCs) – some of which, incidentally, still remain in service at the time of writing (spring 2011) in the form of the much up-graded Bulldog. Strictly speaking, Warrior cannot be considered to be a tank, since it was primarily designed to carry an infantry section into battle. However, by virtue of being available with a variety of turret-mounted weapons, including a 30mm RARDEN L21 cannon, and 75mm, 90mm or 105mm guns, it is also suitable for engaging enemy light armour.
The design work that led to the Warrior was started in the early 1970s when GKN Sankey was awarded a Ministry of Defence (MoD) contract to develop a new infantry fighting vehicle for the British Army. Warrior was selected over the competing American Bradley IFV, with three prototypes delivered in 1980; a production contract was awarded later that year, with the first production machine scheduled for delivery in 1985.
Designed around an aluminium welded hull, Warrior was said to be ‘optimised’ against close air-burst fragments from 152mm and 155mm weapons and armour-piercing rounds up to 14.5mm; it was also said to have been tested against attack from 9kg anti-tank mines. In its basic ‘section vehicle’ configuration, it provides accommodation for up to ten soldiers, seven of whom are seated in the rear compartment, with access via double doors at the rear; the remaining three crew members act as commander, gunner and driver. The standard 30mm RARDEN cannon is mounted in a rotating Vickers-manufactured turret, together with a co-axial machine gun. Standard equipment includes an NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical) filtration system.
Power is provided by a Rolls-Royce CV8 TCA V8 diesel engine, latterly described as the Perkins Condor when that company took over the rights to Rolls-Royce diesels. The engine produces 550bhp from a capacity of approximately 17.4 litres, and drives the front sprockets via a Detroit Diesel Allison X300-4B four-speed automatic transmission with two reverse gears; at the time of the vehicle’s launch, it was announced that the transmission would be manufactured under licence by Rolls-Royce Limited. Maximum speed on the road is 48mph; a speed of 30mph is available using second reverse gear. Suspension is of the torsion-bar type, with six rubber-tyred aluminium road wheels, produced by GKN’s Squeezeform technology that was claimed to provide the strength of a forging with the cost-effectiveness of casting. Hydraulic dampers are fitted to the first, second and sixth wheel stations, and the tracks are of cast-steel with rubber road pads.
In 1983 the defence media publishers Janes reported that the total number of Warriors required by the British Army was between 1,800 and 2,000, although other sources have subsequently suggested that the total number delivered was just 785. Most were of the basic Warrior FV510 infantry fighting vehicle variant; others include the FV511 infantry command vehicle, the FV512 combat repair vehicle, the FV513 recovery vehicle and the FV514 artillery observation vehicle. A further 254 units of a modified version, known as the Desert Warrior, have been constructed for Kuwait, and the Warrior 2000 was also developed for the Swiss Army but never entered production. Other variants are available, including a low-profile light tank equipped with a 105mm gun, but this version has not served with the British Army.
The manufacturing rights to the Warrior passed to Alvis when that company merged with GKN Defence in 1998, and then to BAE Systems in 2004. Although the vehicle is no longer in production, at the time of writing (spring 2011) BAE Systems continues to provide support and upgrade services.
Warriors have seen action in Iraq and Kuwait during the First Gulf War, and in Bosnia and Afghanistan, where the vehicle has come in for considerable criticism due to the perceived inadequacy of its armour. Nevertheless, the current suggestion is that Warriors may remain in British service until 2025 or even 2035. The British Army recently announced that 643 Warriors were to be upgraded by fitting a modular protection system and enhanced electronics. Around 450 of these vehicles will also be fitted with a new turret and main gun under the Warrior fightability lethality improvement programme (WFLIP); the original RARDEN cannon will be replaced by a stabilised 40mm Anglo-French weapon developed by CTA International.
The GKN Warrior infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) was designed to replace the ageing FV432 APC, and at the same time to be able to provide additional firepower. Although not strictly speaking a tank by most definitions, the availability of a range of turret-mounted weapons means that the Warrior is able to engage enemy light armour. The British Army’s FV510 variant mounts a 30mm RARDEN cannon. (Warehouse Collection)
Work on the Warrior started in the early 1970s, with the first prototypes delivered in 1980. The 30mm RARDEN cannon was mounted in a Vickers-designed turret. (Warehouse Collection)
Photographed in the Middle East during the first Gulf War, this Warrior wears appliqué armour panels on the hull sides. (Warehouse Collection)
A Warrior travelling across country at some speed. The big Rolls-Royce engine could propel the machine at 48mph on the road. (GKN Defence)
A manufacturer’s portrait shot of the so-called Warrior desert fighting vehicle (DFV), designed for export sales. (GKN Defence)
A veteran of the Gulf War, this Warrior wears appliqué armour on both the nose and the side panels. (Warehouse Collection)
Deliveries of the Warrior to the British Army started in 1985, and it is said that the vehicle may well remain in service for another fifteen or twenty years. The type has seen active service in Iraq, Kuwait, Bosnia and Afghanistan. (Simon Thomson)