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The First World War

Even before the First World War tremendous strides had been made in the development of armoured turrets. The British navy had initially developed the idea as early as 1855 in order to protect guns and their crews from enemy fire and by the 1870s the concept had been adopted by all the major navies of the day. The potential for using this idea on land was soon recognized and despite initial concerns about the robustness of the structure, a decision was taken to mount a two-gun turret at Dover. This, like the turrets mounted on board ship, was little more than a covered circular box with ports for the guns.

On the continent, the Grüson company of Magdeburg, Germany in the 1860s had developed a technique for producing cast iron curved sections which could be ‘welded’ together to form a complete cupola which rotated on a turntable of rollers. One such turret, mounting two 16in guns weighing 120 tons, was used by Krupp to protect the Italian naval base at La Spezia.¹ And it was not long before the wider possibilities of using such turrets were recognized. The Belgian General Brialmont was a keen advocate of the idea and proposed using both fixed and retractable turrets and in 1865 he installed an armoured turret in the reduit of Fort III protecting Antwerp. A little later, Maximilian Schumann, a Prussian army engineer and subsequently chief turret designer for Grüson, designed a series of increasingly sophisticated armoured turrets to improve the protection for the gun and its firing ability, his work culminating in the design for a retractable turret.

In France, Mougin, designer for the St Chamond gun-making company, also developed a number of armoured turrets, one of the best known being the cast iron turret mounting twin 155mm long-range de Bange guns. Twenty-five of these were built as part of the Séré de Rivière fortifications; a series of fortifications that stretched from the English Channel to the border with Italy.⁽¹⁾²

Thus, by the end of the nineteenth century a number of companies were producing and selling armoured turrets. However, despite the fact the German company Grüson was one of the leading manufacturers of this technology, there was disagreement in the Imperial Army about how best to use armoured turrets in fortifications. What was clear though was that with the advent of the explosive shell open gun positions were no longer practical and some sort of protection had to be provided. In 1892 the first fort was built using armoured turrets. This included fixed and retractable turrets and additional firepower was also provided by the Grüson turret, or Fahrpanzer. This weapon is of particular interest because it was the precursor of the French tourelle démontable which formed part of the Maginot Line defences (and which is covered in more detail in the Interwar section of this book) and as such was arguably a forerunner of the Panzerstellung.³

During the First World War the Germans installed old naval guns along the coast. ‘Lange Max’ or ‘Long Max’ was located at Moere, about 8 miles from Ostend. The 38cm gun was used to shell Dunkirk. (Author)

The main body of the Fahrpanzer consisted of a cast-iron cylindrical base topped with a cupola that housed the main armament. It was 1,655mm (65in) high and 1,540mm (60in) round with 40mm (1½in) thick armour that provided the crew with adequate protection against shrapnel and small arms fire. A door at the rear gave the crew access to the fighting compartment.

The main body of the structure was set on four rollers some 60cms (24in) apart, which enabled the turret to be moved on tracks into a pre-prepared semi-circular concrete niche to augment the main armament of the fortification. When not in use it could be rolled back into a covered position for protection. These rollers also enabled the turret to be moved onto a specially designed carriage that allowed it to be moved more easily around the battlefield. This had four wheels – two larger wheels at the rear that bore the weight of the turret and weapon and two smaller wheels at the front on a pivot point to enable the carriage to be turned.⁽²⁾ The wheels were somewhat unusual in that they were made of wood with a steel tyre, whereas the rest of the structure was constructed from iron. This arrangement may have been developed to smooth the ride, since the carriage had no suspension.

A seat at the front of the vehicle accommodated the driver who drove the three horses, which were attached to the carriage by a limber. A hand-operated wheel under the driver’s seat applied a brake to the larger wheels at the rear when the carriage was stationary.

The Fahrpanzer was arguably an early forerunner of the panzerstellung. This example was captured by the Greeks in the First World War and is now housed at the Greek War Museum in Athens. The cast-iron cylindrical base and the domed turret that housed the main armament are both clearly shown. (Author)

The Fahrpanzer could be mounted on a specially designed carriage. The access hatch to the turret is visible behind the driver’s seat. Just below the hatch it is possible to see one of the rollers that enabled the turret to run on tracks. (Author)

Inside the turret a pedestal was located centrally with three branches rising from the centre to support the cupola. This sat on the main body of the structure on a series of small wheels and was rotated using a large hand wheel that permitted a full rotation of the turret in 15 seconds. A simple mechanism enabled the turret to be locked in position so that it did not deviate when fired. Around the inside of the turret was a band marked in degrees, which enabled the crew to accurately rotate the cupola. Two simple seats were provided for the gunner and loader/commander, which were attached to the pedestal. The ammunition (circa 130 rounds) for the weapon was stored vertically in racks at the base of the structure.

An inside view of the Fahrpanzer turret that clearly shows the gun breech and elevating gear. The central pedestal is also visible as is the small vent at the top. (Author)

The main armament was mounted in the cupola above a shelf. The gun trunions were secured to the shelf and there was no recoil mechanism. The gun was fitted with a simple falling type breech with the breech handle on the right and the elevation mechanism on the left. This consisted of a vertically mounted screw thread affixed to the breechblock and the shelf of the turret. By rotating a hand wheel the gun could be elevated and depressed +10 to –5 degrees. This set-up allowed for some very fine adjustments to be made, but it was not suited to quick changes in the angle of depression or elevation when in combat.

The 53mm Schnelladekanone could fire either high explosive or case shot. Its maximum range with HE shells was 3,200m (10,000ft) and 400m (1,300ft) with the shot. The simple breech mechanism and the one-piece ammunition enabled the weapon to be fired very rapidly; the crew of two were capable of firing the weapon at 25–30 shots a minute. An opening in the top of the turret was fitted to vent the fumes, but when using rapid fire it is likely that this would have been insufficient and the doors would have to be opened to prevent the asphyxiation of the crew.

The turret was not fitted with an optical sight. A small hole in the dome with aiming point above and to the right of the gun and a sight fitted outside on the barrel enabled the crew to aim the weapon. Additionally a number of vision slits were provided to give the crew greater visibility. These could be covered with armoured plates when not in use. A small rain guard above the weapon prevented any precipitation entering the turret.

Production of the Fahrpanzer began in 1889 and in total some 200 were produced (although other sources state 322). The turrets were exported to a number of countries and were employed by the Central Powers in the First World War.⁽³⁾⁴

By the turn of the century armoured turrets had been sufficiently refined that they were capable of being fitted to armoured cars. The Austrians installed a turret on the Austro-Daimler armoured car of 1904 (and the modified 1905 version) and the French Charron car from roughly the same period also had a turret. During the war all of the major belligerents used armoured cars with turrets. The Italian Lancia armoured car of 1915 was even fitted with a smaller turret atop the main turret. In that same year the Canadian Russell armoured car entered service. This was the first vehicle to have a turret basket that rotated with the turret.⁵

By the outbreak of the war the technology behind armoured turrets was well established. However, the first tanks that were developed were all fitted with fixed guns. For some time before the war experiments had been conducted to assess the effectiveness of caterpillar tracks. These peacetime trials led to the development of simple farm tractors. But with the outbreak of war these experiments were given added urgency as the British actively pursued this idea as a possible solution to the stalemate on the Western Front. An armoured vehicle fitted with tracks, it was hoped, would be able to advance across the broken terrain and engage enemy positions that had survived the preparatory bombardment and together with supporting infantry might offer the prospect of the thus far elusive breakthrough.

In Britain, somewhat unusually, the research was undertaken by the Royal Navy with the full support of the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. The first prototypes of the ‘tank’⁽⁴⁾ were tested in September 1915 and were introduced on the Western Front in the latter stages of the Battle of the Somme in September 1916. In the spring of the following year the French fielded some 130 so-called ‘assault cannons’ in the action at Chemin des Dames.

A First World War British tank knocked out at Langemarck. The initial British and French designs were not fitted with turrets. (Author)

The results were disappointing. There were too few tanks available to be decisive, they were unreliable and despite their armour, they were vulnerable to artillery fire and as such they were unable to deliver the hoped for strategic surprise. The abject failure of tanks on the Somme and in later battles convinced the German High Command that such armoured vehicles had little merit. Only in November 1917 was their first prototype ready for tests. The A7V, as it was known, was a lumbering monster of a machine armed with one front mounted 57mm gun and six machine guns. It was not particularly effective and continuing disputes about the value of the weapon meant only twenty were ever completed.

Unperturbed by the disappointing results, the British and the French pushed ahead with the development of their respective tank programmes. In France, Gen Jean-Baptiste Estienne, who had already been instrumental in the development of French armour, pressed for the introduction of a light tank, and Renault developed the FT17, which had the distinction of being the first tank to include a fully revolving turret. The turret could be fitted with either a short 37mm gun or a machine gun. It revolved on a ball race and could be rotated by hand with little difficulty. If necessary it could be locked in place with a hand brake. Several thousand of these tanks were produced before the end of the war and would no doubt have had a key role to play in the operations envisaged for 1919, but the armistice was announced in November 1918 and the plans were shelved.⁽⁵⁾

Of course for the majority of people the most memorable feature of the First World War is not the introduction of the tank, but the trenches. All too often these have been referred to in general terms, ignoring the major strides that were taken in the development of fieldworks and reinforced concrete blockhouses or pillboxes. The so-called ‘race to the sea’ which saw the opposing armies trying to outflank the enemy and achieve a decisive breakthrough eventually resulted in the creation of a line of trenches on a scale never before seen, extending from the North Sea to the border with Switzerland. As the respective high commands struggled to find a solution to this bloody stalemate, the trench system was expanded. The main trench, or ‘fire trench’ that faced the enemy, was made deep and wide with a fire step and loopholes. Like all the trenches it was dug in a zigzag pattern to lessen the impact of shells and prevent a clear line of fire should the enemy occupy the position. Some 100m (110yd) to the rear a support trench was dug where the reserves were held and later a third trench line was added – ‘the bombing trench’. This was between the fire and support trench and was used when the line was under attack by the enemy. In this eventuality soldiers particularly competent in the use of grenades, which were stockpiled in the trench, would occupy this intermediate position and throw the bombs into the forward trench to repulse any foray. Linking all the lines of trenches together were communication trenches that led to the rear.

As the war progressed the individual trenches also became increasingly elaborate and included dugouts that provided shelter for the infantry or could be used as makeshift command posts and first aid stations. But as the trenches and dugouts became deeper the military engineers were confronted with the age-old problem of water. This was particularly the case in and around Passchendaele where the water table meant that it was difficult to dig trenches. The German solution was to build concrete pillboxes.⁽⁶⁾⁽⁷⁾ These miniature forts not only solved the problem of flooding but also provided more effective protection against the heavy barrage that preceded British and French attacks. The pillboxes did not adhere to any formal design because they were often built by troops in the field, albeit under the supervision of military engineers. Nevertheless they generally measured circa 9m (30ft) along the front and were about 3m (10ft) wide.

Concrete pillboxes were extensively used by the Germans in the Siegfriedstellung or the Hindenburg Line, as it was know to the Allies. This was begun in September 1916 and was originally envisaged as a relatively narrow band of defences. The ability of these defences to defeat the anticipated Allied offensive concerned the Chief of Staff of the German First Army, Col Fritz von Lossberg. He planned to construct a defensive system that would consist of numerous zones each stronger than the last, which would gradually slow and ultimately stop the enemy attack. By building the defences in depth, the attacking infantry would soon outreach its supporting artillery making further progress all but impossible. Moreover, the attackers would become increasingly isolated from their own forces and thus vulnerable to counter-attack by reserves held in the rear, safe from the preliminary bombardment, and earmarked for the purpose.

One of the many concrete blockhouses built by the Germans all along the western front. This example was located at Lomme, near Armentieres and was destroyed by a mine. (Author)

The practical application of von Lossberg’s ideas saw the construction of a series of defences in front of the main position. Forward of the first trench was the outpost zone which was designed to slow the enemy attack. If the enemy pierced this first line of defence it would enter the battle zone that was chequered with concrete blockhouses. These positions were all mutually supporting, providing fire for their own defence and cover for the flanks and rear of the adjacent units in the so-called ‘Hedgehog’ (Igel) pattern of defence. Behind this zone were further trenches (and more defensive lines further to the rear were also contemplated) so that the defensive system was some 6–8,000m (19–26,000ft) in depth.

By the end of the First World War the value of reinforced concrete shelters had been established as had the importance of armoured turrets in protecting their crew against explosive shells, small arms fire and shrapnel. In the interwar period these technologies were combined and lead to the development of some of the most elaborate fortifications ever constructed with huge casemates mounting armoured turrets. At the same time, but on a less grand scale, the first steps were taken in the development of what the Germans were to later christen the panzerstellung, with tank turrets mounted on concrete shelters for the first time.

As well as pillboxes, the Germans also developed armoured cupolas. This steel observation post with concrete apron was installed on the Western Front. (Imperial War Museum)

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⁽¹⁾One of Mougin’s fixed turrets armed with twin 155mm guns was installed at Fort Barbonnet in 1887. It was still effective in the Second World War when it was instrumental in inflicting heavy casualties on the Italian attackers.

⁽²⁾Railway wheels were also developed which meant the turret could be moved short distances on purpose built tracks or transported longer distances along the mainline.

⁽³⁾The Greeks captured two Bulgarian turrets. These were manufactured by Krupp at the Grüsonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau in 1894 and are now on display at the Greek War Museum in Athens.

⁽⁴⁾So named to deceive the enemy and because it was not dissimilar to a large water tank.

⁽⁵⁾The Germans also developed the LKI Light Tank with a revolving turret but few were produced.

⁽⁶⁾The term ‘pillbox’ was used by the British soldiers because the reinforced concrete construction was the same shape as the boxes in which chemists supplied tablets during the war.

⁽⁷⁾Interestingly, the British built very few pillboxes. The official reason was that ‘such works were not worth the labour or the cost’, but the real reason was more likely that the High Command feared that if the troops had such solid defences they would be less offensively minded.