The listed archives have been visited or consulted online during the research for this book. Their record groups (RG) are highly relevant for the presented issues and therefore recommended for further investigation.
POLAND
Archive of the New Files (Warsaw)
RG 8The Presidium of the Council of Ministers
RG 9Department of the Interior
RG 39Polish National Committee in Paris
RG 40Polish Delegation at the Paris Peace Conference
RG 45Collection of essay and documents on Poland’s relations to Latvia, Lithuania, Soviet Russia, Gdańsk, and Ukraine
RG 349State Police Headquarters in Warsaw
Various RGsFiles of Local Police Stations
Archive of the Polish Academy of Science (Warsaw)
RG 4Diary of Michał Stanisław Kossakowski
Central Military Archive (Warsaw)
RG I.122.1.Polish Formations in the East
RG I.123.1.13Haller Army
RG I.124.1.461Polish Military Organization
RG I.243.18.7Revolutionary Authorities in Latvia and Belarus
RG I.301.7–11Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, Departments I–V
RG I.300.12Staff of War Ministry, Department VI (Justice)
RG I.300.51Military Gendarmerie Command
RG I.300.58War Ministry, Justice Department
RG I.301.19Field Gendarmerie Command
RG I.301.21Military Jurisdiction Command (in the field)
RG I.301.22.2Military Courts
RG I.303.3–7 and 9General Staff, Departments I–V
RG I.304.1Command of the Polish Armed Forces in Eastern Galicia
RG I.304.2Military Governor in Warsaw
RG I.304.3Command of the Armed Forces of Central Lithuania
RG I.305.5State Commissar for the Red Cross
RG I.310.1Galician Front Command
RG I.310.2Galician-Volhynian Front Command
RG I.310.3Lithuanian-Belarusian Front Command
RG I.310.4Mazovian Front Command
RG I.310.5Podolian Front Command
RG I.310.6Polesia Front Command
RG I.301.7Southeastern Front Command
RG I.310.8Southwestern Front Command
RG I.310.10Pomeranian Front Command
RG I.310.11Northeastern Front Command
RG I.310.12Northern Front Command
RG I.310.14Silesian Front Command
RG I.310.15Middle Front Command
RG I.310.16Ukrainian Front Command
RG I.310.17Greater Poland Front Command
RG I.310.18Volhynian Front Command
RG I.311.1–7Army Commands 1–7
RG I.330.1–4 and I.332.33–39Rear Echelons Commands
RG I.336.1–21POW Camps
RG I.341.1Office of Military History
RG I.351.1–37Military Justice
RG I.391.1–58Paramilitary Units
RG I.440.12.1Laudański Files (Teki Laudańskiego)
RG I. 476.1Baczyński Files (Teki Baczyńskiego)
RG VIII.807.29Civil Administration of the Eastern Territories
Eastern Archive—KARTA (Warsaw), Digital Library
Kamler Family collection
National Library of Poland (Warsaw), Microfilm Department
Memoirs, diaries, and document collections (including copies from the National Ossoliński Institute)
National Ossoliński Institute (Wrocław), Manuscript Department
Memoirs, diaries, and document collections (OSS mf. = microfilm consulted on site; BN mf. = microfilm consulted in the National Library of Poland, Warsaw)
Polish State Archive (Katowice)
RG 12/15/0Polish Plebiscite Commissariat for Upper Silesia in Bytom, series 1 1.: Supreme People’s Council in Poznań, Bytom Branch
Princes Czartoryski Library
RG 11738–11740Diary of Generał Antoni Listowski
Public Library (Warsaw), Manuscript Department
Files of the Civil Administration of the Eastern Territories
Silesian Digital Library (Katowice), Cieszyn Silesia
RG: TR-015 and RG: TR-016on alleged Czech atrocities in Cieszyn Silesia
Warsaw University Library (Warsaw), Manuscript Department
RG 1531Memoirs of Stanisław Stempowski
LITHUANIA
Central State Archive (Vilnius)
RG 13Files of the Civil Administration of the Eastern Territories
UNITED STATES
Hoover Institution Library and Archives (Stanford)
James A. Stader papers
Institute for Jewish Research—YIVO (New York)
RG 28Collection on Poland (Vilna Archives) 1850–1939
RG 116-Poland 1Territorial Collection, Poland 1919–1939
Józef Piłsudski Institute of America (New York)
General Adjutancy of the Supreme Commander
Library of Congress (Washington, DC)
Henry Morgenthau papers
National Archives at College Park (Maryland)
RG 256, mf. 224–228Morgenthau Mission to Poland Files
UNITED KINGDOM
National Archives/Public Record Office (London)
FO 608Peace Conference, British Delegation
WO 106War Office: Directorate of Military Operations and Military Intelligence, and predecessors: Correspondence and Papers
FRANCE
Defence Historical Service
RG Army General Staff,
5 N 190, 6 N 212,
7 N 618, 7 N 619,
7 N 620Files on the Formation of the Polish Army in France
GERMANY
Herder Institute (Marburg), Collection of Documents
RG 120 BR/BLW 021Diary of Alfred Jaskowski
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Travelogue
A new book project resembles in more than one way an excursion into uncharted territory. My journey into the early days of Polish independence is no exception. When I look back, it all began with my job interview as research assistant at the Imre Kertész Kolleg of Friedrich Schiller’s place of work, the University of Jena, in May 2010, when the German director, Joachim von Puttkamer, advised me well to look out for topics beyond my old domain of World War II, and when after some brainstorming the idea of writing on a World War I related topic emerged, the Polish director, Włodzimierz Borodziej, hinted at the enormous potential of the period following the armistices. Both became my well-intentioned mentors, and more than once saved me from going astray.
Starting my research on post-1918 violence in Central Europe I got more and more confused: Whenever I wanted to close the chapter, a new conflict emerged from the book pages I turned. Then it dawned on me that I was up to something: What had been treated so far rather as a series of bilateral conflicts, in sum made up an encompassing Central European struggle between the heirs of the fallen empires, accompanied by forms of paramilitary violence characteristic of civil war. What I needed was more expertise on the subject in a European context. So in March 2011 I flew to Dublin, where, as I had found out, the impertinently young and congenial Robert Gerwarth, director of the Centre for War Studies and editor of Oxford University Press’s “The Greater War” series this book is a part of, together with the sophisticated elder statesman of World War I studies John Horne, was heading a whole research team working on paramilitary violence in the wake of the Great War on a global scale. As Central Europe was still a blind spot, I was welcomed with open arms, plus offered the opportunity to make my first attempts to fly on the pages of the Journal of Contemporary History. Although thanks to the great assistance of Mandy Barke (Herder Institute Marburg), Izabella Janas, and Artur Koczara (German Historical Institute in Warsaw) plus an indefatigable students’ team (Imre Kertész Kolleg Jena) and Brewster Kahle’s San Francisco based Internet Archive (https://archive.org) I was able to order books by a mouse-click, this was still a blind flight. Monographs related to my topic, be it in English or any language of the countries I was studying, all seemed to miss the point. Practically all of them concentrated on the big lines of political, military, and international history, but did not illuminate Central Europe as a realm of experience. I had no evidence from the archives yet on what it meant to live in the contested space that embattled Poland was between 1918 and 1921.
To close this gap, I had to track down files which had become the object of the vagaries of Polish history themselves. Warsaw was a good place to start, first and foremost because Joanna and Bogdan Kazimierski, my wonderful parents-in-law, live there, always joyfully looking forward to the next invasion of our little family. Apart from that, the most important record collections in our context are to be found there. Half of the records of the Polish Civil Administration which Józef Piłsudski—head of state and Commander in Chief—installed in 1919–20 in the Eastern Territories had been evacuated to Warsaw by deputy commissioner Jerzy Osmołowski when the Red Army occupied these areas. Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, he signed them over to the city’s Public Library on Koszykowa Street. Surprisingly Joanna Gierowska-Kałłaur from Warsaw University so far is the only scholar who has worked extensively with these files, which feature among others hundreds of detailed reports on the everyday situation in the towns, cities, and districts of a multi-ethnic area under Polish rule during the Polish–Soviet War. After a hard two years’ struggle with the then library director Michał Strąk, and thanks to Włodzimierz Borodziej’s and Władysław Bartoszewski’s (†) committed intervention, I was at last allowed to take pictures of these invaluable records from the screen of a dusty microfilm reader in the twilight of the premises of the collection of old prints and manuscripts, where time seemed to have come to a standstill half a century before. Tragically, an application for the digitization of the moldering files had been turned down by the National Program for the Development of the Humanities (Narodowy Program Rozwoju Humanistyki) in late 2015. Without a shadow of a doubt they belong to the Polish cultural heritage. It is of small comfort that their complementary half—which stayed in the area after the Bolshevik retreat in 1920—is much better preserved and easily accessible in Lithuania’s State Archive in Vilnius.
Luckily, the somewhat unpleasant headwind I faced in Koszykowa Street was soon replaced by the gentle breeze caressing Manhattan’s West 16th Street where the small, enchanting Yivo Institute for Jewish Research is placed. Although all prior arrangements seemed to have dematerialized the morning I entered the building, in the course of a single day a nonchalant Leo Greenbaum handed me all the files on anti-Jewish violence in smaller communities of eastern Poland from the Vilnius Archive’s collection on Poland (1850–1939) I needed to see, meticulously prepared by his colleague Gunnar Berg. The private and official papers of the first US ambassador to Poland, Hugh Gibson, mirror an outsider’s view on these and other events related to everyday Polish politics between 1919 and 1921, an outstanding source whose value has now been realized by Vivian Reed, who is editing them in Polish and English at the time I am writing these lines and thus will make them available also to people outside the Hoover Institute in Stanford. She showed such generosity to let me co-edit the manuscript before publishing. On the other hand, alas!, she thus deprived me of the opportunity to catch some Californian sun on the way …
These civil records are complemented by tons of informative files left by the Polish Army—especially military courts—and Andrzej Wesołowski from the Military Archive in Warsaw-Rembertów went beyond his brief to haul them out for me from the depths of the crumbling pre-World War I facility which had not changed much since the days when a young Charles de Gaulle taught classes of military history to the cadets of the young Polish forces in 1919. Returning in 2017, I hardly recognized the completely renovated and extended complex. Two other impressive archive buildings house the files of the French and British military missions operating in Poland from 1918 to 1921: the Château de Vincennes, a medieval fortress on the outskirts of Paris, and the twenty-first-century glass-and-concrete building of the National Archives in London’s suburbs, the fastest and most advanced research facility I’ve ever seen. A comparable architectonical contrast program awaits scholars tracing Henry Morgenthau and his commission which was sent to Poland in 1919 to investigate soldiers’ pogroms against Jews: Morgenthau’s personal diaries and correspondence were presented to me in a box by the distinguished Frederick Augustyn in the classicist ambience of the Library of Congress on Washington DC’s Capitol Hill. From there, a free shuttle bus chauffeured me through the rolling hills of Maryland to something which probably most closely resembles the mountain retreat of a James Bond villain, security precautions included. It took me a while to understand that all these busy ants rushing through its floors, equipped with laptops and pocket-size cameras, were not special agents in the service of evil, but historians in the pursuit of documents, taking advantage of the US National Archives’ extremely user-friendly open access policy to their holdings. I joined them joyfully and thus within a day captured the proceedings of the Morgenthau Commission on a flash drive. For military and official state documents on the period 1918–21 stored in the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America in New York (www.pilsudski.org)—founded in 1943 to rescue documents on Polish history from Nazi-occupied Poland—the researcher does not even necessarily have to leave their armchair: an impressive amount of them are accessible online.
Documents, diaries, and memoirs left by contemporaries from the eastern Polish territories round up the picture, and a vast amount of them was stored before the Second World War in the manuscript department of the Ossolineum in Lviv. After war’s end, Poland had lost Lviv to Soviet Ukraine and inherited Wrocław (previously known as Breslau) from Nazi Germany, to where the Ossolineum was transferred in 1947. Most of the documents relevant to this book can conveniently be studied on microfilm either in the premises of the Ossolineum or of the National Library in Warsaw, and I enjoyed the hospitality of both institutions. The memoirs of civil commissioner Michał Kossakowski on eastern Poland and of the sociologist Stanisław Stempowski on Ukraine can be found only a stone’s throw from each other, the first in the Archives of the Polish Academy of Science, and the other in the manuscript department of the Warsaw University Library. I recommend work on topics related to their holdings: the obliging staff makes the sojourn at both sites a most pleasant experience. The same goes for the Princes Czartoryski Library in Cracow, but World War I amateurs can skip the war diary of General Antoni Listowski, who noted laconically on the period 1914 to 1918 “I went off to war … to command a regiment. I’ve described everything in my letters to little Anatol.” So in the summer of 2016, I met Katarzyna Morstin-Surzycka—a distant relative of Listowski—and her husband Marcin where the Polish–German frontier of 1920 once met the Baltic Sea, to find out if the general’s son Anatol had left any more personal papers. Despite our best efforts, we did not succeed in procuring the letters, but our nice acquaintence outlasted its academic cause.
While I was gathering material all over the world, I had the opportunity to test my theses with knowledgeable and discerning colleagues such as Winson Chu, Kathryn Ciancia, Paul Hanebrink, James Mace Ward, and the students of the Jena University in the course of several seminars. I recovered from the skirmishes in the company of my always supportive friends Daniela Gruber, Diana Joseph, Immo Rebitschek, and Raphael Utz either on the fourteenth floor of Jena’s tallest tower with a marvelous view of the Thuringian hills, or in the Griesbach Garden House in the nearby park, both constituting the site of my job refuge since 2010, the Imre Kertész Kolleg.
Reinvigorated, I went out again to present my preliminary findings on several occasions, such as three international conferences at the Universities of Oxford (Faculty of History, October 2013) and Cambridge (Faculty of History, September 2014) and the Historisches Kolleg in Munich (January 2017), at a colloquium of the Imre Kertész Kolleg in Jena (June 2015), and at the 47th and 50th Annual Conventions of the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies (November 2015 in Philadelphia and December 2018 in Boston). Furthermore, many colleagues helped me to organize academic events related to my research, such as Rudolf Kucera and Ota Konrad from the Czech Academy of Science in Prague with a conference “Beyond Defeat and Victory: Physical Violence and the Reconstitution of East-Central Europe, 1914–1923” (September 2015) and Jean-François Nerard from Sorbonne University in Paris with a workshop on “The Ukrainian Experiment: State-Building in Practices (1917–1922)” (December 2017). During my time as Invited Professor at the Paris-based Laboratory of Excellence (LabEx) “Writing a New History of Europe,” research strand 5: “The Europe of Wars and the Traces of War” (September–December 2017), I had the pleasure of enjoying the gentle guidance of Corine Defrance, the diligent assistance of Simon Perego, and the hospitality of the staff of the German Historical Institute. Here, I wrote most of the manuscript, taking extended longboard rides before dawn along the river Seine to my office, thus concluding my seven years’ journey with style.
Although thus exiled in Paris, I received enormous help during the writing process by friends and colleagues who critically read parts of the manuscript: Tomas Balkelis, Grzegorz Bębnik, Włodzimierz Borodziej, Jens Boysen, Benjamin Conrad, Grzegorz Gąsior, Robert Gerwarth, Jesse Kaufmann, Andreas Kossert, Stefan Lehnstädt, Jacek Andrzej Młynarczyk, Wojciech Pieniazek, Joachim von Puttkamer, Raphael Utz, Theodoer R. Weeks, Arndt Weinrich Stephen Velychenko, and Serhy Yekelchyk. When I despaired over passages in my Polish sources illegible to me, I could always count on my Polish expert team (Polska Załoga), comprised of Marcin Barcz, Grzegorz Bębnik, Łukasz Kamiński, Artur Koczara, Maciej Kordelaśiński, Paweł Kośiński, Dariusz Libionka, Paweł Machcewicz, Jacek Andrzej Młynarczyk, Mikołaj Ochmański, Piotr Pązik, Adam Puławski, and Rafał Wnuk. When I urgently needed a break from writing all around the clock, I hopped onto a train and visited my beloved parents Marga and Alois Böhler in Trier, enjoying for a couple of days the atmosphere of their suburban paradise.
All along, Robert Gerwarth has watched my feverish mission with angelic patience and an ironic smile which only partially concealed the editor’s growing anxiety. It is only owing to his and the Oxford University Press team’s—Robert Faber, Andrew Hawkey, Stephanie Ireland, Monica Kendall, Kavya Ramu, Isabel Lopez Ruiz, Cathryn Steele, and the anonymous reader—benevolence and perfect performance that all my findings finally found their way between the two covers of this book and even face a Polish edition now, made possible by Natalia Gwaron and all the others of the ZNAK publishing house’s history team headed by Maciej Gablankowski in Cracow, translated by Robert Sudoł.
Several co-edited volumes are complementing the picture of Central and Eastern Europe at war’s end (some of them to be found in my Works Cited), and they have all been prepared during the last years in the calm of the Imre Kertész Kolleg and under the protection, direction, and active participation of Joachim von Puttkamer, Włodzimierz Borodziej, and Michal Kopeček. It was—and is—a pleasure and a great experience to work with them on these projects.
I for my part will settle down for a while. During my frequent mental and physical absences, my wife and sons—supported by an army of grannies and nannies—showed more endurance than many a veteran of the First World War. Dedicating this book to them is hardly compensation. I am deeply indebted to them, as I am to my fellow travellers. Thank you all for being with me on this trip, from the bottom of my heart!
Jochen Böhler
Jena/Warsaw, May 2018