Active Denial System (ADS)—A less-than-lethal directed energy weapon that uses millimeter-wave radio-frequency technology to generate an “intolerable heating sensation.”
Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF)/MILSTAR 3—U.S. military communication satellite program to provide increased bandwidth, more security, and survivability for forces.
Advanced Tactical Laser (ATL)—U.S. research program to mount a kilowatt-class laser on a C-130 Hercules tactical transport aircraft for use against ground targets.
Airborne Laser (ABL)—A now-defunct U.S. program investigating the feasibility of using an aircraft-mounted megawatt-class high-energy laser for missile defense. The YAL-1 airborne laser test bed after a test program that included successfully intercepting in-flight liquid and solid-fuelled ballistic missiles was put into storage in early 2012.
Antiship Ballistic Missile (ASBM)—A long-range sea denial weapon being developed in the People's Republic of China. It is thought to be based around the DongFeng-21 (DF-21) medium-range ballistic missile with a maneuverable reentry vehicle able to attack moving warships.
Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics—Influential set of rules proposed by Isaac Asimov in several works of science fiction:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first or second laws.
These three laws have changed over time, and are sometimes joined by a zeroth law:
0. A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.
Ballistic Missile Intercept, Boost Phase—The ideal missile defense intercept, which targets a missile during its initial launch phase when it is most vulnerable (a single large, slow target that is easily detectable by its heat signature) as it rises from the ground prior to exiting the atmosphere and detaching from its boosters.
Ballistic Missile Intercept, Direct Ascent—Weapon flight profile where interception occurs at or near the apogee of a suborbital launch. Analogous to the flight of a research sounding rocket where the payload conducts it mission at the apogee of a suborbital launch. These are used by U.S. SM-3 and ground-based interceptor (GBI) ballistic missile defense systems.
Ballistic Missile Intercept, Midcourse—Interception of a ballistic missile after its engines have finished firing and the missile payload (warhead) is coasting though to its apogee and onward to the reentry, or terminal phase, of ballistic missile flight.
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), 1972—Formally known as the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction. It is a long-standing multilateral treaty that the United States is party to; it prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons. It is also notable for its lack of verification mechanism.
Biometrics—The use of a person's unique physiological and behavioral traits and characteristics for identification.
Biomimetics—The application and adaptation of processes and functions found in biological systems in technological items. Examples include the replication of gecko surface adhesion via nanotechnology and the use of insect studies to produce flight systems suitable for use in micro unmanned air vehicles/unmanned air systems (UAVs/UASs).
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI)—The use of voluntary (controllable) brain activity as a means to control equipment.
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), 1993—Formally the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. It is a multilateral treaty that the United States is party to; it prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of chemical weapons, as well as a commitment to destroy these agents, precursor chemicals, weapon systems, and related equipment.
Commercial Off the Shelf (COTS)—Government procurement practice of buying existing, in production, commercial goods instead of developing a government-specific version. The intention is to cut down on development costs, especially with software and computer hardware, if an acceptable commercial product is able fill a role.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)—Department of Defense agency noted for funding many seemingly outlandish concepts and projects. Conversely, the radical nature of DARPA programs often has its successes as world-changing technologies. An example of such would be DARPA's association with the early Internet.
Directed Energy Weapon—A means of attack where destructive energy is not transmitted to a target by physical means (ramming, fragmentation, or concussion). Generally refers to laser-, radio-frequency-, particle-beam-, and electromagnetic-pulse-based weapons, but may also include acoustic (sound) based weapons.
Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP)—A large burst of electromagnetic energy, often associated with nuclear explosions, but may be generated by nonnuclear and nonexplosive means.
Exoskeleton—In general, it is a hard external skeleton or shell that supports and protects an organism. In the context of this book, refers to powered, load-bearing mechanism that is worn to enhance carrying ability and strength.
Force Application and Launch from Continental United States (FALCON)—DARPA hypersonic research program. Under FALCON are programs to develop a small launch vehicle to support research and programs to construct and fly both rocket-launched and eventually runway-takeoff-and-landing hypersonic test vehicles.
Force Enhancement/Multiplication—Factors that greatly enhances a military's abilities versus an equally sized unenhanced force. These include technology, such as space assets and stealth technology, but may also include factors such as doctrinal changes, morale, and policy.
Force Enhancement, Space—The use of space-based assets to greatly enhance terrestrial warfare abilities in comparison to an unenhanced force.
Fractional Orbit Bombardment System (FOBS)—Soviet-era strategic strike system that put a warhead bus into a very low orbit with the intention that the warhead reentered the atmosphere before the completion o one orbit. FOBS's orbit and deorbit characteristics gives it ideal first-strike or surprise-attack capabilities. The status of such systems under the Outer Space Treaty (OST) ban on orbiting nuclear weapons remains to this day a matter of academic debate. Later arms-reduction treaties prohibited systems operating under the FOBS concept.
Fuel Air Explosives—Explosives that exploit atmospheric oxygen for part of its oxidizer, and therefore are dependent on dispersing the fuel component properly to achieve the correct fuel/air ratio before detonation. Also called thermobaric weapons, these weapons are noted for producing a large long-duration pressure wave.
High-Energy Laser (HEL)—In the military context a laser capable of producing destructive effects over significant ranges. Generally has power outputs in the hundreds of kilowatts to megawatts to achieve weaponized effects.
High-Power Microwave (HPM)—in the military context, a radio-frequency (microwave) weapon. With higher power outputs from some transmitters used by radars and radio-frequency countermeasures (radar and radio communication jammers), these devices often blur with dedicated high-power EM weapons.
Hybrid Rocket—A rocket engine where one of the propellants is solid and the other is either a gas or a liquid. Typically, it is the fuel that is a solid with a liquid or gas oxidizer. At present, these types of rockets offer a trade-off in performance in favor of low cost and safety.
International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR)—U.S. regulations controlling the import and export of defense- and security-sensitive technologies.
Interoperability—It is the ability of different military agencies and militaries from different countries to work together cohesively. It requires not just hardware but also compatibility in force structures, doctrine, and training among other factors.
Kinetic Energy Weapon (KEW)—A weapon that employs the energy of an object in motion through collision to destroy another object.
Laser—Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (LASER), is both an effect predicted by quantum physics, and devices that make use of this effect to produce light that is of very directional nature and very coherent. Often lasers are described by their lasing medium, the medium that is stimulated into producing the laser light.
Laser, Chemical—A chemical reaction is used to power the excitement of the lasing medium. Many recent laser test beds have used chemically powered lasers due to their ability to generate high energy levels.
Laser, Free Electron—In a free electron laser, instead of atoms or molecules of a gas, liquid, or solid being excited, a beam of electrons is the lasing medium.
Laser, Gas Dynamic—Chemically powered laser that excites the lasing medium, a gas, via its expansion through nozzles after a supersonic (or near supersonic) flow. Not to be confused with gas lasers, which is a broader category that includes gas dynamic lasers, where the lasing medium is a gas.
Laser, Solid State—Generally electrically powered, lasers using a solid lasing medium such as neodymium doped glass. The first laser was a crystal of ruby excited by a flash lamp.
Laser, X-ray (Nuclear Bomb Pumped)—A weapons concept worked on under Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Reportedly, it was to project multiple high-energy laser beams in multiple directions, all powered by the detonation of a nuclear device. Basing concepts included ground- and sea-based direct-ascent boosters, and on-orbit mines (though the use of a nuclear detonation as the power supply led to arguments against this basing concept due to possible conflict with the 1967 OST).
Launch Vehicle—A vehicle (rocket, missile) designed to move a payload into or through space. With respect to orbital space launch, it must be able to overcome gravity and accelerate a payload typically from a standstill to an initial orbital velocity needed for stable orbit.
Launch Vehicle, Expendable—A launch vehicle that is used once with no effort made to recover it for further use.
Launch Vehicle, Hybrid—A multistage, partially reusable, launch vehicle in which the initial stage is reusable and later stages are expendable. The first stage does not reach orbital velocities and therefore has greatly reduced costs (both financial and technical) associated with recovery. This term is also used to describe a launch vehicle that uses hybrid rocket propulsion.
Launch Vehicle, Reusable—A launch vehicle that is recovered for reuse. Scaled composites’ fully reusable Space Ship One/Tier One is a suborbital vehicle only. The U.S. Space Shuttle, Soviet Buran/Energia system, and SpaceX's Falcon 1 are the only partially reusable orbital launchers to have attempted spaceflight. At present, there are no examples of fully reusable orbital launch vehicles.
Less-Than-Lethal Weapons—These are weapons meant to minimize lethal effects, often used as a manner to achieve compliance without having to use lethal force. The term non-lethal is also used; however, this term may give the impression that these weapons have zero lethal potential. Accidental or incorrect use of less-than-lethal systems may cause serious injury and even death.
Mach Number—Ratio between the speed of an object and sound under the particular environmental conditions present for the object. Space does not present an adequate medium for sound transmission; hence there cannot be a speed of sound in space. Spacecraft velocities are often made in comparison to terrestrial Mach numbers (at sea level, 1,225 kilometers per hour), with Mach 25 being the necessary speed to reach a minimum orbit.
Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL)—U.S. experimental laser facility located at the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. This is a megawatt-class chemical laser, which in the course of its use in experiments has demonstrated latent anti-satellite (ASAT) capabilities. In 1997, with much controversy over its weaponization potential, MIRACL was used to test the vulnerability of U.S. satellites to laser attack by briefly illuminating a soon to be out of service U.S. Air Force satellite.
MILSTAR—U.S. military communication satellite program. The AEHF (MILSTAR 3) program is the third generation of satellites to carry the MILSTAR name.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)—U.S. space agency responsible for civilian space exploration, among other missions or purposes.
NAVSTAR GPS—U.S. Global Positioning System. NAVSTAR GPS provides not only free accurate positional data, but also an accurate timing signal on which most electronic financial transactions are synchronized. Accurate location and accurate timing data also imply accurate motion data for moving objects equipped to receive GPS, allowing for its use in precision-guided munitions (PGMs). It emits two signals; the less accurate public C/A-code for general use and the encrypted P-code for military use.
Operational Responsive Space (ORS)—A movement to reduce the cost and time needed to identify and deploy a new space capability, usually in the context of space-force enhancement. Technologies associated with ORS include microsatellites; low-cost, small-payload launch vehicles; and near-space aerial vehicles (as low-cost substitute for orbiting satellites).
Orbit—To completely circle a body. The unpowered or free-flight state where bearing other forces a spacecraft will circle the earth indefinitely due to a combination of gravity and momentum imparted earlier by rockets.
Parasite Spacecraft (Space Mine)—A satellite sent to orbit in formation with an opposing power's satellite, ready to conduct some action on command. Often in the context of ASAT spacecraft but can also be used in the form of less-active means, such as surveillance.
Precision-Guided Munitions (PGMs)—Munitions with onboard terminal guidance capable of hitting exceedingly close to the aim point. Also referred to as smart or brilliant weapons.
Prompt Global Strike—The capability to strike any point on earth with nonnuclear weapons in time measured in hours and minutes rather than days. Candidate technologies for this as of yet unfulfilled requirement include hypersonic transatmospheric vehicles and maneuvering PGMs delivered by suborbital reentry vehicles.
Responsive Space Launch—The capability to launch small payloads into orbit on demand. Related technologies include low-cost space access, space tourism, operationally responsive space, hybrid launch vehicles, air-launched launch vehicles, single-stage-to-orbit launch vehicles, and streamlining overall space access.
Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)—Often used to describe paradigm shifts in military power whether brought on by operational or technological changes. In the present context, refers to the Information Age doctrines and hardware, which it is argued has brought about a new way to fight wars.
Rocket—A self-contained propulsion system that works by expelling propellant in a direction opposite to the direction of flight. At its most basic, a rocket is an implementation of Newton's third law of motion: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket ejects via some kind of energy source a reaction mass in one direction, resulting in thrust in the opposite direction. In a chemical rocket, the propellants (oxidizer and fuel) both generate the energy and provide the reaction material. Thermal rockets have an external heat source (nuclear, solar, beamed energy, etc.) that provides energy to expel reaction mass. Electric rockets use electrical and/or magnetic principles to accelerate reaction mass, often in the form of charged particles.
Rocket, Artillery, and Mortars (RAM)—A term used to collect low-cost ballistic threats that have been employed by subnational actors such as terrorist groups against military and civilian targets. Responses to the RAM threat have included sending in military forces to occupy areas from which they are launched, and the development of defensive weapons, such as interceptor missiles and lasers, that are able to respond to salvos of these weapons within their short flight time.
Shutter Control—In the context of this discussion, regulatory and legal means imposed on companies offering remote imaging services to control the flow of such data to potential hostile powers.
Signals Intelligence (SIGINT)—In the context of this discussion eavesdropping on electronic emission on the earth's surface via satellites, and on communications between satellites and ground stations.
Small Satellites—As computers become increasingly powerful and smaller, more capability can be fitted into smaller payloads. One result has been the development of smaller satellites, which may be further classified as follows:
• Minisatellite, 100–500 kilogram
• Microsatellite, 10–100 kilogram
• Nanosatellite, less than 10 kilogram
• Picosatellite, less than 1 kilogram
There is no official or standardized terminology for classifying satellites by size.
Space-Based Laser (SBL)—An orbiting antiballistic missile, high-energy laser weapon concept that is regularly proposed but as of yet unfunded. A constellation of roughly two dozen orbiting laser weapon satellites could give constant coverage to a wide band of the earth.
Space Militarization—The use of space assets for military purposes. These range from Cold War-era strategic surveillance to present-day force enhancement and, in the future, force application. It is currently distinguished from the weaponization of space, which by legal default consists of deploying a conventional weapon on orbit.
Space Sanctuary—Strategy where space is kept weapons free (ASAT free) through norms and agreements, so as to allow its use for strategic surveillance, early warning (in the context of nuclear war), and space-force enhancement.
Space Weaponization—A rather contentious term, in general it refers to a situation where space-force application is widely practiced by one or more nations. At present due to latent space weapons capabilities found in nuclear-armed missiles (fused to go off at high altitude), space weapons experiments (such as MIRACL laser facility at White Sands, New Mexico), and the fact that ballistic missiles do transit through space, the distinction between today's state of space militarization and weaponization can be described as fuzzy.
Staging, Multi—To improve the payload and structure versus fuel mass ratio. Staging is used to shed dead weight (by dropping spent stages) as a launch vehicle ascends. Tsiolkovski's rocket equation provides the mathematical rationale for multistage rockets.
Staging, Single—While staging offers relaxed mass fractions for payload, it is operationally expensive due to the complexity of having essentially multiple vehicles that all must operate correctly. For a rocket-powered single stage to orbit vehicle, it is not uncommon to find the propellant between 80 and 90 percent or more of the total launch mass. Air-breathing propulsion allows for lower propellant requirements as the oxidizer is largely supplied by the environment.
Starfish Prime—This was the U.S. test in 1962 of a 1.4-megaton warhead at an altitude of 248 miles over the Pacific Ocean, causing a blackout of communications over the area and permanently damaging three satellites in orbit. In 1963, such tests would be prohibited with the Limited Test Ban Treaty.
Suborbital—A spacecraft that has at least achieved the nominal definition of space (the Kármán line at 100-kilometer altitude) but does not have the momentum needed to complete one orbit and is pulled back down by gravity.
Suborbital Space (sometimes referred to as near-space)—Region between the limits of aerodynamic flight (approximately 50-kilometer altitude) and the minimum altitude where an unpowered orbit will not rapidly decay (approximately 150 kilometers). This region is often referred to as a no-man's land between aeronautics and spaceflight, as it very difficult to do more than simply traverse this area on rocket thrust. Very-high-altitude ballooning (in the lower parts of this region) and some transatmospheric vehicle technology (for the higher end) may allow exploitation of this domain.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)—Computer software and hardware that form an industrial control system. Presently of interest to security and defense circles as the use of common computer hardware and software, including remote control applications such as remote desktop software, has opened potential vulnerabilities to cyber attack on modern industry and critical infrastructure such as power and water supply.
Tactical High-Energy Laser—Joint U.S. and Israeli program to develop a laser-based defense system capable of defeating RAM and other shorter-range threats. It has successfully destroyed both in-flight rockets and mortars, including salvos. Operational difficulties have lead to this program being cancelled after a series of high-profile tests.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)—In contemporary terms refers to semiautonomous aircraft. For beyond line-of-sight operations from ground controllers, UAVs depend on satellite communications to relay back data and to receive commands. GPS navigation is also important for UAV operations.
Unmanned Air System (UAS)—A newer term that includes both the UAV, as well as its ground station. Examples include hand-launched micro UAVs and the laptop or smaller computer device used to control it.
Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV)—Armed UAV aircraft. While ad hoc antiarmor-armed predator UAVs may be considered UCAVs, this term generally is used to describe a dedicated autonomous warplane able to reach and engage targets with little human supervision. Related to it is the unmanned combat air system, which like the UAV/UAS relationship includes the ground infrastructure needed to support the UCAV.
X-20 Dynasoar—U.S. manned space plane project that ran from 1957 to 1960. It was to be vertically launched by expendable multistate rockets and landed horizontally for reuse.
X-37—U.S. autonomous space plane project that is ongoing. Formerly a NASA program, as a USAF program, two X-37B orbital test vehicles have been procured and launched on missions lasting months each. It is vertically launched by expendable Atlas V launch vehicles and lands horizontally for reuse.
X-41 Common Aero Vehicle (CAV)—U.S. reentry vehicle project meant to allow for a wide degree of cross-range maneuvering. Reportedly it is meant for a suborbital launch and is under consideration for a U.S. prompt global strike capability.
X-47 Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstrator (UCAS-D)—U.S. Navy program to develop an UCAS able to conduct operations off the deck of an aircraft carrier. Additional goals include an autonomous aircraft able to refuel in flight to increase this weapon system's range and endurance.