7
The title of this chapter is the text of the message sent by Admiral Halsey to Admiral Kinkaid, OTC carriers Enterprise and Hornet, after hearing that scout aircraft had located the Japanese carrier force in the opening moves of the Battle of Santa Cruz in late October 1942. In the decade after the end of World War II this could well have been adopted as the US Navy’s motto as it sought a principal role in the new era of atomic weapons. During most of World War II the carrier’s main function had been to provide strike forces to sink enemy ships while also defending friendly forces against enemy air attacks. As the Pacific War reached its closing stages and in the absence of any significant naval opposition, the emphasis began to change to the ability to attack land-based targets and support friendly forces ashore. In the post-war era the US Navy had no immediate maritime rivals and so the land attack mission, or power projection, became even more important. This was especially so with the coming of the atomic bomb, which threatened the very existence of naval task forces as well as appearing to establish the strategic bomber flown by the Air Force as America’s principal weapon.
The problems and tactics associated with attacking land targets were diverse in nature and required different solutions. The tactical role of supporting troops ashore required specialised aircraft whose main attributes were the ability to carry heavy loads and a wide variety of ordnance. As carrier fighters would provide an escort and could assist in suppressing antiaircraft fire, out and out performance was not an issue. In the immediate post-war era this task was carried out by aircraft such as the Corsair and Helldiver and these were supplemented, and eventually replaced, by the purpose-designed Skyraider and Mauler. Eventually the AD Skyraider became the most prolific and, as related in Chapter 3, had an active career well into the Vietnam War era. However, even as the Skyraider was entering production in June 1945, steps were already being taken to secure a successor. While at that time the first jet fighters were being produced, it was thought that a turboprop would be a more suitable powerplant for an attack aircraft and Douglas drew up several designs based on the Skyraider but initially none of these went past the project stage. However, in 1947 Douglas was instructed to go ahead with two prototypes that would act as test beds for the turboprop concept and have the potential to be developed as an attack aircraft. The new design was designated XA2D-1 and was subsequently given the name Skyshark. The original proposal was to modify the basic Skyraider airframe to take an Allison XT40-A-2 turbine, driving nose-mounted three-bladed contra-rotating propellers (the same combination was used in the Lockheed and Convair VTOL projects described in the last chapter). The Allison XT40 consisted of two Allison T38 turbines driving the propellers through a common gearbox and the maximum power output was 5,100 eshp. In practice it was found that substantial changes were necessary to accommodate the turboprop and to cope with the much higher installed power so that the XA2D-1 ended up as a completely new aeroplane, bearing only a passing resemblance to its predecessor. The name Skyshark was quite apposite as the huge spinner for the propellers, coupled with the twin air intakes mounted low down on either side of the nose gave the aircraft a very predatory appearance.
The prototype XA2D-1 flew on 26 May 1950 and substantial improvements over the piston-engined Skyraider were quickly demonstrated. It was much faster with a maximum speed of just over 500 mph, the rate of climb was more than doubled and the range was increased by around 30 per cent to a maximum of 2,200 miles. Carrying a similar bomb load to the Skyraider, its efficiency in terms of delivering a given weight of ordnance over a specified distance was up by over 50 per cent. Unfortunately these advantages came at a cost as the complex power train proved unreliable and led to two accidents in which one pilot was killed, although the other successfully ejected. This last accident occurred in 1954 and shortly afterwards the orders for 339 Skysharks were cancelled and only the two prototypes and six production aircraft were completed and flown.
Although problems with the Allison turboprop and the transmission train were a significant factor in the cancellation of the Skyshark programme, the main reason was that something much better was now on the horizon. This was another Douglas project, the jet-powered A4D-1 Skyhawk, which was destined to become one of the most successful combat aircraft ever built. In fact, it remains in service in small numbers even today. Like many successful aircraft, it began life as a private venture project rather than as a result of any official specification. Ed Heinemann, Douglas’ chief designer, had realised that jet fighters were increasing in size and weight almost uncontrollably and he set out to reverse this trend. He put his ideas to the US Navy early in 1952 but at that time the service already had several other fighters under development (such as the Skyray and Demon) but thought that similar design principles might be applied to an attack bomber. The US Navy requirement called for an aircraft with a speed of 500 mph and a combat radius of 345 miles with a 2,000 lb bomb load. The maximum gross weight should not exceed 30,000 lb. Within a very short time scale Heinemann produced a sketch design for a small delta-wing single-engined jet bomber with a top speed of 600 mph and a combat radius of 450 miles. The most amazing aspect of the design was not that it handsomely exceeded the US Navy’s requirements but that it did so at a normal loaded weight of only half the expected 30,000 lb. Not for nothing was the Skyhawk nicknamed ‘Heinemann’s Hot Rod’! Despite misgivings, the US Navy gave the go-ahead for further work and a prototype was ordered on 21 June 1952.
To save weight and eliminate the need for a complicated wing-folding mechanism a short span delta wing was adopted and this was complemented by a delta tailplane set low down on the swept tail fin. The chosen powerplant was the Wright J65 (a licence-built Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire) and despite problems experienced with this engine in other aircraft (notably the F11F-1 Tiger) it gave no trouble in the A4D and over 1,300 J65-powered Skyhawks were delivered. Eventually it was replaced by the slightly more powerful but more efficient Pratt & Whitney J57 but this did not occur until the A4D-5 (redesignated A-4E in 1962) flew in 1961. Prior to that the prototype XA4D-1 had flown on 22 June 1954, only one day over two years from the time it was ordered. The flight test programme proceeded equally rapidly and revealed only minor problems, which were easily rectified. Carrier qualification trials took place aboard the USS Ticonderoga in September 1955 and the first operational squadrons began receiving aircraft some twelve months later. Ultimately some 2,960 Skyhawks were built and in addition to serving with over 100 US Navy and USMC squadrons, it also served aboard Argentine, Brazilian and Australian carriers and was sold to the Air Forces of New Zealand, Israel, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Kuwait.
When originally ordered, the US Navy specified that the Skyhawk should be capable of carrying nuclear weapons and this illustrates a vital component of US Navy policy in the post-war era and one that had a substantial influence on carrier design and the characteristics of many new-generation aircraft. The dropping of the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 15 August 1945 completely changed the nature of warfare for ever and proponents of the strategic bomber were quick to take advantage of the fact to support their case. When the USAF officially came into being as a separate force (having previously been part of the US Army) in 1947 it was naturally intent on consolidating its position by being the sole custodian of the nation’s nuclear strike capability. In addition, many argued that the devastating power of a single atomic bomb rendered the traditional carrier task force vulnerable to destruction. Naturally, the naval staff did not accept these arguments and were determined that their service would continue to have a major role in American defence policy, including the delivery of nuclear weapons to strategic targets, arguing that the proven flexibility and mobility of aircraft carriers would be a vital asset even in an atomic war.
During World War II, naval aircraft typically carried nothing larger than a 2,000 lb bomb as a weapon of this size was more than capable of sinking a ship and was useful in the tactical support of ground troops. However, for attacking strategic targets such as factories and oil refineries, much larger bombs were required and by 1945 land-based bombers could carry bombs up to 12,500 lb or even larger. If a carrier-based bomber was to have any credibility in the strategic role, then it would have to carry similar-sized weapons and it was no coincidence that this was also the size of a typical first-generation atomic bomb. The US Navy proposed a gradual approach to building up a suitable carrier-based bomber force by specifying a succession of aircraft with steadily increasing performance and sophistication. The first step would be a piston-engined bomber with an empty weight of around 30,000 lb and a speed of over 360 mph at sea level. The radius of action would vary according to the bomb load but with an 8,000 lb bomb would be around 300 nm. Next would come a turboprop-powered 45,000 lb bomber with a combat radius of 500 nm and a speed of 500 mph at altitude. Finally, there would be a jet bomber with a radius of 2,000 nm with a 12,000 lb bomb, this being sufficient to ensure that any target within the Soviet Union could be reached by a carrier-based bomber. The stumbling block with this project was that it would be a very large aircraft with a take-off weight in excess of 100,000 lb. While the first two would be able to operate from suitably modified Essex and Midway class carriers, an entirely new and larger carrier would be required for the largest bomber and it was this parameter that drove forward the case for the USS United States (CV58 - see Chapter 6).
The initial requirement was met by the North American AJ-1 Savage of which three prototypes were ordered as early as June 1946, an indication of the priority that the US Navy accorded to the nuclear strike role. Initially this was to be powered by two 2,400 hp Pratt & Whitney R-2800 radial piston engines but at an early stage it was decided to install an Allison J33 turbojet in the rear fuselage. Rated at 4,600 lb thrust, the jet was intended to provide a high-speed dash capability over the target, giving it a maximum speed of 471 mph, and to boost take-off performance. With a single 12,000 lb Mk.4 nuclear bomb, and fuel for a combat radius of just under 1,000 nm, the Savage weighed in at over 50,000 lb, making it by far the heaviest carrier aircraft ever operated up to that time and the jet boost was certainly welcome. The first XAJ-1 flew on 2 July 1948 and subsequently fifty-five production-standard AJ-1s were delivered, commencing in May 1949. The flight test programme was not without mishaps and two of the three prototypes were lost in accidents but in September 1949 the first operational squadron, VC-5, was formed and carrier trials aboard the USS Coral Sea followed in April 1950.
The next version of the Savage was the AJ-2P. This was a specialised photo reconnaissance version fitted with no fewer than eighteen cameras, which could be used for day or night photography at high and low altitudes. Photo flash bombs were carried in the reduced-capacity weapons bay and a modified nose carried the electronic equipment necessary to control the battery of cameras. Additional fuel was carried to increase range and external changes included a taller tail fin and no dihedral on the tailplane, these latter modifications being intended to overcome handling problems highlighted in the test programme. The AJ-2P first flew in March 1952 and subsequently equipped two squadrons (VAP-61 and VAP-62). The bomber version was designated AJ-2. This variant first flew in February 1953 and was to serve with a total of ten units at various times. In fact, the Savage’s career as a nuclear strike bomber was relatively short and it was phased out of this role from 1956 onwards. Even before then, however, its size and payload characteristics made it suitable for conversion to the air tanker role, this being done by fitting extra fuel tanks and installing a hose and reel unit in the bomb bay. As an aside it is interesting to note that once again the US Navy showed a preference for British inventions, this system of air-to-air refuelling using a drogue at the end of trailing hose having been perfected by Flight Refuelling Ltd. This was in contrast to the USAF, which adopted the retractable trailing rigid boom method.
The AJ-1 and -2 Savage was rushed into service to provide the US Navy with its nuclear capability. However, throughout its service career it was plagued with problems and was not a popular aircraft to fly, not least because the pilots were well aware that if they missed the wires, the crash barriers could not hold the heavy bomber and prevent it ploughing into the deck park ahead. The tightly cowled engines were prone to overheating when climbing at full power and fire warnings were a constant hazard. The Savage was always intended as an interim nuclear bomber and a more powerful version powered by two turboprops and designated XA2J-1 was flown but offered little improvement and this project was cancelled in June 1953. As it was, the performance of the AJ Savage was not good enough to evade interception by jet fighters, especially something as efficient as the MiG-15, but fortunately something much better was on the way and this also explains the early demise of the XA2J.
The new aircraft was the Douglas A3D Skywarrior swept wing twin-jet bomber, which at last provided the US Navy with a high-performance bomber, giving it a true carrier-based strategic nuclear capability. The original Navy Request for Proposals dated back to 1947 and specified an aircraft capable of carrying a 10,000 lb nuclear weapon and able to make a return flight to a target located 2,000 nm miles away. The US Navy did not anticipate that this could be achieved by an aircraft weighing in at less than 100,000 lb and it was this parameter that was the driving force behind the new super carrier project (CV58, USS United States - see Chapter 6). However, Ed Heinemann and the Douglas team came up with a proposal for a 68,000 lb aircraft that would be capable of operating from the existing Midway class carriers. This turned out to be fortunate for the US Navy, which lost the political battle with the Air Force, and consequently, as already related, the super carrier was cancelled. Work on the Douglas A3D continued and a contract for two XA3D-1s was awarded in March 1949. These were to be powered by two of the ill-fated Westinghouse J40s rated at 7,500 lb thrust and these were fitted to the prototype, which flew on 28 October 1952. The failure of this engine programme has already been mentioned but, in fact, Douglas was able to turn the situation to its advantage. With the original engines the Skywarrior would have been underpowered but the then revolutionary concept of fitting the engines in self-contained pods attached to underwing pylons meant that it was relatively easy to substitute more powerful 9,700 lb thrust Pratt & Whitney J57 twin-spool turbojets, which also offered improved fuel efficiency. Because the new engines were heavier, the pylons were extended forward to preserve the C of G range and this change also eliminated some aerodynamic problems experienced with the prototype.
Two other factors worked in favour of the new Douglas bomber, one of which was the continued reduction in size of nuclear weapons. When the Savage had been proposed the smallest nuclear weapon, the Mk.4, weighed in at 12,000 lb and when work started on the Skywarrior this had already reduced to 10,000 lb. By the time the latter entered service the Mk.5 bomb with a 120-kiloton yield weighed only 3,300 lb. This meant that either the number of weapons carried could be increased or range could be considerably extended, particularly with inflight refuelling. The second factor was the introduction of the angled deck, which meant that the new bomber would even be able to operate off converted Essex class carriers if required. However, in practice the existence of the Skywarrior was one of the driving forces behind the new Forrestal class super carriers, which also entered service in 1956.
The Douglas Skywarrior was a very clean design with a high-mounted swept wing with the two turbojets mounted on underwing pylons, which, as well as facilitating the engine change outlined above, also gave much-improved access for maintenance crews. A flight crew of three sat in the forward flight deck, although as a weight-saving measure they were not provided with ejector seats. A novel feature was the provision of a defensive armament in the shape of twin 20 mm cannon installed in a radar-directed remotely controlled turret in the extreme rear of the fuselage. The outer wings folded upwards and the tail fin folded down to allow the aircraft to be stowed in standard-height carrier hangers. The initial production version was the A3D-1 of which forty-nine were built and the first of these entered service with Heavy Attack Squadron One (VAH-1) in March 1956. However, the main production version was the A3D-2 with a strengthened airframe and modifications to permit the carriage of a greater variety of weapons, and these were powered by 10,500 lb thrust J57-P-10s. This version entered service in 1957 but by that time the US Navy had already made a series of long-distance flights with the earlier A3D-1 to advertise the operational capability of the new aircraft. These included a sortie in which aircraft of VAH-1 were launched from the USS Shangri La in the Pacific off the Mexican coast and flew direct to NAS Jacksonville on the Florida Atlantic coast without in-flight refuelling.
The subsequent career of the A3D lies outside the scope of this book but it is relevant to note that it proved extremely adaptable with variants being produced for the photo reconnaissance, air refuelling and electronic warfare roles. The A3D was in service throughout the Vietnam War and EW versions remained in service until 1993, having flown missions in the first Gulf War. The basic design also found favour with the USAF, which, as result of experience in the Korean War, raised a requirement for a jet tactical bomber based on the Skywarrior and this eventually evolved into the B-66 Destroyer, which entered service in 1956, the same year as its naval counterpart.
Although the Skywarrior eventually provided the US Navy with a true nuclear bomber, a number of stopgap measures were proposed to supplement the composite-powered AJ Savage until the new jet bomber was available. Inspiration came from the famous Doolittle raid on Tokyo on 18 April 1942. At that point of the war US forces had suffered a series of humiliating defeats in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor and some form of offensive action was urgently required in order to boost the nation’s morale. This took the form of a daring operation in which sixteen land-based B-25 Mitchell bombers were hoisted aboard the carrier USS Hornet at San Francisco and subsequently flown off when the carrier and her escorting task force were almost 700 miles off the Japanese coast. The bombers achieved complete surprise and, although the material damage inflicted was minimal, the propaganda coup was considerable. After dropping their bombs the B-25s attempted to reach bases in mainland China and almost all were lost in forced landings or when their crews were forced to bale out as fuel was exhausted. The whole operation had been mounted under strict secrecy and when President Roosevelt was subsequently asked where the bombers had come from, he replied ‘Shangri La’, after a fictitious Chinese haven that featured in a contemporary film. However, in order to commemorate the memory of this famous action the name Shangri La was subsequently allocated to one of the new Essex class carriers.
Echoes of the Doolittle raid can be found in a post-war attempt by the US Navy to provide a credible nuclear strike force. Although the carriage of a 12,000 lb atomic bomb over ranges in excess of 2,000 nm would require the design and development of a new large bomber, the US Navy did, in fact, already possess such an aircraft, although it was never intended for carrier operation. This was the Lockheed P2V Neptune maritime patrol bomber intended for land-based, long-range anti-submarine warfare. The prototype flew in May 1945. One of the first production aircraft was modified by the removal of all armament and having increased fuel capacity in order to establish a new world record for long distance flight. Named ‘Truculent Turtle’, the Neptune left Perth, Australia, on 29 September 1946. It subsequently landed fifty-five hours and seventeen minutes later at Port Columbus, Ohio, having covered a distance of 11,235.6 miles non-stop without refuelling. This record was to stand for over fifty years.
The Neptune was an exceptionally clean aircraft with an efficient high aspect ratio wing. The original P2V-1 was powered by two 2,300 hp Wright R-3350-8 radial piston engines giving it a top speed of around 310 mph and a maximum range of over 4,000 miles. The P2V-2 had more powerful R-3350-24W engines and one of these aircraft was used to test the feasibility of operating from a carrier in trials conducted aboard the USS Coral Sea in April 1948. In order to get this large and heavy aircraft off the deck, rocket-assisted take-off was employed and there was no question of the aircraft landing back aboard. However, as a result of these trials, a total of twelve Neptunes were converted to P2V-3C standard. Powered by two 3,200 hp R-3350-26W engines these aircraft had all defensive armament removed to save weight, carried additional fuel, and were armed with a single 10,000 lb B-4 14-kiloton nuclear weapon. The aircraft were allocated to two squadrons, Composite Five and Six (VC-5, VC-6), and these became operational in September 1948. The Neptunes remained as part of the US Navy’s nuclear strike force until 1952 when they were completely replaced with the purpose-designed Savage. The Neptunes could only be operated from the Midway class carriers and while on board they had to be parked on deck where they obstructed any other flight deck movements. Consequently they were only embarked for short periods for training and familiarisation exercises, or at times of heightened tension when US nuclear forces were at a high state of readiness. In general the aircraft were deployed to forward bases from where they could be embarked if required. For example, one squadron was based in Morocco for a while so that the Neptunes were available to a Midway class carrier forming part of the US Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, some impressive demonstration flights were made with the aircraft making flights of over 5,000 miles after a carrier launch to simulate an attack on a strategic target. In the course of one of these flights, P2V-3C made a RATOG assisted take-off from the USS Coral Sea on 21 April 1950 at an all-up weight of 74,668 lb, another world record. Although no Neptune ever made a deck landing aboard a carrier, one was experimentally fitted with an arrester hook and carried out dummy deck landing trials at the Naval Test Centre at Patuxent River. Whether or not the Neptune would have had any chance of reaching its targets under war conditions is debatable. As a piston-engined bomber it would have been easy prey to jet fighters and any mission would have needed a considerable element of surprise in order to achieve success. Like the Doolittle raid of 1942, the mission would almost certainly have been a suicidal one-way affair but this is perhaps an indication of how desperate the US Navy was to maintain a nuclear strike capability to justify the existence of the carrier fleet.
As already recorded, the nuclear bomber role was eventually taken over by the jet-powered Skywarrior and, later, by the supersonic North American A-5 Vigilante. Also, throughout the 1950s, the decreasing size of nuclear weapons made it possible for virtually all the US Navy’s frontline fighters and attack aircraft to be modified for the strike role and the need for a dedicated bomber diminished. Finally, of course, the strategic nuclear role was gradually taken over by missile-equipped submarines from 1960 onwards.
In the case of the Royal Navy, there was never any serious ambition to take on the strategic nuclear strike role, although by 1951 a formal requirement for the deployment of tactical nuclear weapons was raised. In the meantime the British lacked a suitable dedicated carrier-based bomber, preferring to use multi-role aircraft such as the Sea Fury, FB.Mk.11 and the Firefly FR.4 and the later Attacker and Seahawk, which were both produced as fighter-bombers. Nevertheless, the Admiralty had considered the possibility of a bomber as far back as 1943 when Specification S.6/43 was issued. This resulted in the production of the Short Sturgeon, a twin-engined naval bomber, which first flew in June 1946. But by that time a change in operational requirements meant that it never saw any operational service, although it was produced in limited numbers as a high-speed target tug. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines driving contra-rotating three-bladed propellers, the Sturgeon Mk.1 had a speed of 350 mph and a range of 1,600 nm. With a maximum weight of almost 22,000 lb it was one of the heaviest British naval aircraft of its time. Nevertheless, carrier trials aboard HMS Illustrious resulted in very satisfactory reports from the pilots involved who found that carrier operations were much assisted by the contra-rotating propellers, which eliminated torque, and the excellent view from the cockpit located well forward in the nose.
The first Royal Navy aircraft to be capable of delivering nuclear weapons was the Supermarine Scimitar (described in Chapter 6), which became operational in 1958. However, by that time a true nuclear bomber was under development and this was to be one of the most successful British combat aircraft produced since World War II. Following on from the 1951 requirement to deploy tactical nuclear weapons, mainly in the anti-ship role, the Admiralty issued Specification NA39 in the following year for an aircraft capable of delivering such weapons. At the time all the major British aircraft manufacturers presented proposals for what promised to be a very lucrative contract. The winner was Blackburn whose tender was accepted in July 1955 and no fewer than twenty prototypes and pre-production aircraft were ordered by the Ministry of Supply. The Blackburn company’s designation was B-103 but the highly secret aircraft quickly became known by its specification number (NA39) and the name Buccaneer had already been adopted when the prototype flew in 30 April 1958. Powered by two de Havilland Gyron Junior turbojets rated at 7,100 lb thrust, the Buccaneer had an extensively area-ruled fuselage and proved to be capable of very high subsonic speeds at very low level, typically 200 feet or below! Although not immediately obvious, its greatest asset was the strength of its airframe, which was tremendously strong and specifically designed to withstand the harsh environment of high-speed, low-level operations. Nuclear or conventional bombs were carried internally in a rotary bomb bay. Although the Buccaneer S.Mk.1 proved to be underpowered, the aircraft was later given a new lease of life when fitted with two more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey engines, although the S.Mk.2 did not fly until 1963. However, this version not only served with the Royal Navy but was also ordered by the RAF in 1968 following the cancellation of the TSR-2 and a subsequent proposal to order American F-111K variable geometry bombers also fell through. The story of Buccaneer development and operational experience falls after the period covered by this book. However, it is relevant to recognise that it came into being as a result of the far-sighted Admiralty specification issued as far back as 1952, and the excellent work of the Blackburn company. (Sadly Blackburn lost its identity in 1963 when it became part of the Hawker Siddeley Group in a wide-scale rationalisation of the British aircraft industry.)
The late 1950s and the 1960s probably represented the golden years for the Royal Navy’s Fleet Air Arm in the post-war era. A stable carrier force of four modern carriers (Eagle, Ark Royal, Victorious and Hermes) was equipped with a range of very capable aircraft such as the Scimitar, Sea Vixen, Buccaneer and Gannet, all of which had their origins in the period covered by this book. Subsequently, rising costs, political decisions and a gradual withdrawal of British forces from the Middle and Far East, resulted in a rundown of the carrier fleet to the extent that conventional fixed-wing carrier flying finally ceased with the de-commissioning of HMS Ark Royal in 1978. Since then the Fleet Air Arm has had a reprieve with the operation of Sea Harriers from the three Invincible class carriers and today there is the prospect of two new super carriers in the 60,000-ton class entering service around 2015. However, these are not immune to changes in policy and it remains to be seen if they will ever be completed.