Introduction: This Seat of Mars
1. Place of publication is London, unless cited otherwise. I am grateful to Hugh Allison for information regarding the Culloden ghosts. Ghosts have been reported sighted at several US Civil War battlefields, including Bentonville, NC, Fort Macon, NC, Sailor's Creek, Antietam, Murfreesboro and Chickamauga. During the English Civil War they were reported at Cambridge, Edgehill, Tewkesbury, Woodcroft Castle, the Cotswolds and Naseby. C. H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge (Cambridge, 1904), II, 303. A Great Wonder in Heaven (1643). Signes from Heaven (1646), 4, cxxxviii. E. M. Symonds, ‘The Diary of John Green, 1635–37’, English Historical Review, XLIII (1928), 39. C. Durston, ‘Signs and Wonders and the English Civil War’, History Today (October 1987), 22–27. Other sites where ghosts have been reported include Mons, Constantinople, Antioch, Sicily, Big Horn, Milvian Bridge, and the Battle of Britain. See the Discussion on H-War, May 2003. Shakespeare mentions battlefield ghosts in Julius Caesar, II, ii, 23–24, and Milton in Paradise Lost, Book II, line 553. All Shakespearean quotes from W. J. Craig, ed., The Oxford Shakespeare (Oxford, 1914), online edition.
2. Richard Holmes, Acts of War: The Behaviour of Men in Battle (New York, 1985), 7–8. P. Fussell, ‘The Culture of War’, in The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories (New Brunswick, 1997), 354. D. George, All in a Maze: A Collection of Prose and Verse Chronologically Arranged (1938), 154. R. Hargreaves, This Happy Breed (1951), 126. G. Herbert, Jacula Prudentium, in The English Poems of George Herbert (1902), 248.
3. Essays by Lord Bacon and Clarendon (Boston, 1820), 240–41.
4. J. Swift, Gulliver's Travels (New York, 1920), 252.
5. Gwynne Dyer, War (1986), xi.
6. Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt (New York, 1979), 507. J. Fletcher, Two Noble Kinsmen, (1883), 131.
7. S. L. A. Marshall quoted in D. Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Costs in Learning to Kill in War and Society (New York, 1995), 139.
8. W. Segar, Honour Military and Civil (1602), A2. S. Freud, An Outline of Psychoanalysis (New York, 1949), 20. See also P. Paret, ‘The History of War’, Daedalus (Spring 1971), 390. C. Burke, Aggression in Man (New York, 1975). D. Morris, The Naked Ape (1967).
9. Dedicatory verse to Lt Colonel Richard Elton, Complete Body of the art military (1650).
10. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars (Oxford, 1826), V, 464. W. T. Divale and M. Harris, ‘Population, Warfare, and the Male Supremacist Complex’, American Anthropologist, 18 (1976), 521–33.
11. Margaret Meade, ‘Alternatives to War’, in M. Fried, War (Garden City, NJ, 1968), 215–28.
12. ‘Diary of John Taylor, Clerk of Parliament’, in J. Brewer, Letters and Papers … Henry VIII (1862) Vol. I, Pt 2, p. 1,624. G. Grey, The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle (New York, 1970), 28.
13. T. Becon, Early Work of Thomas Becon (Cambridge, 1843), 251.
14. R. Holmes, Redcoat: The British Soldier in the Age of Horse and Musket (2001), 144. J. McGurk, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: The 1590s Crisis (Manchester, 1997), 193. J. Stallworthy, The Oxford Book of War Poetry (Oxford, 1988), 143.
15. R. Hargreaves, ‘Bivouacs, Billets, and Barracks’, Army Quarterly, 85 (1963), 235.
16. M. Howard, ‘Military History and the History of War’, in W. Murray and R. Sinnreich, eds, The Past as Prologue: The Importance of History to the Military Profession (Cambridge, 2006), 20.
17. S. L. A. Marshall, Men against Fire (New York, 1947), is his leading work, which while influential has recently been criticized: see Holmes, Acts of War, 58. Of Sir John Keegan's many works the most influential has been The Face of Battle (New York, 1976).
18. Dyer, op. cit., 4. R. J. Lifton, Home from the War: Vietnam Veterans: Neither Victims nor Executioners (New York, 1973), 191.
19. Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs (1894), I, 45. John Ellis, The Sharp End of War: The Fighting Man of World War II (1982), 115.
20. M. Howard, War and the National State (Oxford, 1978), 4.
21. C. Barnett, Britain and Her Army (2000), xvii. J. Black, War and the World (1998), 1–2.
22. L. Stone, ‘The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History’, Past and Present (November 1979), 10. Elton's views come from many private conversations.
23. R. H. Tawney, ‘The Study of Economic History’, Economica, XIII (February 1933), 15. F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (1973), II, 836, agrees.
24. J. F. G. Fuller, British Light Infantry in the Eighteenth Century (1915), 242–43. Karl von Clausewitz, On War (2005), I, 3.
25. Stallworthy, op. cit., 167.
26. Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace (Harmondsworth, 1971), 921.
27. Clausewitz, op. cit., III, 213.
28. ‘A Royal Dragoon in the Spanish Succession War’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research (1938), 57.
Chapter 1 Early Tudor Warfare, 1485–1558
1. Since the very exciting discoveries of battlefield archaeologists led by Glenn Foard, the site of the battle has been located at Crown Hill, about two miles south-east of Ambion Hill, where the visitors’ centre is situated, and where for five hundred years it was considered to have been fought. The Times, 29 October 2009, and www.Battlefieldstrust.com.
2. M. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth Field (1993), 110.
3. This description is by Walter Bower of a clan fight near Perth in 1440, in J. Baynes, Soldiers of Scotland (1988), 8.
4. Richard III, V, v, 16. A. R. Meyers, English Historical Documents, 1327–1485 (1996), 340.
5. Richard III, V, iv, 48.
6. For more on this by two leading medievalists, see J. Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (1956), 197, and C. H. Haskins, Studies in Medieval Culture (Oxford, 1929), 104.
7. R. W. Kaeuper, Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe (Oxford, 1999), 165.
8. Sir Michael Howard, The Lessons of History (Oxford, 1991), 167–77.
9. G. Mattingly, ‘International Diplomacy and International War’, New Cambridge Modern History (Cambridge, 1968), III, 150.
10. Charles W. Eliot, ed., Chronicles and Romance: Froissart, Mallory, Holinshed (Cambridge, MA, 1905), 27.
11. J. Barnie, War in Medieval English Society: Social Values in the Hundred Years War, 1337–99 (Ithaca, NY, 1974), 9–10.
12. H. Latimer, Sermons (1906), 170–71.
13. T. Esper, ‘The Replacement of the Longbow by Firearms in the English Army’, Technology and Culture, VI (1965), 382–93. M. Creveld, Technology and War (New York, 1988), 89. Anthony Wood, Life and Times (Oxford, 1891), I, 59. M. Prestwich, Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience (New Haven, CT, 1996), 133.
14. J. A. Agnew, Place and Politics in Modern Italy (Chicago, 2002), 45.
15. J. Campbell, The Anglo-Saxon State (2000), 10. M. Bloch, Feudal Society (2005), II, 154.
16. R. Colls, The Identity of England (Oxford, 2002), 10–17. R. R. Davies, The First English Empire and Identity in the British Isles, 1093–1343 (Oxford, 2000), 191–93. P. Corrigan and D. Sayer, The Great Arch: English State Formation as a Cultural Revolution (Oxford, 1985).
17. G. R. Elton, England under the Tudors (1955), 21–22.
18. S. Cunningham, Henry VII (2007), 54–57. M. Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke (Stroud, 1987), 90ff.
19. M. Bennett, ‘Henry VII and the Northern Rising of 1487’, English Historical Review, 105 (1990), 34–59.
20. C. J. Gilbert, Tudor Mercenaries and Auxiliaries, 1485–1547 (Charlottesville, VA, 1980), 34–35.
21. Cunningham, op. cit., 85.
22. The Rebecca, Chartist and Tonypandy Riots were too small to be counted as rebellions. A. Fletcher and D. MacCulloch, Tudor Rebellions (Harlow, 2008), 7.
23. T. Jones, ‘A Welsh Chronicler in Tudor England’, Welsh History Review, I (1960), 2.
24. Cunningham, op. cit., 287.
25. Mick Jagger's is the best-selling postcard.
26. N. S. Tjemagel, Henry VIII and the Lutherans (St. Louis, MO, 1965), 19. F. A. Mumby, The Youth of Henry VIII (Boston, 1913), 127.
27. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (1981), 12, 39.
28. Ibid., 156.
29. S. Gunn, ‘The French Wars of Henry VIII’, in J. Black, ed., The Origins of War in Early Modern Europe (Edinburgh, 1987), 28–34.
30. E. W. Ives, Anne Boleyn (Oxford, 1986), 238.
31. E. Hall, The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York (1542; 1809 edn), 521.
32. Ibid., 521.
33. R. Turpyn, The Chronicle of Calais, ed. J. G. Nichols (Camden Society, 35, 1846), 212.
34. W. and R. Chambers, Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal (Edinburgh, 1846), VI, 165.
35. M. C. Fissel, English Warfare, 1511–1642 (2001), 20.
36. G. R. Elton, ‘War and the English in the Reign of Henry VIII’, in L. Freidman et al., eds, War Strategy in International Politics (Oxford, 1992), 16. R. Lomis, ‘The Impact of the Border Wars: The Scots and South Tweedside, c. 1290–c.1520’, Scottish Historical Review, 75 (1996), 167.
37. J. White, The Death of a king; being extracts from private accounts of … Flodden (Edinburgh, 1970), np. N. Barr, Flodden, 1513: The Scottish Invasion of Henry VIII's England (Stroud, 2001), 79–95.
38. G. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 120. G. Phillips, The Anglo-Scots Wars, 1513–1550: A Military History (Woodbridge, 1999), 258. R. W. Hoyle, ‘Letters of the Cliffords’ (Camden Society, 4th series, 44, 1992), 23–26.
39. Fletcher and MacCulloch, op. cit., 33–35.
40. J. Edwards, ‘The Escalation of Violence in Sixteenth-Century Ireland’, in D. Edwards, P. Lenihan and C. Tait, The Age of Atrocity: Violence and Political Conflict in Early Modern Ireland (Dublin, 2007), 34–79.
41. This is the theme of L. B. Smith, Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty (1971).
42. Ellis Gruffudd, ‘Boulogne and Calais from 1545 to 1550’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fauad University, XII (1950), 13.
43. Quoted by J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (New York, 1985), 68.
44. Gruffudd, op. cit., 71. J. Gairdner and R. H. Brodie, eds, Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII (1901), XIX, part 2, 486.
45. P. Cornish, ‘The English Soldier of 1544’, Military History Illustrated, 46 (March 1992), 33.
46. G. Parker, ‘The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England’, Mariner's Mirror, 82, 3 (1996), 270.
47. C. M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion (1965), 40. T. Dupuy, The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare (Fairfax, VA, 1984), 118. N. Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (New York, 1997), 221. P. E. Hammer, Elizabeth's Wars: War, Government and Society in Tudor England, 1544–1604 (2003), 79.
48. G. Parker, Warfare (Cambridge, 1995), 124.
49. J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies, and Ship Building in Europe and America, 1500–1860 (Stockholm, 1993), I, 130–31.
50. Rodger, op. cit., 221.
51. G. Modelski and W. R. Thompson, Sea Power in Global Politics, 1494–1993 (Seattle, WA, 1988), 5.6–5.9. D. Starkey, Henry VIII: A European Court in England (1991), 8. J. R. Hale, ‘Tudor Fortifications, 1485–1558’, in J. R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (1983), 63–98.
52. C. N. Robinson and John Leyland, The British Tar in Fact and Fiction: The Poetry, Pathos, and Humour of the Sailor's Life (New York, 1909), 54.
53. M. Rule, The Mary Rose: The Excavation and Raising of Henry VIII's Flagship (Annapolis, MD, 1982).
54. C. Cruickshank, Army Royal: Henry VIII's Invasion of France, 1513 (1969), 206.
55. G. R. Elton, ‘Taxation for War and Peace in Early Tudor England’, in J. M. Winter, ed., War and Economic Development (Cambridge, 1975), 33.
56. L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy (1965), 266. Gilbert, op. cit., 45–47. G. J. Millar, ‘Mercenaries under Henry VIII, 1544–46’, History Today, 27 (1977), 182.
57. Hammer, op. cit., 26.
58. Attempts to rehabilitate Mary, such as D. M. Loades, Mary Tudor: The Tragic History of the First Queen of England (Kew, 2006), Anna Whitelock, Mary Tudor (2009), Linda Porter, Mary Tudor (2007), J. Richards, Mary Tudor (2009) and Christopher Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars (1992), are not convincing, at least as far as her military policies are concerned.
59. J. Loach, Edward VI (2002), 155.
60. Calendar of State Papers, Scotland, 1547–1603, 169.
61. Fletcher and MacCulloch, op. cit., 54–65.
62. Ibid., 70–75.
63. Richards, op. cit., 213–14. H. F. M. Prescott, Mary Tudor (1953), 361–62.
64. Richards, op. cit., 221.
65. J. G. Nichols, ed., The Diary of Henry Machyn (Camden Society, 1848), 162–63. C. W. Colby, Selections from the Sources of English History (1899), 154. J. Foxe, Foxe's Book of Martyrs (2007), 366.
Chapter 2 Give Me Spirit: Joining and Training
1. Sample taken from The Norton Anthology of English Literature (1990). A search of ‘war’ using the electronic database English Poetry produces 15,472 hits.
2. R. Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh (2002), 11–12. My thanks to my friend and colleague M. Thomas Hester for the information on Donne.
3. B. Donagan, ‘Halcyon Days and the Literature of War: England's Military Education before 1642’, Past and Present, 147 (1995), 75. H. J. Webb, ‘The Elizabethan Soldier: A Study of the Ideal and the Real’, Western Humanities Review, 4 (1949–50), 72.
4. D. McNeil, Grotesque Depictions of War and the Military in Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (Newark, DL, 1990), 120. Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, ed. Anne and Irvin Ehrenpreis (New York, 1966), 307.
5. B. Rich, A Pathwaie to Military Practice (1587), Sig. G3. T. Barnes, Vox Belli, or an Alarum to Warre (1626), quoted by J. R. Hale, ‘An Incitement to Violence? English Divines on the Theme of War, 1578–1631’, in J. G. Rowe and W. H. Stockdale, Florilegium Historiale: Essays Presented to Wallace K. Ferguson (Toronto, 1971), 379.
6. D. George, All in a Maze: A Collection of Prose and Verse Chronologically Arranged (1938), 145. M. Bishop, Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop (1744), 3.
7. The Roman military thinker Flavius Vegetius Renatus first made the point in 378CE. C. W. Freeman, The Diplomats Dictionary (Washington, DC, 1994), 397. P. G. Johnson, George Gascoigne (New York, 1972), 89.
8. Geoffrey Gates, Defence of the Militarie Profession (1579), 43. George Monck, Duke of Albermarle, Observations on political and military affairs (1671). R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 119.
9. Geoffrey Gates, The Defence of the Military Profession (1579), 43.
10. Heywood's play was first produced in about 1600.
11. Sir James Turner, Memoirs of his Life and Times, 1630–72 (Edinburgh, 1829), 3. S. Usherwood, ‘Sir Peter Carew, 1514–1575’, History Today, 28 (1974), 499. J. R. Hale, 'War and Society, 1300–1600’, Past and Present (July 1982), 140. G. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 85. John Adair, By the Sword Divided: Eyewitness Accounts of the English Civil War (1983), 74–84.
12. P. Young, The Civil War: Richard Atkyns (1967), 3.
13. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (1973), 313. John Hodgson, Autobiography (1883), 21. A. J. Fletcher, A County Community in Peace and War: Sussex, 1600–1660 (1975), 286.
14. G. H. Tupling, ‘The Causes of the Civil War in Lancashire’, Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society Transactions, 65 (1955), 1. William Maxwell, One of King William's men: being leaves from the Diary of Colonel William Maxwell, 1685–1697, ed. H. M. B. Reid (Edinburgh, 1898), 186.
15. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 173.
16. The Works of Sir Richard Steele (Dublin, 1759), 53.
17. D. Defoe, The History of Colonel Jack (Oxford, 1927), I, 124–25.
18. R. Williams, The Actions in the Low Countries (1618), xxxix. J. W. Stoye, ‘Soldiers and Civilians’, New Cambridge Modern History (1970), VI, 767.
19. J. W. Hayes, ‘The Military Papers of Colonel Samuel Bagshawe, 1713–1762’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 39 (1957), 371n.
20. J. Smythe, Certain Discourses Militarie (Washington, DC, 1964), xv. C. T. Prouty, George Gascoigne (New York, 1947), 9, 51–71. Johnson, op. cit., 16, 87–93.
21. ‘George Goring’, Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900). P. Gordon, Passages from the Journal of General Patrick Gordon, ed. J. Robertson (Aberdeen, 1859), 5. S. Swartley, The Life and Poetry of John Cutts (Philadelphia, PA, 1917), xii.
22. S. Noyes. ‘The Letters of Samuel Noyes, Chaplain of the Royal Scots, 1703–04’, ed. S. H. F. Johnston, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 37 (1959), 23–40, 67–71, 128–36, 145–52.
23. www.contemplator.com/england/far away.html has a recording of this song.
24. S. Poyntz, The Relation of Sydenham Poyntz, 1624–36 (Camden Society, 1908), 9, 45, 125. D. Defoe, The Military Memoirs of Captain George Carleton (1929), 13.
25. J. Bernardi, A Short History of the Life of Major John Bernardi (1729), 3. S. Gledhill, Memoirs of Lt. Colonel Samuel Gledhill (Kendal, 1910), 3. D. Riggs, Ben Jonson: A Life (Cambridge, 1989), 18. R. Miles, Ben Jonson: His Life and Work (1986), 20–21.
26. J. Childs, ‘War, Crime, and the English Army in the Late 17th Century’, War and Society, 15/2 (October 1997), 1–19.
27. Hale, op. cit., 26.
28. John Stowe, The Annals of England (1605), 1,281–82. W. McCaffry, Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 47.
29. R. B. Manning, ‘Violence and Social Conduct in Mid-Tudor Rebellions’, Journal of British Studies, 16 (1977), 37. B. Rich, Alarme to England (1578), 6–7r.
30. 2 March 1625, Cromwell to Carleton, National Archives: SP 84/126/3.
31. J. Stucley, Sir Bevil Grenville and his Times (Chichester, 1983), 25. William Beaumont, A discourse of the war in Lancashire (Chetham Society, 1864), 19–20.
32. C. Holmes, Seventeenth-Century Lincolnshire (1983), 137.
33. H. Foster, A true and exact relation of the marching … for the relief of the City of Gloucester, reprinted by John Washburn, Bibliotheca Gloucestrensis (Gloucester, 1822), I, 253.
34. C. H. Firth, ‘Ballad History of the Reigns of James I and Charles I’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 3rd Series, 5 & 6 (1911–12), 20.
35. In the seventeenth century a sergeant major was not a senior non-commissioned officer but of field or general rank. 1 May 1627, Blundell to Buckingham, Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1627–28, 1.
36. D. Johnson and D. G. Vaisey, Staffordshire in the Great Rebellion (Stafford, 1964), 52. 28 May 1640, Conway to Countess of Devonshire, in M. H. Nicolson, ed., The Conway Letters: The Correspondence of Anne, Viscount Conway, Henry Moor and their Friends, 1642–84 (Oxford, 1992), 18.
37. Bishop, op. cit., 45. L. Von Ranke, History of England principally in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1875), VI, 131.
38. R. Barret, The Theorike and Practice of Modern Warres (1598), 7. Smythe, op. cit., xxxviii. R. Williams, Works (1972), lix.
39. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 109.
40. J. Campbell, ‘A Scottish Fusillier and Dragoon under Marlborough: Lt. General the Honourable Sir John Campbell’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 15 (1936), 83.
41. D. Chandler, ‘The Great-Captain General, 1702–1714’, in The Oxford History of the British Army (Oxford, 1994), 75.
42. G. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer (Boston, 1822), 11.
43. R. Scouller, ‘Recruiting: A Familiar Problem’, Army Quarterly, 71 (1955), 109. R. Scouller, The Armies of Queen Anne (Oxford, 1967), 291. N. Williams, Redcoats and Courtesans: The Birth of the British Army, 1660–1690 (1994), 112. Blackadder, op. cit., 236.
44. M. Blumeson, The Patton Papers, 1940–1945 (Boston, 1974), 428.
45. In the twentieth century, Western soldiers have shown surprisingly little reluctance to kill, and little guilt afterwards. See J. Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face to Face Killing in Twentieth-Century Warfare (1999), 248, and Glenn Grey, The Warriors (New York, 1970), 181–83.
46. John Rushworth, Historical Collections (London, 1680–1701), V, 43. British Library: Harleian MSS, 2,135, 72.
47. Robert Ram, The Soldier's Catechism: composed for the Parliamentary Army (7th edition, 1645), 1–2.
48. Quoted by Hale, op. cit., 44.
49. Field Marshal Montgomery made exactly the same point when he addressed his troops before D-Day; Alun Chalfont, Montgomery of Alamein (1975), 228.
50. Thomas Audley, ‘A Treatise on the Art of War’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 7 (1927), 69.
51. D. Lupton, A Warre-like Treatise of the Pike (1642), 87.
52. R. Williams, ‘A Brief Discourse on War’, in idem, Works (1590), 14. William Barriffe, Military Discipline for the Cavalry (1639), 1. Richard Elton, Compleat Body of the art military (1650). Edward Cooke, The Character of Warre (1626), C3. John Raynsford, The Yong Soldier (1642).
53. Monck, op. cit., 23.
54. W. McNeil, ‘Keeping in Time Together’, Military History Quarterly, 100 (1995), 100–9.
55. Elton, op. cit., 2. J. Achesone, The Military Garden, or instructions for all young soldiers (Edinburgh, 1629), 1.
56. For a good description of this process, see G. Dyer, War (1986), 101–29.
57. Henry Reed, ‘Naming of Parts’, in Jon Stallworthy, The Oxford Book of War Poetry (Oxford, 1988), 254.
58. May 1595, Essex to Cecil, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Calendar … Marquis of Salisbury (1895), IV, 164. R. N. Dore, The Civil Wars in Cheshire (Chester, 1966), 65.
59. J. Dryden, John Dryden Selected Poems, ed. S. Zwicker and D. Bywaters (2001), 508.
60. C. H. Firth, Cromwell's Army: A History of the English Soldier during the Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate (1962), 9. Thomas Bellingham, Diary of Thomas Bellingham, an Officer under William III (Preston, 1908), 136. 36.
61. R. Lawrence, The Complete Soldier: Military Books and Military Culture in Early Stuart England, 1603–1645 (Leiden, 2009), 57. Audley, op. cit., 74.
62. M. J. D. Cockle, A Bibliography of Military Books (1900). F. Varley, Cambridge during the Civil War (Cambridge, 1935), 125. Derby Museum, Derby and the Great Civil War: Catalogue of Exhibition, 2–23 October 1971 (1971), item 59.
63. J. Childs, The Nine Years’ War and the British Army (Manchester, 1991), 75, 79.
64. Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, 1592–96, 322.
65. S. Gunn, ‘Tournaments and Early Tudor Chivalry’, History Today (June 1991), 15–21. H. Watanabe-O'Kelly, ‘Tournaments and their Relevance to Warfare in the Early Modern Period’, European History Quarterly, 204 (1990), 451–63.
66. J. R. Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (New York, 1995), 428.
67. Certain Sermons or Homilies (1547, reprinted with introduction by R. B. Bond, Toronto, 1981), 162–67.
68. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1992), 123.
69. J. Scholefield, ed., The Works of James Pilkington, BD, Lord Bishop of Durham (Cambridge, 1843), 427. E. G. B. Warburton, ed., Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849), III, 386.
70. A. H. Dodd, ‘Wales and the Second Bishops’ War’, Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, XII (1948), 95. Holmes, op. cit., 20–21, 50–51.
71. G. Gascoigne, George Gascoigne: the Posies (Cambridge, 1907), 171.
72. Samuel Birch, ‘Civil War Diary’, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Portland MSS, III (1894), 173–80.
73. W. Brocklington, ed., Monro: His Expedition with the Worthy Scots Regiment called Mac-Keys (1999), 57.
Chapter 3 This Happy Breed of Men: Elizabethan Warfare, 1558–1603
1. The figure was about 45 per cent in the First World War.
2. G. Parker, The Cambridge History of Warfare (Cambridge, 2005), 111.
3. In N. Machiavelli, translated by Peter Whithorne, Certaine Wayes for the Ordering of Souldiours (1562).
4. There were similar foul-ups at St Valery in 1592, and at St Martin in 1627.
5. Quoted by H. Morgan, ‘British Policies before the British Nation’, in B. Bradshaw and J. Morrill, eds, The British Problem, c.1534–1707: State Formation in the Atlantic Archipelago (1996). R.H. Dewing, ‘An Elizabethan Soldier in Ireland’, Army Quarterly, 17 (1929), 88.
6. D. J. B. Trim, ‘The Foundation Stone of the British Army: The Normandy Campaign of 1562’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 77 (1999), 71–89. W. MacCaffrey, ‘The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563’, Historical Journal, 40, 1 (1997), 1–21.
7. L. Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia (1967), 9.
8. J. McGurk, ‘The Clergy and the Militia, 1580–1610’, History, 60 (1975), 198–210.
9. Ibid., 85.
10. R. B. Manning, ‘Patterns of Violence in Early Tudor Enclosure Riots’, Albion (1974), 120–37. P. Clark, ‘Popular Protest and Disturbances in Kent’, Economic History Review, 29 (1976), 365–68. I am grateful to Wayne Lee for his thoughts on this topic.
11. Henry VI, Part II, IV, ii, 62–63. S. Greenblatt, ‘Murdering Peasants: Status, Genre, and the Representation of Rebellion’, Representations I, 1 (1983), 1–29.
12. A. Goodman, ‘Border Ways and Border Warfare’, History Today, 38, 9 (1988), 6–9. T. Thornton, ‘The Enemy or stranger that shall invade their country: Identity and Community in the English North’, in B. Taithe and T. Thornton, War (Stroud, 1998), 57–72.
13. A. Fletcher and D. MacCulloch, Tudor Rebellions (Harlow, 2008), 102–15.
14. The Essex fracas of 1601 was more an aristocratic riot than a rebellion.
15. L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965), 755.
16. W. MacCaffrey, ‘The Armada in its Context’, Historical Journal, 32, 3 (1989), 715.
17. J. S. Corbett, ‘Papers relating to the Navy during the Spanish War, 1585–87’, Naval Records Society, 11 (1898), 116.
18. C. A. Fury, Tides in the Affairs of Men: The Social History of English Seamen, 1580–1603 (Westport, CN, 2002), 154.
19. J. S. Nolan, ‘The Muster of 1588’, Albion, 23 (1991), 387.
20. Thomas Deloney, Three Ballads of the Spanish Armada (New York, 1903), 200. G. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 134. The wonderful and widely accepted speech in which the queen tells her soldiers, ‘I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and a king of England too,’ is almost certainly a myth. It was first reported in 1623. S. Frye, ‘The Myth of Elizabeth at Tilbury’, Sixteenth-Century Journal, 23/1 (1992), 95–114.
21. T. Hobbes, The Life of Mr. Thomas Hobbs (1680), 2. G. Gascoigne, The Spoil of Antwerpe (1576), from which the anonymous play Alarum for London (1602), which Shakespeare's company performed, is derived. C. T. Prouty, George Gascoigne (New York, 1942), 236–37.
22. G. Parker, ‘If the Armada had Landed’, History, 61, 203 (1976), 358–68. A. Somerset, ‘If the Armada had Landed’, in A. Roberts, What Might Have Been (2004), 15–26. N. Younger, ‘If the Armada had Landed: A Reappraisal of England's Defences before 1585’, History, 93, 311 (2008), 328–54, is unconvincing because it does not take into account the fighting capabilities of the Spanish.
23. Deloney, op. cit., 188–89.
24. D. M. Loades, Elizabeth I (2003), 253.
25. G. Parker, ‘The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England’, Mariner's Mirror, 82, 3 (1996), 269–300.
26. M. Blatcher, ‘Chatham Dockyard and a Little-Known Shipwright, Matthew Baker (1530–1613),’ Archaeologia Cantiana, 107 (1990), 165.
27. J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies, and Ship Building in Europe and America, 1500–1860 (Stockholm, 1993), I, 132.
28. T. Glasgow, ‘The Maturing of Naval Administration, 1556–1564’, Mariner's Mirror, 56 (1970), 3–23.
29. N. Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (New York, 1997), 297. J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (1985), 60.
30. Quoted by Rodger, op. cit., 302.
31. J. Cummins, Francis Drake: Lives of a Hero (1997), v.
32. Rodger, op. cit., 301–10.
33. Boynton, op. cit. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud), 34.
34. Quoted by S. C. A. Pincus, Protestantism and Patriotism: Ideologies and the Making of English Foreign Policy, 1650–1688 (Cambridge, 1996), 256.
35. Quoted by M. Howard, War in European History (Oxford, 1976), 46.
36. Quoted by J. Keevel, Medicine and the Navy (Edinburgh, 1957), I, 80.
37. Anthony Wingfield, A True coppie of a Discourse written by a gentleman employed in the late Voyage of Spaine and Portingale (1589), 21–22.
38. J. R. Ruff, Violence in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1800: New Approaches to European History (2001), 65. R. B. Wernham, The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589 (1988), lxiv. J. Barrow, The Life, Voyages, and Exploits of Sir Francis Drake (1884), 164.
39. In J. R. Hill, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy (Oxford, 1995), 50.
40. R. B. Wernham, After the Armada: Elizabethan England and the Struggle for Western Europe, 1588–1595 (Oxford, 1984), 89–99. Rodger, op. cit., 285–86.
41. J. Appleby, ‘A Pathway out of Debt: The Privateering Activities of Sir John Hippisley during the War with Spain and France, 1625–30’, American Neptune, 49, 4 (1989), 251–61. D. Loades, England's Maritime Empire: Seapower, Commerce, and Policy, 1490–1690 (Harlow, 2000), 127. G. V. Scammell, ‘The Sinews of War: Money and Provisioning English Fighting Ships, c. 1550–1650’, Mariner's Mirror, 73 (1987), 354. Rodger, op. cit., 253, 295–96, 361.
42. T. Churchyard, The Mirror of Man and the Manners of Men (1816), np. Prouty, 9, 51–71. R. C. Johnson, George Gascoigne (New York, 1972), 16, 87–93. T. Nun, A Comfort against the Spaniard (1596).
43. Thomas Morgan, The Expedition in Holland, 1572–74, ed. D. Caldecott-Baird (1976), 1.
44. A. Feldman, ‘English Playwrights in the Netherlands War’, Notes and Queries, 197 (1952), 530–33.
45. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign (1585–86), no. 154. Johnson, 90.
46. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign (1585–86), no. 437.
47. Sanger, op. cit., 17.
48. Sir John Smythe, Certain Discourses (1590), 23–24.
49. M. C. Fissel, English Warfare, 1511–1642 (2001), 154–57.
50. T. Coningsby, ‘Journal of the Siege of Rouen’, Camden Miscellany, I, 4 (1847), 39.
51. John Hooker, ‘The Chronicles of Ireland’, in Ralph Holinshed, Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1808), reprinted in Charles Carlton, Bigotry and Blood (Chicago, 1977), 8–12.
52. C. Falls, Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950), 9. J. McGurk, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: The 1590s Crisis (Manchester, 1997), 11.
53. G. A. Hayes-McCoy, Irish Battles: A Military History of Ireland (Belfast, 1989), 146.
54. Tyrone's Rebellion is also known as the Nine Years War. I have not used that designation to avoid confusion with the Nine Years War of 1688–97.
55. W. MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I: War and Politics (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 391.
56. Hale, op. cit., 64.
57. C. Hibbert, Elizabeth I: Genius of the Golden Age (1991), 236. J. R. Hale, ‘Shakespeare and Warfare’, in J. F. Andrews, ed., William Shakespeare and his World, his Work, his Influences (New York, 1985), I, 92.
58. Smythe, op. cit., 21.
59. C. Brady, ‘The Captains’ Games: Army and Society in Ireland’, in T. Bartlett and K. Jeffries, eds, A Military History of Ireland (1996), 158.
60. I. E., ‘A Letter from a Souldier of a good place in Ireland’, in A. Kinney, Elizabethan Background: Historical Documents in the Age of Elizabeth (Hamden, CT, 1975), 351. W. Farmer, ‘William Farmer: Chronicler for Ireland from 1594–1613’, ed. C. L. Falkiner, English Historical Review, 85 (1907), 125. Sean O'Faolain, The Great O'Neill (New York, 1942), 380ff. C. E. Maxwell, Irish History from Contemporary Sources, 1509–1610 (1923), 196.
61. R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (1887), III, 249.
62. Calendar of State Papers, Ireland (1893), VI, 195. Hale, op. cit., 114. H. Davis, ‘The Military Career of Sir Thomas North’, Huntington Library Quarterly, XII (1949), 317. Bagwell, op. cit., III, 194–95.
63. Calendar of State Papers, Ireland (1903), IX, 417. McGurk, op. cit., 222. McGurk, ‘The Nine Years War in Ireland’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 273 (1990), 23–24. P. Logan, ‘Pestilence in the Irish Wars: The Earlier Phase’, Irish Sword, 29 (1966), 284.
64. S. Hindle, The State and Social Change in Early Modern England, 1550–1640 (2001), 54.
65. McGurk, Elizabethan Conquest, 30–33, 168–70.
66. N. Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: A Pattern Established, 1565–1576 (1976), 124.
67. Dewing, op. cit., 399.
68. Bagwell, op. cit., III, 97.
69. P. E. Hammer, Elizabeth's Wars: War, Government, and Society in Tudor England, 1544–1604 (2003), 109.
70. S. L. Cavanaugh, ‘Elizabethan Views of Ireland’, in B. Bradshaw, et al., Representing Ireland: Literature and the Origins of Conflict, 1534–1660 (1993), 122–23.
71. Farmer, op. cit., 103–30. Bagwell, op. cit., III, 41.
72. J. Gillingham, ‘The English Invasion of Ireland’, in Bradshaw, op. cit., 24–42.
73. John Lynn, Battle (2003), makes some interesting points about the role racial hatred played in the Pacific Campaign.
74. Hayes-McCoy, op. cit., 83.
75. Farmer, op. cit., 127.
76. Bagwell, op. cit., II, 244–45.
77. Farmer, op. cit., 106.
78. Dewing, op. cit., 390–92.
79. Hale, op. cit., 184–85.
80. Churchyard, op. cit. 99.
81. Bagwell, op. cit. III, 40–41.
82. I. Heath, The Irish Wars, 1485–1603 (1993), 34. D. Edward, ‘Beyond Reform: Martial Law in Tudor Ireland’, History Ireland (1999), 16–21.
83. Cavanaugh, op. cit., 126. C. Brady, ‘Spenser's Irish Crisis: Humanism and Experience in the 1590s’, Past and Present, 111 (1986), 17–23. S. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: from Moore to Shakespeare (Chicago, 1980). Barnaby Rich in ‘A looking Glass for her Majesty Wherein to View Ireland’, sent to the queen, 10 May 1599, cited McGurk, op. cit., 16.
84. My thanks to Lt-Colonel Anthony Clayton (TAVR) and Lt-Colonel Joseph Caddell (USAF), both intelligence officers, for discussions about the collection of intelligence.
85. J. Sharpe, ‘Social Stress and Social Dislocation’, in J. Guy, ed., The Reign of Elizabeth I (Cambridge, 1997), 192–95.
86. MacCaffrey, op. cit., 13. McGurk, op. cit., 53.
87. D. Trim, Fighting Jacob's Wars: the Employment of English and Welsh Mercenaries in the European Wars of Religion in France and the Netherlands, 1562–1610, London, Ph.D. (2002), 340, 515. R. B. Manning, Swordsmen: the Martial Ethos in the Three Kingdoms (Oxford, 2003), 52.
88. C. Martin and G. Parker, The Spanish Armada (Manchester, 1999), 65.
89. J. S. Nolan estimates that 283,590 English and Welshmen served in the armed forces excluding the trained bands and militia: ‘The Militarization of the Elizabethan State’, Journal of Modern History, 58, 3 (1994), 405–20.
90. In fact no evidence has been found that Shakespeare ever served in the armed forces. S. Schoenbaum, Shakespeare's Lives (Oxford, 1991), 331.
91. Rodger, op. cit, 317.
92. J. Lingham, A True Relation of all English Captains and Lieutenants that had been slain in the Low Countries (1584). Trim, op. cit., 504. H Morgan, ‘"Never any realm worse governed”: Queen Elizabeth and Ireland’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Series, 14 (2004), 308.
93. Spenser, Works (1805), 421.
94. Smythe, op. cit., 24. Nolan, op. cit., 405.
95. Logan, op. cit., 185.
96. G. Henry ‘The Emerging Identity of an Irish military group in the Spanish Netherlands’, R. V. Commerford, et al., Religion, Conflict and Coexistence in Ireland (Dublin, 1990), 38.
97. Rodger, op. cit., 316.
98. ‘World War I Casualties’, ‘World War II casualties’, Wikipedia. While I recognize that Wikipedia must be handled with great caution, I have used these entries because they are extremely well sourced, and frequently updated.
99. Parker, op. cit., 289. McGurk, op. cit., 15. Hammer, op. cit., 79.
100. T. Digges, England's Defence (1680), 12–13.
101. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1992), 168.
102. Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, 1596–97, 252.
103. Rodger. op. cit., 340–41.
104. Hammer, op. cit., 208.
105. Nolan, op. cit., 394. Hammer, op. cit., 264.
106. Professor Richard Holmes has astutely observed that by now the concept has become ‘fruitless’. R. Holmes, Battlefield: Decisive Conflicts in History (Oxford, 2006), 62. Nolan, op. cit., 394. Hammer, op. cit., 264.
107. Somogyi, op. cit., 55.
108. M. Calore, ‘Battle Scenes in the Queen's Men's Repertoire’, Notes and Queries, 50, 4 (2003), 394–99. N. Taunton, 1590s. Drama and Militarism: Portrayal of War in Marlowe, Chapman and Shakespeare's Henry V (Aldershot, 2001).
109. D. R. Lawrence, The Complete Soldier: Military Books and Military Culture in Early Stuart England, 1603–1645 (Leiden, 2009), 238. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 49.
110. P. Jorgensen, Shakespeare's Military Works, (Berkeley, CA, 1959), 2.
111. Somogyi, op. cit., 107.
112. Duff Cooper, Sergeant Shakespeare (1949), 46. T. Meron, Henry's War and Shakespeare's Laws: Perspectives on the Law of War in the Late Middle Ages (Oxford, 1993), 16.
113. B. Rich, Riche: His Farewell to Militarie Profession (1581), 64.
114. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Buccleuch, I, 233.
115. J. S. Adamson, ‘Chivalry and Political Culture in Caroline England’, in K. Sharpe and P. Lake, eds, Culture and Politics in Stuart England (1993), 184–85.
116. Second editions have been counted. M. J. D. Cockle, A Bibliography of Military Books (1900). D. Cressy, Literacy and Social Order (Cambridge, 1980), 162–68.
117. B. Donagan, ‘Halcyon days and the literature of war: England's military education before 1642’, Past and Present, 147 (1995), 80–81.
118. Robert Ward's Animadversions of Warre (1639), 10. Smythe, op. cit., xv.
119. Langsam, op. cit., 7.
120. F. Markham, Five Decades of Epistles of Warre (1622), 2. R. Barret, The Theorike and Practice of Modern Warres (1598), 5, agrees with Markham.
121. Othello, I, i, 25–31.
122. His son, Thomas, ignored his father's advice and became a distinguished soldier; Salisbury MSS, IV, 4–5. P. Jorgensen, ‘Moral Guidance and Religious Encouragement for the Elizabethan Soldier’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 13 (1950), 257. Simon Harward, The Solace for the Souldier and Saylour (1591), image 25. W. Garrard, The Arte of Warre (1591), 43.
123. Thomas Proctor agreed in Of the Knowledge and Conducte of Warre (1578). Langsam. op. cit., 5–8.
124. C. N. Robinson and J. Leyland, The British Tar in Fact and Fiction: The Poetry, Pathos and Humour of the Sailor's Life (New York, 1909), 51.
125. Corbet, op. cit., 134.
126. Somogyi, op. cit., 16.
127. R. Barret, op. cit., 3. Roger Williams, The Works (Oxford, 1972), xcvi.
128. Henry V, III, ii, 61–63.
129. P. Tsouris, Warriors’ World: a Quotation Book (1992), 199.
130. Manning, op. cit..
131. H. Barwick, A Breef Discourse concerning the Force of all Manual Weapons (1594), 4.
132. L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy (Oxford, 1965), 266. F. Markham, Five Decades of Epistles of War (1622), in E. Bush, ed., Salute to the Soldier: an Anthology of Quotations, Poems and Prose (1966), 1. A. Esler, Aspiring Mind of the Elizabethan Younger Generation (Durham, NC, 1966).
133. Jorgensen, op. cit., 242.
134. Trim, op. cit., 283. Manning, op. cit., 22.
135. Barwick, op. cit., 5.
136. M. James, English Politics and the Concept of Honour (1978), 157. Kinney, op. cit., 281.
137. L. M. Marcus, J. M. Mueller, M. B. Rose, eds, Elizabeth I: Collected Works (Chicago, 2002), 283.
138. Jorgensen, op. cit., 145.
139. Williams, op. cit., xxiii.
140. W. Raleigh, The Works of Sir Walter Raleigh (Oxford, 1829) VIII, 246.
141. J. Fortescue, History of the British Army (1910), I, 157. B. Montgomery, History of Warfare (1968), 223. G. R. Elton, England under the Tudors (Cambridge, 1965), 358.
142. J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (1985), 232–36. Hammer, op. cit., 254–57. B. Downing, The Military Revolution and Policy Change (1992), 165. Fissel, op. cit., 82–180.
143. Raleigh, Works (1962), VIII, 325.
Chapter 4 Why Men Fought
1. T. Churchyard, A Lamentable and Pitiful description of the woful Warres in Flaunders (1578), 21.
2. W. Patten, ‘The Expedition into Scotland’, in A. F. Pollard, Tudor Tracts (1903), 113. Quoted by J. Keegan, The Mask of Command (1987), 329.
3. Roger Williams, Works (Oxford, 1972), 7.
4. J. R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (1983), 402.
5. E. W. Harcourt, The Harcourt Papers (Oxford, 1880–1905), I, 116. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 262. Matthew Bishop, Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop (1744), 17, 216. William III is supposed to have said ‘every bullet has its billet’, Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (Oxford, 1959), 570/29, anticipating the proverb about a bullet with your name on it. E. W. Harcourt, The Harcourt Papers (Oxford, 1880–1905), I, 116. J. Jamieson, ‘Lt. Col.John Blackadder’, Transactions of the Stirling Natural History and Archaeological Society (1925–26), 60.
6. J. Bruce, ed., Letters and Papers of the Verney Family (Camden Society, 1853), 276. J. P. Kenyon. The Civil Wars of England (New York, 1988), 47.
7. F. T. R. Edgar, Sir Ralph Hopton: The King's Man in the West (1968), 127.
8. Quoted by C. M. Fissel, English Warfare, 1511–1642 (2001), 121.
9. Quoted by B. Donagan, War in England, 1642–1649 (2008), 238.
10. John Keegan made those comments at a talk I attended in the spring of 1982 at Pembroke College, Cambridge.
11. K. Kopperman, ‘The Cheapest Pay: Alcohol Abuse in the 18th-century British Army’, Journal of Military History, 60, 3 (1966), 445–70. Richard Holmes, Acts of War, 245. J. A. Sharpe, Crime in the Seventeenth Century: A County Study (Cambridge, 1983), 131–33. C. B. Herrup, The Common Peace: Participation and the Criminal Law in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1987), 26.
12. R. Kipling, Departmental Ditties and Ballads: Barrack Room Ballads (New York, 1899), 31.
13. D. Riggs, Ben Jonson: A Life (Cambridge, 1989), 18. A. Bayley. The Great Civil War in Dorset (Taunton, 1910), 286–88.
14. L. James, Warrior Race: A History of the British at War (2001), 148. H Southern and N. Nicolas, ‘The Life and Times of Matthew Bishop’, Retrospective Review, 2nd series (1828), 44–46, 53.
15. H. Herbert, ‘Captain Henry Herbert's narrative of his Journey through France with his Regiment, 1671–1673’, ed. J. Childs, Camden Miscellany, 4th Series, XXX (1990), 339.
16. J. Cruso, Military instructions for the Cavallerie (1632).
17. Sir James Turner, Memoirs of his Life and Times, 1630–72 (Edinburgh, 1829), 94.
18. W. Jenkyn, The Policy of Princes (1656), 37.
19. R. Marbeck, ‘A Brief and True Report of the Honorable Voyage unto Cadiz, 1596’, A. F. Kinney, Elizabethan Background (Hamden, CT, 1975), 285. C. S. L. Davies, ‘England and the French Wars, 1557–59’, in R. Titler and J. Loach, eds, The Mid-Tudor Polity (1980), 165.
20. G. N. Godwin, The Civil War in Hampshire (1904). J. Adair, ‘The Court Martial Papers of Sir William Waller's Army, 1644’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 44 (1966), 205–26. G. Davies, ‘Dundee Court Martial Record, 1651’, Miscellany of the Scottish Historical Society, III, 2nd series, XIX (1919), 9–66.
21. These figures reflect the practices of civilian courts, where between a quarter to a half of those charged were acquitted, and about a half sentenced to die were actually executed. A. MacFarlane, Justice and the Mare's Ale (New York, 1981), 195. J. H. Leslie, ‘A General Court Martial in 1708’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, IV, 18 (1925), 161–65.
22. A. N. Gilbert, ‘Military and Civilian Justice in 18th-Century England: An Assessment’, Journal of British Studies, 19 (1978), 59.
23. Blackadder, op. cit., 316.
24. S. Crane, The Red Badge of Courage (2004), 27. Holmes, op. cit., 58. Gwynne Dyer, War (1986), 120–25.
25. Karl von Clausewitz, On War (Harmondsworth, 1987), 139. James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven, Memoirs (Waterford, 1680), 130–36. A Myrrour for English Soldiers: or an Anatomy of an Accomplished Man at Armes (1595), np.
26. J. Keegan, War and Our World: The Reith Lectures (1998). Estimate made by David Van Fleet and Gary Yukl. My thanks to Stanley Carpenter of the Naval War College for this information.
27. J. Keegan, ‘Towards a Theory of Combat Motivation’, in P. Addison and A. Calder, eds, Time to Kill (1997), 3–10. C. M. Moran, The Anatomy of Courage (1945), 183. Robert Boyle, Earl of Orrery, Treatise on the Art of War (1677), 12.
28. A. Kellett, Combat Motivation: The Behaviour of Soldiers in Battle (Boston, 1982), 152–53.
29. Williams, op. cit., xl. H. J. Webb, Elizabethan Military Science: The Books and Practice (Madison, WI, 1965), 36.
30. Humphrey Bland, A Treatise of Military Discipline (1727), 144. Bland also agreed that with good officers, soldiers ‘seldom or never fail in Success’.
31. A. K. Millett, ‘American Military History: Clio and Mars as “Pards”’, in D. A. Charters, M. Miner, J. B. Wilson, Military History across the Military Profession (Westpoint, CT, 1992), 58.
32. Miss Porter, Aphorisms of Sir Philip Sydney (1807), 71. D. Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Costs in Learning to Kill in War and Society (New York, 1995), 85. F. Vere, The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere (Cambridge, 1659), 104.
33. Wellington, Supplementary Dispatches (1872), 176. G. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 68–69. Touchet, op. cit. (1680).
34. B. Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs (Oxford, 1853), I, 190–91.
35. He used the same rhetorical device with the regiments at Andover on 12 May 1649: W. C. Abbott, The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (Cambridge, MA, 1937), I, 608, II, 68.
36. 6 May 1705, W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough (1905), I, 297.
37. D. Defoe, The Military Memoirs of Captain George Carleton (1929), 37. S. Baxter, William III (1966), 265. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Leyborne-Popham MSS, 273.
38. S. Noyes. ‘The Letters of Samuel Noyes, Chaplain of the Royal Scots, 1703–04’, ed. S. H. F. Johnston, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 37 (1959), 131. E. G. Arni, Hospital Care and the British Standing Army, 1660–1714 (Aldershot, 2006), 71, 80, 127.
39. E. Gruffudd, ‘Suffolk's Expedition to Montdidier’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad University, 7 (1944), 60.
40. Herbert, op. cit., 335.
41. R. Holmes, Redcoat: The British Soldier in the Age of Horse and Musket (2001), 393.
42. G. Gates, The Defence of the Militarie Profession (1579), 1. R. Williams, A Brief Discourse of War (1590), 10–12. H. J. Webb, ‘The Elizabethan Soldier: A Study of the Ideal and the Real’, Western Humanities Review, 4 (1949–50), 71.
43. 1 September 1643, T. Carlyle, ed., Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1888), I, 147.
44. Langsam, op. cit., 160. J. Achesone, The Military Garden, or instructions for all young soldiers (Edinburgh, 1629), 1.
45. A. Woolwych, ‘The Cromwellian Protectorate: A Military Dictatorship?’ History, 75 (1990), 207–31, disagrees.
46. Edward Ward, Mars Stript of his Armour, or the Army Displayed in all its True Colour (1709), quoted by E. Bush, ed., Salute to the Soldier: An Anthology of Quotations, Poems, and Prose (1966), 12.
47. Cruso, op. cit., 2–12. Sir John Smythe, Certain Discourses Military (1590), quoted by Webb, op. cit., 27–28.
48. W. Beamont, A Discourse of the War in Lancashire (Chetham Society, 1864), 82.
49. J. Bampfield, Apologia (The Hague, 1685), 4.
50. J. G. Marston, ‘Gentry Honour and Royalism in Early Stuart England’, Journal of British Studies, XIII (1973–74), 21–43.
51. Francis Markham, The Booke of Honour (1625), 14–19. Sir Edward Cecil, Earl of Wimbledon, ‘The Duty of a Private Soldier’, quoted by R. B. Manning, Swordsmen: The Martial Ethos in the Three Kingdoms (Oxford, 2003), 57.
52. Othello, III, iii, 182–85.
53. ‘Mainy’ may be a corruption of ‘main’, meaning a host. E. Arber, The Surrey and Wyatt Anthology, 1509–47 (2009), 170.
54. A True Copy of a Speech made by an English Colonel to his Regiment immediately before their Transportation for Flanders from Harwich (1691), 1.
55. G. Nugent, Some memorials of John Hampden, his party and his time (1832), I, 308. J. R. Phillips, Memoirs of the civil war in Wales and the Marches, 1642–49 (1874), I, 199. William Shakespeare, Henry VI, Part II, IV, i, 134.
56. E. Foyster, Masculinity in Early Modern England (1999), 147.
57. Evidence of John Thomas at Charles's trial, Cobbett's Complete Collection of State Trials (1809), IV, 1,106.
58. M. James, English Politics and the Concept of Honour (1978), 4–12, 73.
59. F. Bacon, The Essays of Lord Bacon (1889), 96.
60. F. Beaumont and J. Fletcher's The Knight of the Burning Pestle, V, ii, 61–62.
61. II Samuel 10:12. Quoted by B. T. Whitehead, Brags and Boasts: Propaganda in the Year of the Armada (Stroud, 1994), 91.
62. J. Hattendorf, British Naval Documents, 1204–1906 (Naval Record Society, 131, 1993), 290.
63. An Exact and perfect relation of every particular of the fight at Worcester (1651), 2.
64. P. Gordon, Passages from the Journal of General Patrick Gordon, ed. J. Robertson (1859), 51.
65. M. Weidhorn, Richard Lovelace (New York, 1970), 107–60.
66. J. Bampfield, Apologia (The Hague, 1685), 4.
67. Foyster, op. cit., 7. V. Snow, Essex the Rebel (Lincoln, NB, 1970), 343.
68. L. Hutchinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel John Hutchinson (1906), I, 30. P. Massinger, A new way to pay old debts (1633), I, ii, 128–31.
69. George Monck, duke of Albermarle, Observations on political and military affairs (1671), 2.
70. Henry IV, Part II, II, iii, 7–12. A. P. Wavell, Other Men's Posies: An Anthology of Poetry (1985), 422. Wavell must surely be the only field marshal to edit such an anthology.
71. Edward Chisenhale, A Brief Journal of the Siege of Latham Hall, 1644 (1823), 9.
72. S. Murdock, ‘John Brown: A Black Female Soldier in the Royal Africa Company’, World History Connected: The Online Journal of World History, II (2004), note 7: I am grateful to Dr Murdock for bringing this site to my attention.
73. British Library: Harleian MSS, 164, 233.
74. A. Fraser, The Weaker Vessel (1985), 221. Anne Lawrence, ‘Women's Work and the English Civil War’, History Today, 42/6 (1992), 21.
75. Murdock, op. cit., 2.
76. In the Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900) she is listed under Christian Davies. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 109. T. McGuffie, Rank and File: The Common Soldier in Peace and War, 1642–1914 (1964), 4.
77. S. D. Safford, Quaint Epitaphs (1902), 53. C. J. M. Martin, ‘Ancrum Moor: a Day of Reckoning’, Scots Magazine, 83 (May 1965), 149.
78. D. Dugaw, ‘Ballad's Female Warriors: Women, Warfare and Disguise in the Eighteenth Century’, Eighteenth Century, IX (1985), 2.
79. Richard Baxter, Reliquiae Baxterianae (1696), 53.
80. Johnston, op. cit., 37.
81. G. F. Nuttal, Richard Baxter (1965), 38–39.
82. ‘Butty’ comes from coal mining, and is a phrase used by Welsh soldiers. While the Oxford English Dictionary says it comes from a group of men who work together for a set sum ('buddy’ has the same etymology), in the Welch Regiment soldiers told me the term came from working to fill the same butt, or small rail car with coal.
83. See Introduction.
84. S. L. A. Marshall, Men against Fire (New York, 1947), 42. Holmes, Acts of War, 293. Grossman, op. cit., 152–53. Dyer, op. cit., 140.
85. J. P. Collier, W. C. and C. E. Trevelyan, Trevelyan Papers (Camden Society, 1872), I, 80–84.
86. W. Brocklington, ed., Monro: His Expedition with the Worthy Scots Regiment Called Mac-Keys (1999), x, 203.
87. John Adair, By the Sword Divided: Eyewitness Accounts of the English Civil War (1983), 159. J. Stevens, The Journal of Captain John Stevens (Oxford, 1912), 188. M. McManners, The Scars of War (1983), 331.
88. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Heathcote Manuscripts (1899), 44.
89. ‘Neptune's Raging Fury’, in C. H. Firth, Naval Songs and Ballads (1908), 46.
Chapter 5 Those Were Golden Days: Early Stuart Warfare, 1603–1639
1. Lou Potter, Secret Rites and Secret Writing: Royalist Literature, 1641–1660 (Cambridge, 1991), 26.
2. This section is based on C. Carlton, Charles I: The Personal Monarch (orig. 1983, 2rd edn, 1995). Since the first publication of my book, several new studies have appeared, including fine biographies by J. Reeve, Charles I and the Road to Personal Rule (2003), M. Young, Charles I (1997), Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Biography (2007), and K. Sharpe, The Personal Rule of Charles I (1996). More recently, M. Kishlansky has tried to restore the king's reputation in ‘Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity’, Past and Present, 189 (2005), 41–81. The debate on his article, ibid., 205 (2009), 212–37, suggests that Professor Kishlansky's interpretation has not been universally accepted, and that the latest scholarship may not necessarily be the most convincing.
3. F. Bamford, A Royalist's Notebook: The Commonplace Book of Sir John Oglander (1936), 193.
4. D. H. Willson, James VI and I (New York, 1967), 102. James VI and I, Works (New York, 1971), 165–66. Henry V, V, Chorus, 48. S. Murdoch, Scotland and the Thirty Years War (Leiden, 2001), 5–18. My thanks to Steve Murdoch for bringing these points to my attention.
5. Raymond Gillespie, ‘An Army sent by God: Scots at War in Ireland, 1642–49’, in N. MacDougall, Scotland and War (Savage, MD, 1991), 114.
6. N.A.M. Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (New York, 1997), 376.
7. S. R. Gardiner, History of England, 1603–42 (1883–84), I, 341.
8. Rodger, op. cit., 366.
9. T. Digges, Four Paradoxes (1604), 107.
10. R. Lockyer, Buckingham (1981), 251.
11. N. de Somogyi, Shakespeare's Theatre of War (Aldershot, 1998), 124.
12. B. Rich, The Fruites of Long Experience (1604), dedication.
13. F. Bacon, The Major Works (Oxford, 2002), 402. F. Drake, Works (1829), III, 519–20.
14. J. Corbet, A True and impartial History of the Millitarie Government of the Citie of Gloucester (1647), 11. For a discussion of James's sexuality, see Carlton, op. cit., 18–19.
15. Charles was married by proxy on 1 May, his wedding night being 13 June. Carlton, op. cit., 29, 63.
16. Ibid., 41–45.
17. T. Cogswell, ‘Foreign Policy and Parliament: The Case of La Rochelle, 1625–27’, English Historical Review, 99, 391 (April 1984), 241–67.
18. 13 October 1627, Charles to Holland, Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1627–28, 385.
19. 13 July 1625, Pesaro to Doge, Calendar of State Papers, Venetian, 1625–26, 245.
20. J. Nichols, ed., The Progresses, processions and magnificent festivities of King James the First (1828), 971.
21. 2 March 1625, Cromwell to Carleton, National Archives: State Papers 84/126/3.
22. Anthony Weldon, The Court of King Charles (1811), II, 27.
23. John Glanville, The Voyage to Cadiz, ed. Alexander Grant (Camden Society, 1883), 59–60.
24. 8 November 1625, Wimbledon to Buckingham, National Archives: SP/6/9/30.
25. J. Rous, The Diary of John Rous (1856), 1. British Library: Stowe MSS, 176, 268.
26. A Journal of all the Proceedings of the Duke of Buckingham (1627). A Continued Journal of all the Proceedings of the Duke of Buckingham (1627), and A true Report of all the Special passages of note lately happened in the Island of Re (1627).
27. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe, 1496–1715 (1992), 82.
28. Sir Edward Conway to his father, the Secretary of State, National Archives: State Papers 16/78/71.
29. John Ashburnham, A narrative … Of his attendance on King Charles (1830), 363.
30. B. Ingram, Three Sea Journals of Stuart Times (1936).
31. T. Barnes, Vox Belli: an Alarum to Warre (1626), 40. F. Markham, Five Decades of Epistles of War (1622), 31. V. Slater, ‘The Lord Lieutenancy on the Eve of the Civil Wars: The Impressment of George Plowright’, Historical Journal, 29, 2 (1980), 284. T. Cogswell, The Blessed Revolution: English Politics and the Coming of the War, 1621–1624 (Cambridge, 1989).
32. Sir John Oglander, The Oglander Memoirs (1888), 37.
33. R. Bean, ‘War and the Birth of the Nation State’, Journal of Economic History, 32 (1973), 214.
34. R. A. Anselment, ‘Clarendon and the Caroline Myth of Peace’, Journal of British Studies, 23, 2 (1984), 37–55. T. Carew, The Poems of Thomas Carew (1899), 107.
35. W. Schumaker, ‘Vox Polpuli: The Thirty Years Wars in English Pamphlets and Newspapers’, Princeton Ph.D. (1975), 248. Barbara Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct in the English Civil War’, Past and Present, 118 (1988), 68–69.
36. Sydenham Poyntz, The Relations of Sydenham Poyntz, 1624–36 (Camden Society, 1908), 60.
37. Folger Library MSS, V. A. 436, fol. 26v.
38. Oliver Millar, Rubens and the Whitehall Ceiling (1958), 18.
39. P. Bjurstrom, ‘Rubens's “St. George and the Dragon”’, Art Quarterly (Spring, 1955), 27–42.
40. Abraham Cowley, Poems (2002), 22.
41. T. Carew, The Poems and Masque of Thomas Carew, ed. J. W. Ebsworth (1893), 115.
42. W. D'Avenant, The Dramatic Works (1872), 312.
43. G. Hammond, Fleeting Things: English Poets and Poetry 1616–1660 (1990), 31.
44. Joyce Malcolm, Caesar's Due: Loyalty and King Charles, 1642–1646 (1983), 234–35.
45. Corbet, op. cit., 11. Thomas Palmer, Bristol's Military Garden (1635), quoted by R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 141.
46. W. Barriffe, Military Discipline for the Young Artilleryman (1643), Chapter 1.
47. A. Clark, ‘The Essex Territorial Force, 1625–38’, Essex Review, 18 (1909), 68.
48. H. Oakes–Jones, ‘The Old March of the English Army’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 6 (1927), 5–8. M. C. Fissel, ‘Tradition and Invention in the Early Stuart Art of War’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 65 (1987), 133–47.
49. A. Fletcher, A Country Community in Peace and War: Sussex, 1600–1660 (1975), 187.
50. G. Markham, ‘The Muster Master’, ed. C. L. Hamilton, Camden Miscellany, 4th series, 14 (1975), 49–75. T. G. Barnes, Somerset, 1625–1642 (1961), 264.
51. D. P. Carter, ‘The Exact Militia in Lancashire, 1625–1649’, Northern History, 11 (1975), 87–108.
52. L. Boynton, The Elizabethan Militia (1967), 269.
53. P. Haythornthwaite, The English Civil War (Poole, 1984), 17. J. Roberts, Great Yarmouth Exercises in a very Complete and martial manner performed by the Artillery Men (1638), 4.
54. B. Jonson, Works, ed. F. Cunningham (1875), VIII, 410.
55. T. S. Scanlon, ‘Citizen Soldiers: The Role of the London Trained Bands in the Puritan Revolution’, Harvard Ph.D. (1974). Boynton, op. cit., 262.
56. J. R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (1983), 501.
57. P. M. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy (Cambridge, MA, 2009), 322. Manning, op. cit., 65, 70–71, estimates that between fifty and eighty-five thousand Britons fought overseas in the Thirty Years War, including twenty-five thousand Scots. In addition, as many as a hundred thousand Scots emigrated.
58. E. A. Beller, ‘The Military Expedition of Sir Charles Morgan to Germany, 1627–29’, English Historical Review, 43 (1928), 530–37. F. Prinzing, Epidemics Resulting from War (Oxford, 1916), 1–18.
59. T. A. Devine, Scotland's Empire, 1600–1815 (2003), 13.
60. V. G. Kiernam, ‘Foreign Mercenaries and Absolute Monarchy’, Past and Present, 11 (1959), 69. G. S. Simpson, The Scottish Soldier Abroad (Edinburgh, 1992), ix. W. Brocklington, ed., Monro: His Expedition with the Worthy Scots Regiment Called Mac-Keys (1999), xxxviii. K. M. Brown, ‘From Scottish Lords to British Officers: State Building, Elite Integration, and the Army in the Seventeenth Century’. N. MacDougall, Scotland and War (Savage, MD, 1991), 141, says the Privy Council authorized the levying of 47,110 troops. R. D. Fitzsimon, ‘Irish Swordsmen in the Imperial Service in the Thirty Years War’, Irish Sword, IX (1969), 22–31. J. Ohlmeyer, ‘The Wars of Religion, 1603–66’, 19–21. E. M. Furgol, ‘Scotland Turned Sweden: The Scots Covenanters and the Military Revolution, 1638–1651’, 5–6. I am most grateful to Dr Ohlmeyer and to Dr Furgol for sending me a copy of their unpublished papers.
61. A. Grosjean, An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden, 1569–1654 (Lieden, 2004). Murdock, op. cit., 18–21. G. Parker, Warfare (Cambridge, 1995), 149. G. Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800 (Cambridge, 1988), 49.
62. G. Henry, ‘Ulster Exiles in Europe, 1605–41’, in B. McCurtuart, Ulster, 1641 (Belfast, 1993), 43. G. Henry, ‘The Emerging Identity of Irish Military Groups in the Spanish Netherlands’, ed. R. V. Cornford et al., Conflict and Coexistence in Ireland (Dublin, 1990), 64. Nicholas Canny, ‘What Really Happened in Ireland in 1641’, in J. Ohlmeyer, Ireland from Independence to Occupation (Cambridge, 1995), 42, argues that from 1603 to 1641 a hundred thousand young men left Ireland. Wilson, op. cit., 322.
63. Sir James Turner, Memoirs of his Life and Times, 1630–72 (Edinburgh, 1829), 6–7.
64. J. Beveridge, ‘The Scottish Expedition in Norway in 1612’, Proceedings of the Antiquarian Society of Scotland, 6th series, 7 (1932–33), 209–23.
65. D. Hebb, Piracy and the English Government, 1616–42 (Aldershot, 1994).
66. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1625–26, 274, 288. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1627–28, 84–85, 151. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1635–36, 15. National Archives: SP16/295/44, II.
67. Rodger, op. cit., 382–83. Gardiner, op. cit., IX, 64–69.
68. G. Thorn-Drury, The Poems of Edmund Waller (1893), I, 15.
69. W. Lilly, The Life and Death of Charles I (1774), 190.
70. C. H. Firth, Naval Songs and Ballads (1908), 40.
71. D. Brunton and D. H. Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament (1954). M. F. Keeler, The Long Parliament, 1640–41 (1954).
72. Turner, op. cit., 13–14.
73. D. Stevenson, The Scottish Revolution, 1637–44 (Newton Abbot, 1973), 131. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars (Oxford, 1826), IV, 75–76.
74. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1640–41, 212.
Chapter 6 Low-Intensity Combat: Campaigning
1. Millner does not give complete figures for 1702 and 1712. J. Millner, A Compendious Journal of all the Marches (1737). W. Churchill, Marlborough: His Life and Times (1933), I, 489.
2. Q. Wright, A Study of War (Chicago, 1965), 223–24.
3. G. Parker, The Military Revolution (Cambridge, 1988), 40.
4. Richard Kane, Campaigns of King William and Queen Anne from 1689 to 1712 (1745), 291, 302. P. Drake, Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake (Stanford, CA, 1960), 236.
5. R. A. Houston, ‘The Military and Edinburgh Society, 1660–1760’, War and Society, II, 2 (1993), 48.
6. J. Bernardi, A Short History of the Life of Major John Bernardi (1729), 28.
7. Sir James Turner, Memoirs of his Life and Times, 1630–72 (Edinburgh, 1829), 6.
8. Quoted by B. Whelan, ‘Women and Warfare, 1641–91’, in P. Lenihan, ed., Conquest and Resistance, War in Seventeenth-Century Ireland (Lieden, 2001), 331.
9. E. Gruffudd, ‘Suffolk's Expedition to Montdidier’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad University, 7 (1944), 40–41.
10. A. Kingston, East Anglia in the Great Civil War (1897), 147.
11. Turner, op. cit., 22.
12. P. Logan, ‘Medical Services in the Armies of the Confederate Wars’, Irish Sword, IV (1960), 221. Kane, op. cit., 2.
13. J. McGurk, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: The 1590s Crisis (Manchester, 1997), 234.
14. S. Noyes, ‘The Letters of Samuel Noyes, Chaplain of the Royal Scots, 1703–04’, ed. S. H. F. Johnston, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 37 (1959), 132.
15. D. Stewart, ‘Sickness and Mortality Rates in the English Army until the Twentieth Century,’ Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 91 (1948), 23–35. R. Harding, Amphibious Warfare in the Eighteenth Century: The British Expedition to the West Indies, 1740–1742 (Woodbridge, 1991), 3.
16. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 173. M. Bishop, Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop (1744), 119. 15 May 1702, W. Coxe and J. Wade, eds, Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough (1905), 83.
17. Five Newes Letters (1678), np.
18. C. N. Robinson and J. Leyland, The British Tar in Fact and Fiction: The Poetry, Pathos, and Humour of the Sailor's Life (New York, 1909), 5.
19. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 102. The royalist newspaper Mercurius Aulicus printed Susan's letter: John Adair, By the Sword Divided: Eyewitness Accounts of the English Civil War (London, 1983), 118. For evidence that Rodway most likely died, see C. Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–51 (1992), 129, note 120.
20. T. M. Devine, Scotland's Empire, 1600–1815 (2003), 5.
21. S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (1987), III, 207. F. P. and M. M. Verney, Memoirs of the Verney Family during the Civil War and Commonwealth (1892–99), II, 200.
22. C. Carlton. ‘The Widow's Tale: Male Myths and Female Reality in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England’, Albion, X, 2 (Summer, 1978), 95–103.
23. Blackadder, op. cit., 173.
24. Two years later he lost eighteen horses crossing the Channel. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Cowper, II, 456.
25. E. Gruffudd, ‘The Enterprise of Paris and Boulogne’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad University, II (1949), 40–41. J. Deane, A Journal of the Campaign in Flanders (Camden Society, 1846), 6.
26. T. Raymond, C. and J. Guise, Autobiography of Thomas Raymond and Memoirs of the Family of Guise (2007), 43. B. Riche, Riche: His Farewell to the Militarie Profession (1581, 1959 edn), 4.
27. In the foreword to William Garrard, The Art of War (1591).
28. J. P. Collier, W. C. and C. E. Trevelyan, Trevelyan Papers: Part II (Camden Society, 1872–73), I, 180.
29. D. Lupton, A Warre-like Treatise of the Pike (1642), quoted by W. Emberton, Skippon's Brave Boys: The Origins, Development, and Civil War Service of London's Trained Bands (Buckingham, 1984), 34. Turner, op. cit., 23. G. Carleton, The Military Memoirs of Captain George Carleton (1929), 67.
30. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Cowper, III, 26. Blackadder, op. cit., 199, 213, 219, 220, 238, 241, 246, 272, 376.
31. Turner, op. cit., 22.
32. Stewart, op. cit., 40. ‘A Royal Dragoon in the Spanish Succession War’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research (1938), 11.
33. Noyes, op. cit., 40.
34. McGurk, op. cit., 225.
35. Quoted by D. Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (New York, 1995), 67.
36. Blackadder, op. cit., 363.
37. Raymond, op. cit., 42.
38. R. Alexander, ‘A Journal of a Soldier in the Earl of Ellington's Troop of Horse’, Glasgow Archaeological Society (1859–68), 38–50.
39. P. Hardacre, ‘The English Contingent in Portugal, 1662–1668’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 38 (1960), 112–25.
40. T. Churchyard, ‘An Eyewitness Account of the Siege of Guienne’, in A. F. Pollard, Tudor Tracts (1903), 326. R. Atkyns, Vindication of Richard Atkyns (1968), 22.
41. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Leyborn-Popham MSS, 273.
42. British Library, Harleian MSS, 986, 6.
43. J. Stevens, The Journal of Captain John Stevens (Oxford, 1912), 153.
44. R. Brereton, The British Soldier: A Social History from 1661 to the Present Day (1986), 10.
45. R. Coe, An Exact Diarie (1644), 4.
46. B. Fergusson, The Wild Green Earth (1946), 194. Justin Wintle, Dictionary of War Quotations (1969), 52.
47. C. Jones, ‘New Military History for Old? War and Society in Early Modern Europe’, European Studies Review, 13 (1982), 31.
48. H. W. Gillman, ‘The Siege of Rathbury Castle, 1642’, Journal of the Cork Historical Society, I (1895), 12.
49. D. Trim and M. Fissel, eds, Amphibious Warfare, 1000–1700 (Boston, 2006).
50. Quoted by P. Jorgensen, ‘Moral Guidance and Religious Encouragement for the Elizabethan Soldier’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 13 (1949), 243.
51. Raymond, op. cit., 40. Bishop, op. cit., 162.
52. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 17.
53. J. Keegan and J. Durracott, The Nature of War (1981), 206.
54. T. Dekker, The Plague Pamphlets of Thomas Dekker (1977), 109.
55. Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, Elizabeth (1903), IX, xxviii.
56. McGurk, op. cit., 225. H. A. L. Howard, ‘Army Surgeons and the Care of Sick and Wounded in the British Campaigns during the Tudor and Stuart Periods’, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 2 (1904), 733. C. T. Atkinson, ‘Gleanings from the Cathcart MSS’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 30 (1952), 97.
57. V. J. Harlow, Christopher Codrington, 1668–1710 (Oxford, 1928), 144, 171.
58. Quoted by J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (New York, 1985), 178.
59. Raymond, op. cit., 38.
60. J. Aston, ‘The Diary of John Aston’, in J. C. Hodgson, North Country Diaries (Surtees Society, 118, 1890), 5–7.
61. R. Symonds, Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army during the Great Civil War (Camden Society, 1859).
62. C. Croke, Fortune's Uncertainty, or Youth's Inconstancy (Oxford, 1959), 55–65.
63. H. Herbert, ‘Captain Henry Herbert's Narrative of his Journey through France with his Regiment, 1671–1673’, ed. J. Child, Camden Miscellany, 4th Series, XXX (1990), 281–82.
64. A Journal of the Late Motions and Actions of the Confederate Forces … by an English Officer who was there (1690), np.
65. J. Hodgson, Memoirs (1883), 37.
66. E. M. Hinton, Ireland through Tudor Eyes (Philadelphia, PA, 1935), 65–66.
67. Raymond, op. cit., 39.
68. B. C. Hacker, ‘Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: A Reconnaissance’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 6 (1980–81), 654.
69. Herbert, op. cit., 321. Noyes, op. cit., 146.
70. Calendar of State Papers, Scotland, 1547–1603, 169.
71. W. C. Strickland, ‘Irish Soldiers in the Service of Henry VIII’, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (1923), 94–97. D. G. White, ‘Henry VIII's Irish Kern in France and Scotland, 1544–45’, Irish Sword, 3, 13 (1958), 220.
72. White, op. cit., 220.
73. T. Coningsby, ‘Journal of the Siege of Rouen’, Camden Miscellany, I, 4 (1847), 184. J. Sprigge, Anglia Rediva (1854), 80.
74. Carleton, op. cit., 39. Noyes, op. cit., 146.
75. R. Parker, Memoirs of the Most Remarkable Military Transactions (1741), 121.
76. P. Young, Marston Moor (London, 1970), 6.
77. M. Stoyle, ‘Memories of the Maimed: The Testimonies of Charles I's Former Soldiers, 1660–1732’, History, 88, 290 (2003), 212–13.
78. Historical Association, English History in Contemporary Poetry (1970), 29.
79. Richard Gough, The History of Myddle (Harmondsworth, 1981), 73–74.
80. ‘Memories of Captain John Creighton, from his own material’, Jonathan Swift, Works, ed. Sir Walter Scott (1824), XI, 159–65.
81. M. C. Fissel, English Warfare, 1511–1642 (2001), 19. Carleton, op. cit. (1809), 21–22.
82. H. Foster, A True and Exact Relation of the Marchings … for the relief of Gloucester (1643), reprinted in J. Washbourne, Bibliotheca Gloucestrensis (Gloucester, 1828), I, 253–71.
83. www.woodenswords.com/WMA/reviews_galicswordsmanship.htm.
Chapter 7 All Diseas'd: Civil Wars and Commonwealth: Events, 1638–1660
1. D. McCullough, John Adams (2001), 359.
2. A. J. Slavin, The Precarious Balance (New York, 1973). John Morrill, ‘The Religious Context of the Civil War’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, XXXIV (1984), 155–78. M. Kishlansky, ‘Saye What?’, Historical Journal, 38 (1990), 917–37. J. S. A. Adamson, ‘Politics and the Nobility in Pre-Civil War England’, Historical Journal, 39 (1991), 231–55, and The Noble Revolt: The Overthrow of Charles I(2007). Historiographical surveys can be found in P. A. M. Taylor, The Origins of the English Civil War (Boston, 1960) and R. C. Richardson, The Debate on the English Revolution (1967).
3. The Widowes Lamentation for the Absence of their dear children and suitors and for divers of their deaths in these fatal civil wars (1643).
4. C. Russell, ‘Corporate Monarchies in Early Modern Europe: The British and Irish Examples’, in A. Grant and K. Stringer, Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History (1995), 133.
5. L. Hutchinson. Memoirs of the Life of Colonel John Hutchinson (1906), 116.
6. Richard Ward, Anatomy of Warre (1642), 1.
7. L. Winstock, Songs and Music of the Redcoats: A History of War Music of the British Army, 1642–1900 (Harrisburg, PA, 1975), 15. J. Taylor, Works (Manchester, 1877), 5.
8. S. Butler, Hudibras, ed. T. R. Nash (1835), I, 3.
9. W. A. Day, Pythouse Papers (1879), xvii.
10. B. Schofield, ed., The Knyvett Letters (1620–44) (1949), 50, 101–3. R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Norfolk in the Civil War: A Portrait of a Society in Conflict (Hamden, CT, 1970), 180–89.
11. M. Bennett, The Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland (Oxford, 1997), 27.
12. J. O. Halliwell, ed., Letters of the Kings of England (1846), II, 290–303.
13. David Stevenson, The Scottish Revolution, 1637–44 (Newton Abbot, 1973), 140–45. M. C. Fissel, ‘Bellum Episcopale: The Bishops’ Wars and the End of the Personal Rule in England, 1638–1640’, California at Berkeley Ph.D. (1983), 61, 85–87.
14. E. Furgol, ‘Beating the Odds: Alexander Lesley's Campaign in England’, in S. Murdock and A. MacKillop, Fighting for Identity: Scottish Military Experience, 1350–1900 (Leiden, 2002), 41.
15. John Aston, ‘The Journal of John Aston’, in J. C. Hodgson, ed., North Country Diaries (Surtees Society, CXVIII, 1890), 5.
16. C. H. Firth, ‘The Reign of King Charles I’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 3rd series, VI (1921), 41.
17. J. L. Malcolm, Caesar's Due: Loyalty and King Charles, 1642–1646 (1983), 12–13. C. Holmes, Seventeenth-Century Lincolnshire (1983), 137. W. Knowles, ed., The Earl of Strafford's Letters and Dispatches (1739), II, 371.
18. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars (Oxford, 1849), I, 161.
19. Earl of Hardwicke, Miscellaneous State Papers, 1501–1726 (1778), II, 119.
20. National Archives: SP16/423/29.
21. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Twelfth Report, appendix, part IV, 552. Fissel, op. cit., 63. J. Bruce, ed., Letters and Papers of the Verney Family (Camden Society, 1853), 228. National Archives: SP16/455/no. 38. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1640, 241.
22. Bodleian Library: Rawlinson MSS, B210, 36.
23. O. Ogle, W. H. Bliss and W. D. MacGray, eds, Calendar of Clarendon State Papers (Oxford, 1867–76), II, 101.
24. G. Wrottesley, ‘The Stafford Muster of AD 1640’, Collections for a History of Staffordshire, XV (1894), 201–10.
25. M. C. Fissel, The Bishops’ Wars: Charles I's Campaigns against Scotland, 1638–1640 (Cambridge, 1994), 279–85.
26. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1640, 477, 523. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1639, 59.
27. W. Knowler, The Earl of Strafford's Letters and Dispatches (1739), I, 351.
28. 12 December 1641, Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, 1633–47, 344, 354.
29. Thomas Fitzpatrick, The Bloody Bridge and Other Papers Relating to the Insurrections of 1641 (Dublin, 1903, reprinted Port Washington, NY, 1970), 76.
30. A. Macfarlane, The Justice and the Mare's Ale (Cambridge, 1981), 191. Fitzpatrick, op. cit., 22, 75–77. A Bloody Battell, or the Rebell's overthrow (1641), np.
31. The Autobiography of the Rev. Devereux Spratt, ed. T. Spratt (1886), 10. R. Baxter, Reliquiae Baxterianae (1696), 40. Hutchinson, op. cit., I, 173. J. Temple, The Irish Rebellion (1646), A. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2004), 197. R. Clifton, ‘"An Indiscriminate Blackness?” Massacre, Counter Massacre and Ethnic Cleansing in Ireland, 1640–1660’, in M. Levene and P. Roberts, eds, The Massacre in History (New York, 2000), 107–25, 160. P. Lenihan, ‘War and Population, 1649–52’, Irish Economic and Social History, 24 (1997), 19.
32. K. Lindley, ‘The Impact of the 1641 Rebellion upon England and Wales, 1641–45’, Irish Historical Studies, XVIII (1972), 143–76. B. Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct in the English Civil War’, Past and Present, 118 (1988), 71.
33. Malcolm, op. cit., 16, note 40.
34. J. Lister, Autobiography, ed. T. White (London, 1842), 6. Baxter, op. cit., 40.
35. M. Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars (New York, 1977), 104–5.
36. The King's Cabinet Opened (1645), 26.
37. Clarendon, op. cit., I, 589.
38. The King's Cabinet Opened (1645), 26–27.
39. Norman Tucker, ‘Denbigh's Loyal Governors’, Denbighshire Historical Society Transactions, V (1956), 12.
40. R. Spaulding, The Improbable Puritan: A Life of Bulstrode Whitelocke (1975), 95. W. A. Day, Pythouse Papers (1879), xvii.
41. D. Kennedy, ‘The Crown and the Common Seamen in Early Stuart England’, Historical Studies, II (April 1965), 170–77.
42. Clarendon, op. cit., I, 272.
43. Karl von Clausewitz, ‘Key Points’, in L. Freedman, ed., War (Oxford, 1994), 210–12.
44. J. Ohlmeyer, ‘Irish Privateering during the Civil War, 1642–50’, Mariner's Mirror (1990), 130.
45. Figures from P. Young, Edgehill (Kineton, 1967), 105.
46. J. S. Clarke, The Life of James the Second (1816), I, 12.
47. Clarendon, op. cit., I, 632.
48. Clarke, op. cit., 12.
49. Parliamentary History, XII, 38. Clarendon, op. cit., II, 316.
50. The king's order ‘If York be lost, I shall esteem my crown a little less’ is in The Letters, speeches and proclamations of King Charles I, ed. C. Petrie (1935), 144–45. This description of Marston Moor is mainly based on P. Young, Marston Moor (Kineton, 1977), A. Woolrych, Battles of the English Civil War (1961), 66–80, and W. Seymour, Battles in Britain (1979), II, 83–103.
51. Lion Watson, A more exact relation of the late battell fought neer York (1644), 6.
52. C. H. Firth, The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1904), 1, 176.
53. A. Miller, Sir Richard Grenville of the Civil War (1979), 89.
54. 25 February 1645. Charles to Henrietta Maria, Reliquiae Sacrae Carolinae (The Hague, 1649), 262–63.
55. P. Young, Naseby, 1645: The Campaign and the Battle (1985), 4.
56. Panic caused by confused orders is fairly common in battle. For instance, they caused the Royal Welsh Fusiliers to run at Alma in the Crimea in 1854; R. Holmes, Acts of War (New York, 1985), 225.
57. R. E. Maddison, ‘The King's Cabinet Opened: A Case Study in Pamphlet History’, Notes and Queries (1966), 13, 2–9.
58. Clarendon, op. cit., V, 179.
59. W. Coster, ‘Massacres and Codes of Conduct in the English Civil War’, in M. Levene and P. Roberts, eds, The Massacre in History (1999), 92.
60. M. Stoyle, ‘The Road to Farndon Field: Explaining the Massacre of Royalist Women at Naseby’, English Historical Review, 208, 503 (2008), 895–923.
61. E. Drake, ‘Civil War Diary’, in A. R. Bayley, The Great Civil War in Dorset (Taunton, 1910), 188.
62. J. E. Auden, ‘The Anglo-Irish troops in Shropshire’, Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society, 50 (1939–40), 59–60. R. Gough, History of Myddle (1981), 75. E. G. B. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849), III, 73, 391.
63. J. T. Gilbert, A Contemporary History of the Affairs of Ireland from 1641 to 1652 (Dublin, 1879–80), IV, vii.
64. R. B. Manning, Swordsmen: The Martial Ethos in the Three Kingdoms (Oxford, 2003), 182, 188–89.
65. John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Scotland (Aberdeen, 1835), II, 452.
66. D. Stevenson, Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century (Edinburgh, 1980), 128–35, 156–57, 188, 218–19.
67. Ibid.
68. James M. Hill, The Celtic Way of Warfare (Edinburgh, 1980), 1–3, 45–48, 58–59.
69. E. M. Furgol, A Regimental History of the Covenanting Armies, 1639–1651 (Edinburgh, 1988), 196. P. Gaunt, A Cromwellian Gazetteer (1987), 209.
70. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, 230–31.
71. Deposition of Grany ny Mullen of 25/5/53 in M. Dickson, Ireland in the Seventeenth Century (1884), I, 152.
72. F. Warner, The History of the Rebellion in Ireland (1768), 162.
73. T. Carte, Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (1851), II, 186, 277. 4 June 1642, Conway to Crawford, II, 138. Gilbert, op. cit., II, 138.
74. True Relation of the … Relieving of Tredagh (1642), 1. A True Relation of Diverse Great Defeats given to the Rebels of Ireland (1642), 12.
75. C. R. Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution (1999). Gilbert, op. cit., I, xxxii, 35–39. For another example of similar brutality, see A Full Relation, not of our Good Successe (1642).
76. W. Damon, Welcome Newes From Ireland (1642).
77. A Perfect Narrative of the Battle of Knocknones by an officer in the Parliament's army present and Acting at the Fight (1648), 9–10.
78. Gilbert, op. cit., xxxiv. R. Boyle, earl of Orrery, A letter from Lord Broghill … concerning … defeating the Rebels in Ireland (1651), 5.
79. C. I., A New Remonstrance from Ireland (1642), 2, I3. J. Turner, Memoirs of his life and times, 1630–70 (Edinburgh, 1829), 14–20. Clanricarde made the warning in at least two letters in May 1642 to the Lord Justices, and to Ormonde: T. Carte, Ormonde Letters (1739), III, 74, 98.
80. J. Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm during the English Civil War (Woodbridge, 2003), 250.
81. 10 June 1646, Historical Manuscripts Commission, 4th Report, 522.
82. 10 June 1646, Charles to Henrietta Maria, in J. Bruce, Charles I in 1646 (Camden Society, 1856), 45.
83. Sir John Berkeley, ‘Memoirs’, in John Ashburnham, A narrative … Of his attendance on King Charles (1830), cliv.
84. C. MacKay, The Cavalier songs and ballads of England from 1642 to 1684 (1863), 2. When the British surrendered at Yorktown in 1781, a band played ‘The World turned upside down’ using the same tune to which Parker's lyrics had been set. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Jamestown, Williamsburg, Yorktown: The Official Guide (2007), 78.
85. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004–9). A. Kingston, East Anglia in the Great Civil War (1897), 264. R. W. Ketton-Cremer, Norfolk in the Civil War (1970), 325.
86. Descriptions of the Siege of Colchester from A Diary or Account of the Siege … of Colchester, in D. Defoe, A Tour … of Great Britain (1927), 18–31. ‘Diary of the Siege of Colchester’, in Historical Manuscripts Commission, Twelve Report, appendix part 9, pages 24–29. Diary of the Siege of Colchester by the Forces under the command of General Fairfax (1650). Matthew Carter, A most true and exact relation of the … unfortunate expedition of Kent, Essex, and Colchester (1650), 136–37, 166. D. C. Woodward and C. Cockerill, The Siege of Colchester, 1648: A History and a Bibliography (Chelmsford, 1979), 7–21. The Siege of Colchester, 1648 (Colchester, n.d.), 9–18. B. Donagan, War in England, 1642–49 (Oxford, 2008), 312–88.
87. B. P. Lyndon, ‘Parliament's Army in Essex, 1648’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, LIX (1981), 152.
88. The Earl of Norwich, Lord Capel, and Sir Charles Lucas, their peremptory Answer on refusing to surrender Colchester (1648), 7.
89. T. S., A True and exact relation of the taking of Colchester sent in a letter from an officer in the Army who was present during the Siege (1648), 1–2.
90. J. Rushworth, A letter … before Colchester (1648), 6. Another Fight at Colchester and the Storming of the Town by the Parliamentary Forces (1648), 2–3.
91. R. Markham, A Life of the Great Lord Fairfax (1870), 327.
92. A. Brady, ‘Dying with Honour: Literary Propaganda and the Second English Civil War’, Journal of Military History 70, 1 (2006), 9–30. G. K. Fortescue, Catalogue of the Pamphlets … Collected by George Thomason (1908), I, 168. 20 September 1648, Edmund Verney to Ralph Verney, F. P. and M. Verney, Memoirs of the Verney Family during the Civil War and Commonwealth (1892–99), II, 340.
93. W. C. Abbott, The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (New York, 1937), I, 641. J. Hodgson, Memoirs (Bradford, 1902), 120.
94. Sir James Turner, Memoirs of His Life and Times (Edinburgh, 1829), 66–70.
95. 20 August 1648, Cromwell to Lenthall, T. Carlyle, ed., Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1904), II, 32.
96. I. Roots, The Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1989), 5. Abbott, op. cit., II, 107, 326–27. A. Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (1973), 5.
97. Abbott, op. cit., II, 120–25. J. G. Simms, ‘Cromwell at Drogheda’, Irish Sword, 11 (1973–74), 217–20. Fraser, op. cit., 332–34. I. Gentles, The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1652 (2007), 392–7. J. Morrill, ‘The Droghda Massacre in Cromwellian Context’, in D. Edwards, P. Lenihan and C. Tait, The Age of Atrocity: Violence and Political Conflict in Early Modern Ireland (Dublin, 2007), 252–82.
98. 17 September 1649 Carlyle, op. cit., II, 148. True casualty figures: about 2,000 defenders and 150 roundheads.
99. S. R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649–1656 (1903), I, 13. Abbott, op. cit., II, 139. Fraser, op. cit., 344–46.
100. T. Reilly, Cromwell: An Honorable Enemy (1999).
101. Cromwell to Lenthall, 25/11/91. Abbott, op. cit., II, 173.
102. Carlyle, op. cit. (1901), 552.
103. Abbott, op. cit., II, 172, 214, 222, 223, 234.
104. J. Hewitt, ed., Eye-Witness accounts to Ireland in Revolt (Reading, 1974), 28. E. I. Hogan, ed., The History of the War in Ireland from 1641 to 1653 by a British Officer in Sir James Clotworthy's Regiment (Dublin, 1873), 107.
105. H. Slingsby, W. Scott and J. Hodgson Memoirs … Henry Slingsby … John Hodgson (Edinburgh, 1806), 130.
106. 3 September 1650, Rushworth to Speaker Lenthall, Parliamentary History of England (1752–61), XIV, 341–42. O. Cromwell, A True Relation of the Routing of the Scots near Dunbar (1650), 4–5. C. H. Firth, ‘The Battle of Dunbar’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 2nd series, XIV (1900), 19–52. Slingsby, op. cit., 278.
107. B. Whitelocke, Memoirs (1860), 507.
108. Woolrych, op. cit., 494. An Exact and perfect relation of every particular of the fight at Worcester (1651), 1–2. 3 September, Stapleton to Lenthall, in J. W. Willis Bund, The Civil War in Worcestershire (1905), 249. 8 September 1651, Cromwell to Lenthall, in Abbott, op. cit., II, 467.
Chapter 8 Talk You of Killing: Civil Wars and Commonwealth: Impact, 1638–1660
1. There is a huge debate about English/British history, which is well summarized in Jane Ohlmeyer, ‘The “Old British Histories?"’, Historical Journal, 50/2 (2007), 499–512. Daniel's poem is in Samuel Daniel, The Complete Poetical Works (1718), 123.
2. P. Wenham, The Great and Close Siege of York (Kineton, 1970), 57–74, leans towards the higher end of the range.
3. In the early nineteenth century the annual death rate for British troops in Jamaica was 14.3 per cent compared to 1.7 per cent at home. R. N. Buckley, The British Army in the West Indies: Society and the Military in the Revolutionary Age (Gainesville, FL, 1998), 299.
4. This is based on C. Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–51 (1992), 201–14. Since working on these figures I have found some more incidents, such as the Battle of Olney Bridge, 4 November 1643.
5. G. Parker, The Military Revolution (Cambridge, 1988). D. Stewart, ‘Sickness and Mortality Rates in the English Army until the Twentieth Century’, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 91 (1948), 23–35. P. Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (1985), 151, 180ff. I. Roy, ‘The English Civil War and English Society’, War and Society, I (1977), 31.
6. The bloody flux and spotted fever were typhus. The symptoms include bloody stools and red spots on the chest and abdomen. My thanks to John Riddle for this point. J. Bampfield, Colonel Joseph's Apology, ed. J. Loftis and P. H. Hardacre (1993), 43.
7. K. Manchester, ‘Paleopathology of a Royalist Garrison’, OSSA: the Journal of the Osteological Research Laboratory, University of Solna, Sweden (1979), 25–33.
8. Most of the accidents involved aircraft. Two of those who died from disease did so as Japanese POWs. NCSU archives, UA 050.001 (box 29).
9. www.civilwarhome.com/casualties.htm
10. A. Gunkel and J. S. Handler, ‘A German indentured servant in Barbados in 1652’, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society, 33 (1977), 91–96. C. Bridenbaugh, No Peace beyond the Line: The English in the Caribbean, 1624–1690 (New York, 1973), 110–11. V. T. Harlow, A History of the Barbados, 1625–85 (Oxford, 1926), 302. H. Beckles, White Servitude and Black Slavery in Barbados, 1627–1715 (Knoxville, TN, 1989), 53.
11. M. Stoyle, ‘Memories of the Maimed: The Testimonies of Charles I's Former Soldiers’, History, 88 (2003), 223–24. A. C. Dow, Cromwellian Scotland (Edinburgh, 1979), 20. Historical Manuscripts Commission, 12th Report, appendix part 7, page 35.
12. N. Lockyer, England Faithfully Watched (1649), quoted by S. Baskerville, ‘Blood Guilt in the English Revolution’, Seventeenth Century, VIII (1993), 4. G. F. Nuttal, The Manuscripts of the Reliquiae Baxterianae (1954), 39. W. C. Abbott, The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (New York, 1937), III, 438–39.
13. H. Peters, God's Doings and Man's Duty (1646). T. Hobbes, Behemoth (1969), 95.
14. These figures may be on the low side since Dr Furgol, the pre-eminent historian of the covenanting army, gives their losses as follows:
|
Year |
Killed |
Prisoners |
|
|
||
|
1644 |
3,000 |
800 |
|
1645 |
7,200 |
|
|
1646 |
2,000 |
|
|
1648 |
1,000 |
4,600 |
|
1650 |
4,000 |
10,000 |
|
1651 |
4,800 |
10,000 |
|
|
||
|
Total |
22,000 |
25,400 |
|
|
||
Letter to author of 1/3/90. Furgol's total of 22,000 is 35 per cent higher than mine. Covenanters have been counted as parliamentarians.
15. P. Ellis, Hell or Connaught: The Cromwellian Colonization of Ireland, 1652–1660 (1975), 82. R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 88.
16. P. Lenihan, ‘War and Population, 1649–52’, Irish Economic and Social History, 24 (1997), 1–21. I am most grateful to Dr Lenihan for answering my queries by email.
17. J. Ohlmeyer, ‘The Wars of Religion, 1603–1660’, in I. Bartle and H. K. Jeffrey, A Military History of Ireland (Cambridge, 1993), 171–83. R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts (1906–16), II, 301.
18. J. G. Simms, The Williamite Confiscation of Ireland, 1690–1703 (1956), 14, 22, 59, 195.
19. Father Peter Walsh, A Continuation of the brief narrative and suffering of the Irish under Cromwell (1660), quoted by J. Prendergast, The Cromwellian Settlement in Ireland (1865), 164n.
20. J. Morrill, ‘The Cromwellian Massacre in Cromwellian Context’, in D. Edwards, P. Lenihan and C. Tait, The Age of Atrocity: Violence and Political Conflict in Early Modern Ireland (Dublin, 2007), 263.
21. P. J. Cornish, ‘The Rising of 1641’, and ‘The Cromwellian Regime’, in T. X. Moody et al., A New History of Ireland (Oxford, 1974), III, 292, 357.
22. J. S. Wheeler, Cromwell in Ireland (New York, 1999), 226. D. Scott, Politics and War in the Three Kingdoms (2004), 198. R. Clifton, ‘"An Indiscriminate Blackness?” Massacre, Counter-Massacre, and Ethnic Cleansing in Ireland, 1640–1660’, in M. Levene and R. Roberts, eds, The Massacre in History (New York, 2000), 108.
23. Lenihan, op. cit., 1–22.
24. Michael Bennet confirms this view in an email to the author. M. Clodfelter, Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 (2002), 52, says that there were 105,000 casualties in the Wars of the Roses. M. Hicks, The Wars of the Roses, 1455–1485 (2003), 88, writes ‘No satisfactory estimates of total casualties can be attempted.’ P. M. Wilson, The Thirty Years’ War: Europe's Tragedy (Cambridge, MA, 2009), 787. C. V. Wedgwood, The Thirty Years’ War(New York, 1961), 493. G. Parker, The Thirty Years’ War (1984), 211.
25. I am grateful to my colleague Bill Harris for the figures on the US Civil War.
26. J. Ellis, The Sharp End of War (1980), 198.
27. They do not connect to either Battle of Newbury. For more details, see C. Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–51 (1992), 207.
28. Slack, op. cit., 72–73. R. and T. Kelly, A City at War: Oxford, 1642–46 (Cheltenham, 1987), 25–26.
29. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1992), 107. F. Prinzing, Epidemics Resulting from War (Oxford, 1916), 1–18.
30. Slack, op. it., 151, 180ff. S. Porter, ‘Property Damage in the English Civil War’, London Ph.D. (1984), 198. R. H. Morris, The Siege of Chester (1923), 210.
31. A. Wood, Life and Times of Anthony Wood (Oxford, 1891), I, 62.
32. R. W. Cotton, Barnstaple and the Northern Part of Devonshire during the Great Civil War (1889), 105–6.
33. G. Nugent, Some memorials of John Hampden, his party and his time (1832), II, 441.
34. E. Furgol, A Regimental History of the Covenanting Armies, 1639–1651 (Edinburgh, 1988), 54.
35. J. Rushworth, Historical Collections of the Private Passages of State (1680), V, 288.
36. E. Burghall, ‘The Diary of Edward Burghall’, in T. W. Barlow, Cheshire: its Historical and Literary Associations (Manchester, 1855), 166.
37. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars (Oxford, 1843), IV, 485.
38. M. Stoyle, ‘"Whole Streets Converted to Ashes”: Property Destruction in Exeter in the English Civil War’, in R. C. Richardson, The English Civil Wars: Local Aspects (Stroud, 1997), 141. S. Porter, Property Damage in the English Civil Wars (Stroud, 1994), 6ff.
39. http://www.firstworldwar.com/audio/howyagonna.htm.
40. J. Turner, Memoirs (Edinburgh, 1829), 76.
41. W. Haller, Liberty and Reformation in the Puritan Revolution (New York, 1955), 209. Hugh Peters, Mr. Peters’ last report on the English Wars (1646).
42. J. R. Phillips, Memoirs of the Civil War in Wales and the Marches, 1642–1649 (1874), II, 127.
43. C. V. Wedgwood, The King's War, 1641–1647 (1966), 425. J. A. Atkinson, Tracts Relating … to the civil war in Cheshire, 1641–59 (Chetham Society, 1909), 109. Abbott, op. cit., I, 360. P. Young, Naseby (1985), 339.
44. Quoted by Hill, op. cit., 86.
45. E. Reynolds, Orders from the Lord of Hosts (1646), 8–9.
46. T. Edwards, Gangraena (1646), I, 111.
47. R. J. Lifton, Home from the War: Vietnam Veterans: Neither Victims nor Executioners (New York, 1973), 126–30, describes this process with Vietnam veterans, while Christopher Hill, in A Tinker and a Poor Man: John Bunyan and His Church (New York, 1989), discusses it with regard to a soldier who almost certainly never saw action. O. G. Body, ‘The New Model Army Under Sir Thomas Fairfax,’ Journal of the Royal Artillery, 65 (1938), 215. The Watchman's Warning Piece, Or, Parliament Soldiers Prediction (1646), 1.
48. R. Ashton, The English Civil War: Conservatism and Reaction, 1603–49 (1989), 312.
49. J. P. Wogaman and D. M. Strong, Readings in Christian Ethics (1996), 164.
50. As the captain of his aircraft carrier ordered, ‘Stone, you're an Oxford man so you better teach the sailors.’ Private conversation with Professor Stone. J. A. Crang, ‘Politics on Parade: Army Education and the 1945 General Election’, History, 81 (1997), 215–27.
51. September 1643, Carlyle, op. cit., I, 147. R. Baxter, The Practical Works of Richard Baxter, ed. W. Orme (1830), VI, 123.
52. C. Carlton, ‘Sieges during the British Civil Wars’, in Cities under Siege, ed. Lucia Carle and Antoinette Fauve-Chamoux (Florence, 2002), 241–49.
53. R. Holmes, The Siege of Pontefract Castle, 1644–48 (Pontefract, 1887), 210.
54. S. R. Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution (1968), 373–5.
55. Abraham Cowley, Poems (Cambridge, 1905), 425. R. Herrick, Poems, ed. J. Masefield (Oxford, 1906), 190.
56. H. M. Reece, ‘The Military Presence in England, 1649–1660’, Oxford University D.Phil. (1981), 50–52, 286. J. Brewer, Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (New York, 1989), 11. G. Parker, The Military Revolution (Cambridge, 1988), 62 and 81.
57. Quoted by L. B. Smith, This Realm of England, 1399–1688 (Boston, 1996), 298.
58. M. J. Braddick, Parliamentary Taxation in Seventeenth-Century Europe (Woodbridge, 1994).
59. Most of the Royal Navy were in the West Indies at the time.
60. A. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2004), 626.
61. Lucy Hutchinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel John Hutchinson (1885), II, 203. C. Durston, Cromwell's Major Generals: Godly Government during the English Revolution (Manchester, 2001), 46.
62. ‘The Men behind the Wire’, in C. Carlton, Bigotry and Blood: Documents on the Ulster Troubles (Chicago, 1976), 111.
63. R. Blair, The Life of Mr. Robert Blair (1848), 291–2.
64. B. Capp, Cromwell's Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution, 1648–1660 (Oxford, 1989), 7, 397.
65. D. Baugh, ‘Great Britain's “Blue Water” Policy, 1689–1815’, International History Review, 10 (1988), 35–39. J. D. Davis, Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), 79. M. A. Palmer, ‘The Sails’ Right Hand: Command and Control in the Age of Fighting Sail, 1652–1827’, Journal of Modern History, 64, 4 (October 1997), 679–81.
66. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Various, VIII, 78.
67. G. Modelski and W. R. Thompson, Sea Power in Global Politics, 1494–1993 (1988), 206.
68. E. Waller, The Poems of Edmund Waller, ed. G. Drury (1893), 138.
69. ibid., 152.
70. J. H. Elliott, ‘World of Corporate States’, Past and Present, 137 (1992), 48–72. C. Russell, ‘Composite Monarchy in Early Modern Europe: The British and Irish examples’, in A. Grant and K. Stringer, eds, Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History (1995), 133.
71. C. Tilly, The Formation of the Nation State in Western Europe (1975), 42. R. A. Brown, The Origins of Modern Europe (1972), 93. J. Lynn, ‘Clio in Arms: The Role of the Military Variable in Shaping History’, Journal of Modern History, 55 (1991), 84. J. Lynn, Tools of War (Chicago, 1990), 1–21. J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550–1800 (Basingstoke, 1991), 7.
72. 10 March 1643, Carlyle, op. cit., I, 161.
73. J. S. Wheeler, ‘Sense of Identity in the Army of the English Republic, 1645–51’, in A. MacInnes and J. Ohlmeyer, The Stuart Kingdoms in the Seventeenth Century: Awkward Neighbours (Dublin, 2002), 151–68.
74. J. Morrill, ‘Three Kingdoms and One Commonwealth: The Enigma of Mid-Seventeenth-Century Britain and Ireland’, in Grant and Stringer, 170.
75. N. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (2004), 2–3.
Chapter 9 High-Intensity Combat: Battles and Sieges
1. A. Kellett, Combat Motivation: The Behavior of Soldiers in Battle (Boston, 1982), 246.
2. J. Hattendorf, British Naval Documents, 1204–1906 (Naval Record Society, 13, 1993), 290.
3. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 277.
4. Quoted by G. Dyer, War (1986), 103.
5. Hugo Grotius, De Jure Belli (1625), quoted by J. R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (1983), 341. J. Prebble, Culloden (1961), 102.
6. Quoted by S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (1987), I, 44.
7. S. L. A. Marshall, Men against Fire (Norman, OK, 2000), 27.
8. Dyer, op. cit., 13.
9. G. Monck, duke of Albermarle, Observations on political and military affairs (1671), 23.
10. B. L. Montgomery, Memoirs (1958), 82. Karl von Clausewitz, On War (Harmondsworth, 1968), 227. R. Boyle, earl of Orrery, Treatise on the Art of War (1677), 499, np. J. Cruso, Treatise on Modern War (1640), 123.
11. Brian Manning, ‘Neutrals and Neutralism in the English Civil War, 1642–46’, Oxford D.Phil., 1957, 214–15.
12. James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven, Memoir … of his engagement and carriage in the war of Ireland (1680), 62. C. T. Atkinson, ‘Gleanings from the Cathcart MSS’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 29, 117 (1951), 101.
13. M. Blumenson, Patton (New York, 1985), 128. J. Campbell, ‘A Scottish Fusillier and Dragoon under Marlborough: Lt. General the Honourable Sir John Campbell’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 15 (1936), 52.
14. Quoted by J. Keegan, The Face of Battle (New York, 1976), 117.
15. Quoted by J. Black, Culloden and the ‘45 (Stroud, 1990), 165. W. Patten, ‘The Expedition into Scotland’, in A. F. Pollard, Tudor Tracts (1903), 113.
16. J. Stevens, The Journal of Captain John Stevens (Oxford, 1912), 123.
17. R. Bulstrode, Memorials of the English Affairs (1712), 84.
18. P. Paret, Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz (Princeton, NJ, 1992), 85. I am most grateful to Professor Paret for elaborating on this incident via email.
19. Patten, op. cit., 112.
20. Campbell, op. cit., 88.
21. J. Jordan, ‘The Battle of Aughrim: Two Danish Sources’, Transactions of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society, 26 (1954–55), 6–7. G. M. Trevelyan, ‘Narrative and Diary of Colonel John Richards’, Cambridge Historical Journal, 3 (1931), 258.
22. P. Delaney, British Autobiography in the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1969), 1, 16–17. Roger Williams, The Works (Oxford, 1972), 58.
23. ‘The Siege and Capture of Boulogne’, ed. J. H. Lesley, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research (1920), 188–200, is typical.
24. J. Millner, A Compendious Journal of all the Marches (1737), 55–56.
25. Kellett, op. cit., 219–20.
26. G. Hamilton, ‘The Letters of the First Earl of Orkney during Marlborough's Campaigns’, English Historical Review, 19 (1904), 318. Millner, op. cit., 170–71, 273.
27. Blackadder, op. cit., 350.
28. J. MacPherson, Original Papers containing the Secret History of Great Britain (1775), I, 37.
29. Exact and True relation of a bloody Fight (1642), 6. C. Duffy, The ‘45 (2003), 512. E. Archer, A True Relation of the Red trained-bands (1643), 7. Blackadder, op. cit., 340.
30. General Sir William Napier, in P. Tsouris, Warriors’ World: A Quotation Book (1992), 247.
31. Touchet, op. cit., 61, 67–68.
32. Thomas Carte, Ormonde Papers (1739), I, 55.
33. James Audley, earl of Castlehaven, Memoirs (Waterford, 1680), 136. J. G. Fyfe, Scottish Diaries and Memoirs, 1550–1746 (Stirling, 1928), 308. S. H. F. Johnston, ‘The Cameronians at Steenkirk, 1692’, Scottish Historical Review, 27 (1948), 73–75. S. H. F. Johnston, ‘A Scots Chaplain in Flanders’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 27 (1949), 8.
34. The battles are Bosworth Field, Flodden, Marston Moor, Naseby, Auldean, Dunbar, Sedgemoor, Boyne, Blenheim and Culloden.
35. N. Barr, Flodden, 1513: the Scottish Invasion of Henry VIII's England (Stroud, 2001), 286.
36. P. Drake, Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake (Stanford, CA, 1960), 79.
37. Patten, op. cit., 124–25. G. Bonnivert, ‘Some Extracts Relating to Ireland from the Journals of Gideon Bonnivert, 1690’, Louth Archaeological Journals, VIII (1933), 21. Millner, op. cit. (1737), 217.
38. W. Patten, ‘The Expedition into Scotland’, Fragments in Scottish History, ed. J. G. Dalyell (Edinburgh, 1798), 67–68, 71. C. Oman, ‘The Battle of Pinkie, September 10, 1547’, Archaeological Journal, 90 (1932), 1–25.
39. T. Coningsby, ‘Journal of the Siege of Rouen’, Camden Miscellany, I, 4 (1847), 53.
40. ‘Continuation of the Siege of Ostend, from 25 July and as far as 7 Mar 1602’, in C. H. Firth, ed., Stuart Tracts (1964), 177. T. Gilby, ed., Britain at Arms: A Scrapbook from Queen Anne to the Present Day (1953), 190.
41. G. Walker, Journal of the Siege of Derry (1689).
42. Fynes Moryson, An Itinerary containing his two years travel (Glasgow, 1907), II, 115. J. M. Hill, Celtic Warfare (Edinburgh, 1986), 73.
43. P. Elliot-Wright, ‘The Birth of the Thin Red Line: English Firing Tactics, 1660–1708’, Military History Illustrated, 80 (June 1995), 20–25. D. Nosworthy, The Anatomy of Victory: Battle Tactics, 1689–1763 (New York, 1990), 40. A. Clayton, The British Officer (2005).
44. It became known as the Brown Bess in the later part of the eighteenth century. R. O'Connell, Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression (Oxford, 1990), 158.
45. Millner, op. cit., ix, 274.
46. Blackadder, op. cit., 320.
47. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1992), 45. Quoted by C. Barnett, Marlborough (1974), 169.
48. Stevens, op. cit., 122.
49. J. Deane, A Journal of the Campaign in Flanders (Camden Society, 1846), 12–14.
50. Elliot-Wright, op. cit., 20–25. Nosworthy, op. cit., 40. Clayton, op. cit.
51. Dyer, op. cit., 15.
52. Clausewitz, op. cit., 359. Macbeth, V, v, 2–4.
53. Monck, op. cit., 119.
54. Charles I pardoned him at the last moment. The Earle of Essex His Letter to Master Speaker, July 9, 1643 (1643), 6.
55. F. Vere, The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere (Cambridge, 1659), 14.
56. Roger Boyle, Treatise on the Art of War (1677), 15.
57. C. T. Atkinson, ‘Marlborough's Sieges’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 13 (1934), 195–205.
58. M. Cervantes, Don Quixote (1925), I, 403. B. Jonson, Works (1875), VIII, 409. Quoted by Hale, op. cit., 395–96. Royal Commission on Historical Monuments, Newark on Trent: The Civil War Siegeworks (1964), 19.
59. Henry V, III, iii, 37–42.
60. W. J. Blake, ‘The Rebellion in Cornwall and Devon in 1549’, Journal of the Royal Institute of Cornwall, 18 (1910), 808.
61. L. Hutchinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel John Hutchinson, ed. H. Child (1904), 164.
62. H. Hexham, A Journal of the Taking of Venlo (1633), 19–27.
63. D. Defoe, The Military Memoirs of Captain George Carleton (1929), 33–37.
64. Vere, op. cit., 39–40.
65. Blackadder, op. cit., 327–29.
66. In fact, the sack of Magdeburg went on for three days, its population fell from 30,000 to 5,000. Justin Wintle, Dictionary of War Quotations (1969), 230.
67. ‘A Diary of the Siege of Athlone’, Irish Sword, 4 (1959–60), 88–92.
68. John Shawe, ‘The Life of Master John Shawe’, Yorkshire Diaries, ed. Charles Jackson (Surtees Society, 1877), 136. G. Chinnery, M. Bateson and H. Stocks, eds, Records of the Borough of Leicester, 1603–88 (Leicester, 1923), 359.
69. R. Symonds, Diary (Camden Society, 1859), 180–81.
70. D. Stewart, ‘Sickness and Mortality Rates in the English Army in the Sixteenth Century’, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 91 (1948), 23–35. Coningsby, op. cit., 61.
71. E. M. Thompson, Correspondence of the Family of Haddock (Camden Society, 1881), 50–51. Atkinson, op. cit., 66.
72. E. Gruffudd, ‘The Enterprise of Paris and Boulogne’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad University, II (1949), 57.
73. Stevens, op. cit., 186–87.
74. E. G. B. Warburton, ed., Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849), II, 261. G. S., A true relation of the sad passages of the two armies (1644), 6–11. B. Donagan, ‘Codes and Conduct in the English Civil War’, Past and Present (1988), 89–91.
75. A Full and True Account of the besieging of Carrickfergus (1689). Great News from the Duke of Schomberge's Army (1689).
Chapter 10 Restoration to Glorious Revolution, 1660–1688
1. J. Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn (1889), I, 355.
2. Ibid., I, 355.
3. T. Carlyle, ed., Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1888), III, 461.
4. A. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, 1625–1660 (Oxford, 2004), 769.
5. C. H. Firth, ‘A New Ballad’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, IV, 18 (1925), 80.
6. P. Muskett, ‘Military Operations against Smugglers in Kent and Sussex, 1698–1750’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 52 (1974), 89–110.
7. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1678, 183–84.
8. J. Childs, ‘The English Brigade in Portugal, 1662–68’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 53 (1975), 125–37. J. Childs, ‘The British Brigade in France, 1672–1698’, History, 69 (1984), 384–97.
9. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 108. M. Belloff, Public Order and Popular Disturbances (1938), 107.
10. T. B. Macaulay, Selections from the Writing of Lord Macaulay, ed. G. M. Trevelyan (1903), 31.
11. L. Schwoerer, No Standing Armies! (Baltimore, MD, 1973). J. Addison, Works (1889), V 356. D. Defoe, An Argument Shewing that a standing army is inconsistent with a free government and absolutely destructive to the constitution of the English Monarchy (1697). Edmund Burke, Collected Works (1803), V, 17. J. Madison et al., The Federalist Papers (1987), 174.
12. D. Allen, ‘The Role of the London Trained Bands in the Exclusion Crisis, 1678–81’, English Historical Review, 87 (1972), 303.
13. M. Braddick, State Formation in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 2001), 227.
14. A. P. C. Bruce, The Purchase System in the British Army, 1660–1871 (1980), 14.
15. Henry Hyde, The Correspondence of Henry Hyde, the Earl of Clarendon (1828), II, 113.
16. C. Hill, The Century of Revolution (1961). W. B. Wilcox, The Age of Aristocracy (New York, 2001). See also J. Cannon, Aristocratic Century: The Peerage in 18th-Century England (Cambridge, 1989).
17. In contrast, those who fought in the American Civil War did think of it in terms of slavery: Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War is Over (New York, 2007). For Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–51 (1992), I read hundreds of soldiers’ letters and memoirs, and cannot recall one that talked about a ‘Baronial Revolt’. For this theory, see J. S. A. Adamson, The Noble Revolt: The Overthrow of Charles I (2007).
18. R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 270. G. Dyer, War (1986), 63. S. Clark, State and Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe (Montreal, 1995), 285. P. Drake, Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake (Stanford, CA, 1960), 245.
19. Carlton, op. cit., 185. R. O'Connell, Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression (Oxford, 1990), 155.
20. P. Hardacre, ‘Patronage and Purchase in the Irish Standing Army under Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, 1632–40’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 67 (1989), 40–45, 94–104.
21. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, The History of the Great Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (Oxford, 1888), I, 589.
22. A. Clayton, The British Officer (2005).
23. K. Brown, ‘Gentlemen and Thugs in Seventeenth-Century Britain’, History Today, 40 (1990), 29. Cannon, op. cit., 118–20.
24. S. Huntingdon, The Soldier and the State (1957), xviii. J. Connell, Wavell: Scholar and Soldier (1964), 74.
25. R. K. Merton, ‘Science and Military Techniques’, Scientific Monthly, 41 (December 1935), 542–45.
26. J. Childs, The Nine Years’ War and the British Army (Manchester, 1991), 75, 79.
27. Clayton, op. cit., 23–25.
28. H. Oakes-Jones, ‘The Evolution of the Gorget’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 1 (1925), 247–55.
29. J. Laver, ‘The Meaning of Military Uniforms’, Journal of the Royal United Services Institution, 96 (1951), 425–53. B. Lyndon, ‘Military Dress and Uniformity’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 54 (1997), 109–20.
30. N. Rodger, ‘The New Atlantic: Naval Warfare in the 16th Century’, in J. B. Hattendorf and R. Unger, War at Sea (Woodbridge, 2002), 236–38.
31. J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies, and Ship Building in Europe and America, 1500–1800 (Stockholm, 1993), I, 179, 195.
32. N. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (2004), 113.
33. N. Bard, ed., ‘The Earl of Warwick's Voyage of 1627’, Naval Miscellany: Naval Records Society, 125 (1985), 17.
34. N. Elias, ‘Studies in the Genesis of the Naval Profession’, British Journal of Sociology (1950), 291–300. Shovell was in fact the son of a yeoman farmer from Norfolk. S. Harris, Cloudesley Shovell: A Stuart Admiral (Staplehurst, 2000).
35. This is based on a sample from Dictionary of National Biography, Clark, op. cit., 285.
36. Manning, op. cit., 268.
37. R. G. Glass, ‘The Image of the Sea Officer in English Literature, 1660–1710’, Albion, 26 (1994), 583–99.
38. S. Pepys, Diary (New York, 1887), VII, 55.
39. C. S. Knighton, ‘A Century on: Pepys and the Elizabethan Navy’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 14 (2004), 141–56.
40. P. Godwin, ‘The Influence of Iron in Ship Construction, 1660–1830’, Mariner's Mirror, 84 (1998), 26–27. 29 July 1667, Pepys, op. cit., VII, 269.
41. M. Ashley, James II, 76.
42. J. Haswell, James II: Soldier and Sailor (1972), 146.
43. Rodger, op. cit., 106.
44. Ibid., 7. M. S. Anderson, War and Society in the Old Regime, 1618–1789 (1988), 104.
45. Quoted by G. Holmes, Augustan England: Professions, State, and Society, 1680–1730 (1982), 277.
46. J. Davies, Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), 26–38. N. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (1986), 253.
47. J. R. Jones, The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century (1996), 9–11. S. Pincus, Protestantism and Patriotism: Ideologies and the Making of Foreign Policy, 1650–1668 (Cambridge, 1996). Pepys, op. cit., IV, 82.
48. Firth, op. cit., 54.
49. Ibid., 66–67.
50. Pepys, op. cit., ed. H. Wheatley (1905), VII, 28.
51. E. S. de Beer, The Diary of John Evelyn (1959), 516.
52. Sanger, op. cit., 91.
53. A. Wheeler, Military Diary, June–July 1685 (Camden Society Miscellany, XII, 1910), 157–63. T. McGuffie, ‘The Last Battle on English Soil’, History Today, 5 (1955), 59–60.
54. Pincus, op. cit., 183.
55. J. McGuire, ‘James II and Ireland’, in W. A. Maguire, Kings in Conflict: Ireland in the 1690s (1990), 52. J. C. Becket, ‘The Irish Armed Forces, 1660–1685’, in J. Bossy and P. Jupp, Essays Presented to Michael Roberts (Belfast, 1976), 41–45. H. McDonnell, ‘Irishmen in the Stuart Navy, 1660–1690’, Irish Sword, 16, 63 (1985), 87–104. C. Dalton, The Scots Army, 1661–1688 (1909), 405.
56. McDonnell, op. cit., 87–104. Tim Harris, Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720 (2006), 115–16, 192. J. Miller, ‘Catholic Officers in the Late Stuart Army’, English Historical Review, 88 (1973), 43. S. Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution (2009), 148.
57. 12 July 1667, Pepys, op. cit., 240. H. Strachan, The Politics of the British Army (Oxford, 1997), 20–23. J. Malcolm, To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right (Cambridge, 1994), 106.
58. Malcolm, op. cit., 107. D. Defoe, The Advantages of the Present Settlement (1689), 13.
59. Harris, op. cit., 189.
60. G. Davies, ‘Letters of the Administration of James II's Army’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 29 (1951), 81–82.
61. Quoted by Haswell, op. cit., 171.
62. Harris, op. cit., 260–61.
63. Quoted by Harris, op. cit., 271.
64. Sanger, op. cit., 95.
65. www.exclassics.com/ballards/lilli/
66. G. Burnet, Bishop Burnet's History of his own time (1823), III, 139. Harris, op. cit., 284. After a generation ‘Lillibullero’ was forgotten, to be revived as the BBC World Service's signature tune.
67. Burnet, op. cit., (1883), III, 1.
68. Quoted by Ashley, op. cit., 49. J. Callow, The Making of King James II (2000), does not accept this view.
69. C. Carlton, Royal Warriors: A Military History of the British Monarchy (2004), Chapter IV. Quoted by Haswell, op. cit., 24.
70. Harris, op. cit., 341, 361.
71. Pincus, op. cit., 63, 93.
72. Ashley, op. cit., 275, Harris, op. cit., 474.
73. Harris, op. cit., 304.
Chapter 11 The Peril of the Waters: War at Sea
1. Quoted by N. A. M. Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (New York, 1997), 311.
2. S. Harris, Cloudesley Shovell: A Stuart Admiral (Staplehurst, 2000).
3. J. Smith, Work, 1608–1631, ed. E. Arber (1895), II, 803.
4. J. Yonge, The Journal of J. Yonge, 1647–1712, Plymouth Surgeon (1963), 37. Richard Allyn, A Narrative of the Victory obtained by the English and Dutch Fleet (1744), 10.
5. G. Barnett, Illustrated British Ballads (1881), 5.
6. S. Brown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, Mariner, and Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery in the Age of Sail (2003), 24.
7. P. Kemp, The British Sailor: A Social History of the Lower Deck (1970), 7. N. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (2004), 307. Rodger, Wooden World, 100–1.
8. W. Raleigh, Works (1829), 254.
9. J. D. Alsop, ‘Sickness in the British Mediterranean Fleet, the Tiger Journal of 1706’, War and Society 11, 2 (October 1993), 61. J. J. Keevil, Medicine and the Navy (1957), I, 246, 276. Yonge, op. cit., 162.
10. E. Barlow, Barlow's Journal (1934), I, 119, 162, 213–14, 226; II, 60. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (1885–1900).
11. H. Teonge, The Diary of Henry Teonge, Chaplain aboard HMS Assistance, Bristol and Royal Oak, ed. G. Manwaring (1927), 83. Rodger, Command, 124. J. D. Davies, Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), 106.
12. K. B. Andrews, ‘The Elizabethan Seaman’, Mariner's Mirror (1982), 246.
13. Robartes to Committee of Both Kingdoms, J. R. Powell and E. K. Timings, Documents Relating to the Civil War (Naval Records Society, 1963), 172.
14. A. Spont, Letters and Papers relating to the War with France, 1512–13 (Naval Records Society, X, 1897), xxxiii.
15. Pepys, Diary, ed. R. Latham and W. Matthews (2001), X, 289.
16. W. Rogers, A Cruising Voyage around the World (1928), xiii. C. N. Robinson and J. Leyland, The British Tar in Fact and Fiction: The Poetry, Pathos, and Humour of the Sailor's Life (New York, 1909), 107.
17. Rodger, Safeguard, 235–38.
18. Rodger, Command, 54.
19. Alsop, op. cit., 57–76.
20. T. Allin, Journals (Naval Records Society, 1939), 304.
21. W. G. Perrin, Boteler's Dialogues (Naval Record Society, 1927). Kemp, op. cit., 48.
22. D. Howarth, The Voyage of the Armada (New York, 1981), 243. G. Mattingly, The Armada (Boston, 1959), 374.
23. J. Black, A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550–1800 (1991), 38. H. Bowen, War and British Society, 1688–1815 (Cambridge, 1998), 12. L. James, Warrior Race (2001), 354.
24. Barnaby Slush, Naval Royal: or a Sea Cook turn'd projector (1709), 2–3.
25. E. Sanger, Englishmen at War: A Social History in Letters, 1450–1900 (Stroud, 1993), 88–89.
26. J. Smith, Sea-Grammar (1868), 58.
27. B. S. Ingram, Three Sea Journals of Stuart Times (1936), 33.
28. A. N. Gilbert, ‘Crime as Disorder. Criminality and the Symbolic. The Universe of the Eighteenth-Century British Officer’, in R. W. Leve, Changing Interpretations and New Sources in Naval History (New York), 115–18.
29. Rodger, Safeguard, 302.
30. Rodger, Command, 59.
31. Davies, op. cit., 79, 96.
32. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004–9).
33. A skipkennel was a lackey or someone who jumped over kennels or gutters.
34. H. Southern and N. Nicolas, ‘The Life and Times of Matthew Bishop’, Retrospective Review, 2nd series (1828), 49.
35. R. R. Holmes, Redcoat: The British Soldier in the Age of Horse and Musket (2001), 144.
36. ‘A Relation of a Short Survey of the Western Counties made by a Lieutenant of the Military Company of Norwich in 1635’, ed. L. G. Legg, Camden Miscellany, XVI (1936), xviii, 90. Rodger, Safeguard, 315.
37. S. Pepys, Diary, 1 July 1666. Keevil, op. cit., I, 114–15.
38. R. Harding, The Evolution of the Sail Navy (1995), 49.
39. 13 May 1694, Arthur Todd to Lord Irwin, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Various, VIII, 75–76.
40. E. Coxere, Adventures by Sea of Edward Coxere (Oxford, 1946), xi, 23–24.
41. Quoted by P. Padfield, Maritime Supremacy and the Opening up of the Western Mind (2000), 185.
42. D. French, The British Way of Warfare, 1688–2000 (1990), 7.
43. J. Boswell, The Life of Dr. Johnson (1900), 212.
44. Barlow, op. cit., II, 60.
45. R. Marbeck, ‘A Brief and True Report of the Honorable Voyage unto Cadiz, 1596’, in A. F. Kinney, Elizabethan Background (Hamden, CT, 1975), 290.
46. J. Weale, The Journal of John Weale, 1654–56 (Naval Records Society, 92, 1952), 89.
47. Southern and Nicolas, op. cit., 46.
48. Rodger, Command, 382.
49. Ingram, op. cit., 28.
50. C. H. Firth, Naval Songs and Ballads (1908), 41.
51. L. James, Warrior Race: A History of the British at War (2001), 148. Rodger, Safeguard, 127–28, 321–22. Rodger, Command, 54, 196, 210.
52. E. M. Thompson, Correspondence of the Family of Haddock (Camden Society, 1883), 52–53.
53. Teonge, op. cit., 29. S. J. Stark, Female Tars: Women Aboard Ship in the Age of Sail (1996), 50.
54. For a virtual tour, go to www.historicdockyard.co.uk
55. D. C. Coleman, ‘Naval Dockyards under the Stuarts’, Economic History Review, 6 (1953), 139. D. Defoe, A Tour thro’ the whole Island of Great Britain (1726), 21.
56. J. Keegan, The Price of Admiralty (1988), 47.
57. C. Barnett, Marlborough (1974), 40.
58. Allin, op. cit., 279.
59. Firth, op. cit. (1908), xvi.
60. Ibid., 161.
61. Quoted by C. M. Fissel, English Warfare, 1511–1642 (2001), 36.
62. Southern and Nicolas, op. cit., 46.
63. Account of the Late Great Victory (1692), 22.
64. Ingram, op. cit., 49–51.
65. Ibid., xxii. 19 July 1645, Inchiquin to Lords, in Charles McNeil, ed., The Tanner Letters: Documents on Irish Affairs in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Extracted from the Tanner Collection (Dublin, 1943), 191.
66. M. Lewis, Life and Letters of Tobias Smollett (Fort Washington, 1996), 46.
67. ‘A True Narrative of the Life of Mr. George Elliot, who was taken and sold as a slave, with his Travails, Captivity and Escape from Salle’, in A. Elliot, A modest Vindication of Titus Oates (1682), 15–16. Coxere, op. cit., 54.
68. Barlow, op. cit., I, 228.
69. Yonge, op. cit., 92–100.
Chapter 12 Let Slip the Dogs of War: After the Glorious Revolution, 1688–1746
1. J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (1989). L. Stone, An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994), 20. D. French, The British Way of Warfare, 1688–2000 (1990), xi.
2. Quoted by J. Miller, The Life and Times of William and Mary (London, 1974), 199.
3. J. Millner, A Compendious Journal of All the Marches (1733), x. French, op. cit., 3–4. J. Addison, Works (1889), VI, 541.
4. J. Braddick, Parliamentary Taxation in Seventeenth-Century Europe (Woodbridge, 1994), 69. M. Braddick, ‘The Rise of the Fiscal State’, in B. Coward, A Companion to Stuart Britain (Oxford, 2003), 84.
5. B. McCarthy, ‘Warrior Values: A Socio-Historical Survey’, in J. Archer, ed., Male Violence (1994), 113. C. Carlton, Royal Warriors: A Military History of the British Monarchy (2004), Chapter 5.
6. J. H. Plumb, The Growth of Political Stability in England, 1675–1725 (1967). J. Cannon, Aristocratic Century: The Peerage in 18th-Century England (Cambridge, 1989), 106–7. Braddick, op. cit., 84.
7. Quoted by G. Curtis, Life and Times of Queen Anne (London, 1972), 133.
8. J. Childs, The Nine Years’ War and the British Army (Manchester, 1991), 47–48. Brewer, op. cit., 40–41. C. T. Atkinson, ‘The Cost of Queen Anne's Wars’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 136 (1955), 183.
9. S. Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution (New Haven, CT, 2009), 83.
10. Ian Roy, ‘The English Civil War and English Society’, War and Society (1975), 29.
11. F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1992), 212. P. Padfield, Maritime Supremacy and the Opening up of the Western Mind (2000), 153. P. G. M. Dickson and J. Sperlin, ‘War Finance, 1689–1714’, New Cambridge Modern History (1970), VII, 284–90.
12. Quoted by Brewer, op cit., 146.
13. J. R. Jones, ‘Limitations of British Sea Power in the French Wars, 1689–1815’, in J. Black and P. Woodfine, eds, The British Navy and the Use of Sea Power in the 18th Century (Leicester, 1980), 40. N. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (2004), 201, 578.
14. Quoted by D. G. Chandler, Marlborough as Military Commander (Staplehurst, 2003), 61.
15. C. Hibbert, The Marlboroughs (2002), 105.
16. J. Falkner, Marlborough's Battlefields (Barnsley, 2008).
17. C. Spencer, Blenheim: Battle for Europe (2004), 243–84.
18. 14 August 1704, Francis Hare to George Naylor, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Hare, 200. S. Noyes. ‘The Letters of Samuel Noyes, Chaplain of the Royal Scots, 1703–04’, ed. S. H. F. Johnston, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 37 (1959), 149.
19. R. Holmes, Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius (2008), 64, 151–52. Chandler, op. cit., 28.
20. J. C. K. Fuller, ‘Marlborough’, in B. Parker, Famous British Generals (1951), 52. Chandler, op. cit., 331. J. Fortescue, Six British Soldiers (1928), 105.
21. R. Parker, Memoirs of the Most Remarkable Military Transactions (1741), 107–9.
22. M. Bishop, Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop (1744), 267.
23. B. L. Montgomery, The Memoirs of Field-Marshal the Viscount Montgomery (1958), 85.
24. Parker, op. cit., 31.
25. M. Clodfelder, Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures (Jefferson, NC, 2001), 3. J. K. Mahon, ‘Anglo-American Methods of Indian Warfare, 1676–1794’, Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1958), XLV, 254–60.
26. B. Nosworthy, The Anatomy of Victory: Battle Tactics, 1689–1763 (New York, 1990), 61.
27. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 197: he makes the same point on pages 221 and 312.
28. Parker, op. cit., 88–89. P. Wilson, ‘Warfare in the Old Regime, 1648–1789’, in J. Black, ed., European Warfare, 1453–1815 (Basingstoke, 1999), 91.
29. Parker, op. cit., 88–89.
30. C. Barnet, Marlborough (1974), 116.
31. H. R. Southern and N. Nicolas, ‘The Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop’, Retrospective Review, 2nd series (1828), 53.
32. D. Defoe, The Complete English Tradesman (1738; 2007 edn), I, 247.
33. Barnet, op. cit., 128.
34. M. Barthorp and A. McBride, Marlborough's Army, 1700–11 (Botley, 1980), 5.
35. D. Chandler, Military Memoirs of Malborough's Campaigns (1998), 125.
36. C. Davenant, ‘Ways and Means’, Works (Edinburgh, 1872), I, 15.
37. Abel Evans, Vertumnus (1713), quoted by D. George, All in a Maze: A Collection of Prose and Verse Chronologically Arranged (1938), 181.
38. Parker, op. cit., 129. G. S. Thomson, ‘A Scots Officer in the Low Countries, 1714’, Scottish Historical Review, 27 (1948), 68.
39. F. McLynn, Crime and Punishment in Eighteenth-Century England (1991), 321–27.
40. French, op. cit., 37.
41. McLynn, op. cit., 321. S. H. Palmer, ‘Calling out the Troops: The Military, the Law and Public Order in England, 1650–1850’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 56 (1978), 198–224.
42. Figures are an amalgam for the 17th and 23rd Regiments from J. A. Houlding, Fit for Service: The Training of the British Army, 1715–1795 (Oxford, 1981), 1–2.
43. R. Holmes, Redcoat: The British Soldier in the Age of Horse and Musket (2001), 267.
44. D. Garrick, Miss in Her Teens (1824), 32.
45. C. H. Firth, Naval Songs and Ballads (1908), lx–lxviii. T. M. Freeman, Dramatic Representations of British Soldiers and Sailors on the London Stage, 1660–1880 (1995), 3–7, 74, 110–12, 191.
46. J. Ehrman, The Navy in the Wars of William III, 1689–1697 (1953), xv–xx. J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies, and Ship Building in Europe and America, 1500–1800 (Stockholm, 1993), I, 220–21.
47. R. Crowhurst, The Defence of British Trade, 1689–1815 (Folkstone, 1977), 15–19.
48. J. Baltharpe, The Straights Voyage or St. David's Poem (1959), 56.
49. C. Jones, ‘New Military History for Old? War and Society in Early Modern Europe’, European Studies Review, 13 (1982), 329–44.
50. R. Harding, Seapower and Naval Warfare, 1650–1850 (1999), 118–19.
51. J. S. Bromley and A. N. Ryan, ‘Armies and Navies’, New Cambridge Modern History, VI (1970), 797. G. Holmes, Augustan England: Profession, State, and Society, 1680–1730 (1982), 274. J. Black and P. L. Woodfine, eds, The Royal Navy and the Use of Naval Power in the Eighteenth Century (Leicester, 1988), 2–3.
52. Blackadder, op. cit., 349.
53. H. Bland, A Treatise of Military Disciplines (1727), 114.
54. Quoted by I. F. Burton and A. N. Newman, ‘Sir John Cope: Promotion in the 18th-Century Army’, English Historical Review, 78 (1963), 659.
55. W. L. Burn, ‘A Scots Fusillier and Dragoon under Peterborough: Lt. General Sir John Campbell’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 15 (1936), 93.
56. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Portland, Fifteenth Report, Appendix, IV, 309.
57. Houlding, op. cit., 109.
58. D. MacLeod, Memoirs of the Life and Gallant Exploits of the Old Highland Sergeant Donald MacLeod, ed. J. G. Fyfe (1933). S. Brumwell, Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755–63 (Cambridge, 2002), 303–5, says MacLeod was ten years younger than he claimed.
59. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation (1992), 5, 8, 367–68.
60. C. Whately and D. Patrick, The Scots and the Union (Edinburgh, 2006), 5–6.
61. K. M. Brown, ‘Scottish Identity in the Seventeenth Century’, in B. Bradshaw and P. Roberts, British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533–1707 (Cambridge, 1998), 238.
62. T. M. Devine, Scotland's Empire, 1600–1815 (2003), 50.
63. B. Levack, The Formation of the British State: England, Scotland, and the Act of Union (Oxford, 1987), 225.
64. D. Defoe, An Essay at Removing National Prejudices against Scotland (1706), 28.
65. Manning, op. cit., 397–98.
66. Pincus, op. cit., 273. R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 397–98.
67. G. Story, A True and Impartial History of Ireland during the last two years (1691), 10.
68. Earl of Athlone, An Exact Journal of the Victorious Progress of their Majesties Forces (1691), 5–7.
69. J. T. Gilbert, ed., A Jacobite Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688–91 (Dublin, 1892), 258–59.
70. G. A. Hayes-McCoy, The Irish at War (Cork, 1965), 99. J. Swift, Works (Chicago, 1912), 489. J. McGurk, ‘The Wild Geese: Irish in European Armies’, in P. O. Sullivan, ed., Patterns of Migration: I (Leicester, 1992), 36, 41.
71. J. Boswell, Boswell's Life of Johnson (Oxford 1953), 122. Based on a search of the electronic data base English Poetry.
72. A. Melville, Memoirs of Sir Andrew Melville and the Wars of the Seventeenth Century (2003), 215. J. Hayes, ‘Scottish Officers in the British Army, 1714–63’, Scottish Historical Review, 38 (1958), 25–27. S. Allen and A. Carwell, The Thin Red Line: War, Empire, and Visions of Scotland (Edinburgh, 2004), 91. H. Streets, ‘Identity in the Highland Regiments in the 19th Century: Soldiers, Region, Nation’, in S. Murdock and A. MacKillop, Fighting for Identity: Scottish Military Experience c. 1550–1900 (Leiden, 2002), 213–19.
73. T. Newark, ‘Why Are the Irish Good at Fighting?’ Military History Illustrated, 89 (September 1995), 19. Alan Guy, ‘The Irish Military Establishment, 1660–1776’, in T. Bartlett and K. Jeffries, A Military History of Ireland (1996), 217–19. K. Kenny, ‘The Irish and the Empire’, in Kenny, ed., Ireland and the British Empire (Oxford, 2006), 104–12. Alvin Jackson, ‘Ireland, the Union, and the Empire, 1800–1960’, in Kenny, op. cit., 138–45.
Chapter 13 The Hurlyburly's Done: The Aftermath of Combat
1. F. Bamford, A Royalist's Notebook: The Commonplace Book of Sir John Oglander (1936), 99.
2. He used the same phrase ‘preaching from the dead’ twice in his description of Malplaquet, and once to describe the aftermath of Blenheim. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 99, 163–64, 219, 351–52.
3. W. Patten, ‘The Expedition into Scotland’, A. F. Pollard, Tudor Tracts (1903), 125.
4. Blackadder, op cit.
5. G. M. Trevelyan, England under Queen Anne (1946) III, 18. N. Barr, Flodden, 1513: The Scottish Invasion of Henry VIII's England (Stroud, 2001), 286. C. T. Prouty, George Gascoigne (New York, 1942), 236–37. J. Stallworthy, The Oxford Book of War Poetry (Oxford, 1988), 188.
6. J. W. Willis Bund, The Civil War in Worcester (1905), 251. Patten, op. cit., 141.
7. Blackadder, op. cit., 353.
8. D. G. Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York, 2008). A visit to Gettysburg or Vicksburg makes the same point.
9. J. R. Hale, The Art of War and Renaissance England (1961), 263.
10. Barr, op. cit., 120. J. T. Gilbert, ed., A Jacobite Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688–91 (Dublin, 1892), 159. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Ormonde, X, v, 161.
11. J. T. Rosenthal, ‘Other Victims: Peeresses as War Widows, 1450–1500’, History, 72 (1987), 227. Charles McNeil, ed., The Tanner Letters: Documents of Irish Affairs in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Extracted from the Tanner Collection (Dublin, 1943), 186. F. P. and M. Verney, Memoirs of the Verney Family during the Civil War and Commonwealth (1892–99), II, 120.
12. E. Gruffudd, ‘Suffolk's Expedition to Montdidier’, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad University (1944), 80.
13. P. Aries, The Hour of our Death (Ann Arbor, MI, 1981). F. Greville, Life of Sir Philip Sidney, etc. First Published 1652 (Oxford, 1897), 130.
14. R. Wanderles and G. Broce, ‘The Final Moments before Death in Early Modern England’, Sixteenth-Century Journal, XX, 21 (1989), 260. Sir T. Longmore, Richard Wiseman: Surgeon General to Charles II (1891), 45.
15. P. Egerton, Commentary on the Service and Charge of William, Lord Grey of Wilton (Camden Society, 1847), 15.
16. F. Vere, The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere (Cambridge, 1659), 7–9. E. G. B. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (1849), III, 22.
17. Blackadder, op. cit., 332. WWW.theroyalscots.co.uk/histmacbane. J. Doddridge, The Life of Colonel James Gardiner who was slain at Prestonpans (1747), 24. T. M. McGuffie, Rank and File: The Common Soldier in Peace and War (1961), 367–78. M. Bishop, Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop (1744), 215.
18. Journal of the Royal Society of Ireland (1893), 46.
19. E. G. Von Arni, Hospital Care and the British Standing Army, 1660–1714 (2006), 42.
20. Known in US Army as a Battalion Aid Station. C. H. Firth, Cromwell's Army (1962), 256. N. Tucker, North Wales in the Civil War (Denbigh, 1958), 171–73. E. G. Von Arni, Justice to the Maimed Soldier: Nursing, Medical Care, and Welfare for Sick and Wounded Soldiers and their Families during the English Civil War and Interregnum, 1642–1660 (Burlington, VT, 2001), 209.
21. Quoted by J. McGurk, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: The 1590s Crisis (Manchester, 1997), 242.
22. G. E. Gask, ‘A Contribution to the History of the care of the Sick and Wounded … Blenheim’, in Essays in the History of Medicine (1950), 114. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 38 (1922), 287.
23. D. Stewart, ‘The English Army Surgeon in the Sixteenth Century’, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, I (1903), 111–24. G. E. Gask, ‘A Contribution to the History of the Care of Sick and Wounded during Marlborough's March to the Danube in 1704, and at the Battle of Blenheim’, ibid, 88 (1947), 231–47. H. A. L. Howell, ‘The Army Surgeon and the Care of the Sick and Wounded in the Tudor and Early Stuart Period’, ibid, II (1904), 606–15.
24. J. Woodhall, The Surgeon's Mate (1614), 5, 156. W. B. Richards, ‘Richard Wiseman and the Surgery of the Commonwealth’, Asclepiad, II (1986), 231–55.
25. I. Morrison, ‘Survival Skills: An Enterprising Highlander in the Low Countries with Marlborough’, in G. S. Simpson, The Scottish Soldier Abroad (Edinburgh, 1992), 95. P. Drake, Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake (Stanford, CA, 1960), 170.
26. Mostyn to Cecil, Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, 1598–99, 385–86. George Monck, duke of Albermarle, Observations on political and military affairs (1671), 78. Roger Boyle, Treatise on the Art of War (1677), 53.
27. G. Robinson, ‘Wounded Sailors and Soldiers in London during the First Dutch War, 1652–1654’, History Today, 16 (1966), 38–44. Von Arni, op. cit., 198–204.
28. D. Stewart, ‘Some Early Military Hospitals’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 25 (1950), 174–79.
29. Quoted by F. Tallet, War and Society in Early Modern Europe (1997), 111.
30. A true Report of the great cost and charge of four Hospitals in this City of London (1646). G. Robinson, ‘Wounded Soldiers in London during the First Dutch War’, History Today, XVI, 1 (1966), 38–45. Von Arni, Hospital Care, 181, 192.
31. H. J. Cook, ‘Practical Medicine and the British Armed Forces after the “Glorious Revolution"’, Medical History, 34 (1990), 1–26. Von Arni, Hospital Care, 86, 181–87.
32. William Blundell, Crosby Record: A Cavalier's Note Book (1880), 93.
33. Robert Parker, Memoirs of the Most Remarkable Military Transactions (1741), 6.
34. M. K. Walsh, ‘Letters from Fontenoy’, Irish Sword 19, 78 (1995), 244.
35. Ibid., 246–47.
36. J. Ellis, The Sharp End of War: The Fighting Man in the Second World War (1982), 240.
37. Gruffudd, op. cit., 70.
38. C. Barnett, Marlborough (1974), 124, 239. C. Hibbert, The Marlboroughs (2002), 143.
39. C. Duffy, Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World (1979), 146.
40. J. Aubrey, Brief Lives (Harmondsworth, 1982), 19.
41. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1660–61, 205.
42. Richard Baxter, Reliquiae Baxterianae (1696), 59.
43. John Shawe, ‘The Life of Master John Shawe’, Yorkshire Diaries, ed. Charles Jackson (Surtees Society, 1877), 136.
44. R. Atkyns, Vindication of Richard Atkins (1968), 16.
45. W. Owen, Collected Poems, ed. E. Blunden (1965), 69. A. Babbington, Shell-Shock: A History of Changing Attitudes to War Neurosis (1997), 8.
46. Historical Manuscripts Commission, Leyborne-Popham MSS, 273. Thomas Bellingham, Diary of Thomas Bellingham, an Officer under William III (Preston, 1908), 136.
47. J. Jamieson, ‘Lt Col John Blackadder’, Transactions of the Stirling Natural History and Archaeological Society (1925–26), 53.
48. J. Nichols, The Gentleman's Magazine (1746), XVI, 235.
49. J. Millner, A Compendious Journal of all the Marches (1737), XII. Walsh, op. cit., 244.
50. C. Hibbert, Wellington: A Personal History (1999), 185. Parker, op. cit., 25–26.
51. S. H. F. Johnston, ‘A Scots Chaplain in Flanders’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 27 (1949), 7.
52. 5 May 1513, Echyngham to Wolsey, Publications of the Naval Records Society: the War with France, 1512–1513 (1887), x, 145.
53. F. J. Child, ed., English and Scots Ballads (1859), VII, 274.
54. P. Young, Naseby, 1645: The Campaign and the Battle (1985), 270. E. Sherwood, Civil Strife in the Midlands, 1642–51 (1974), 201.
55. Millner, op. cit., 174.
56. D. and H. Murtagh, ‘The Irish Jacobite Army, 1689–91’, Irish Sword 18, 70 (1990), 87–98.
57. G. Nugent, Some memorials of John Hampden, his party and his time (1832), I, 308.
58. J. Stevens, The Journal of Captain John Stevens (Oxford, 1912), 127–61. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004–9).
59. Drake, op. cit., 167.
60. Bishop, op. cit., 151.
61. R. Scouller, The Armies of Queen Anne (Oxford, 1967), 379.
62. McGuffie, op. cit., 275–76.
63. D. Defoe, The Military Memoirs of Captain George Carleton (1929), 289.
64. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Parker, op. cit., 109.
65. T. Carlyle, The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1904), III, 261.
66. Sir Arthur Haselrig, A Letter from Sir Arthur Haselrig to the … Council of State (1650), 1–3. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1649–50, 105, 334, 397, 402, 419. W. C. Abbott, The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (New York, 1937), I, 321.
67. Millner, op. cit., 174.
68. J. S. Bromley, Straits’ Voyage (1671, 1959), 5.
69. J. Yonge, The Journal of J. Yonge, 1647–1712, Plymouth Surgeon (1963), 92–100.
70. Quoted by D. Stewart, ‘Disposal of the Sick and Wounded in the English Army during the Sixteenth Century’, Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 92 (1949), 133.
71. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1625–26, 164, 214, 216, 227.
72. T. D. Hardy and J. S. Brewer, Report of the Carte and Carew Manuscripts, 1601–03, IV, 50–51.
73. A. Brome, A Collection of Loyal Songs written against the Rump Parliament between the years 1639–1661 (1731), I, 199–200. A. Brome, Poems (Toronto, 1982), I, 111.
74. G. G. Langsam, Martial Books and Tudor Verse (New York, 1951), 147.
75. R. Lonsdale, The New Oxford Book of Eighteenth-Century Verse (Oxford, 1984), 111.
76. W. Chappel, Roxburghe Ballads (1874) VI, 285.
77. Ibid., III, 111.
78. Defoe, op. cit., 289.
79. Bishop, op. cit., 268–71.
80. H. J. Webb, Elizabethan Military Science: The Books and Practice (Madison, WI, 1965), 172.
81. A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560–1640 (1985), 93–95. Henry V, V, i, 40.
82. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
83. J. Mather, ‘The Moral Code of the English Civil War and Interregnum’, Historian, 44 (1982), 223. J. A. Shape, Crime in Seventeenth-Century England: A County Study (Cambridge, 1983), 106, 206–9. W. A. Speck, Reluctant Revolutionaries: Englishmen and the Revolution of 1688 (1988), 197. C. V. Wedgwood, ‘Captain Hinde, the Highwayman’, Truth and Opinion (1961), 249–51.
84. J. Childs, ‘War, Crime Waves and the English Army in the late Seventeenth Century’, War and Society 15/2 (1997), 8. R. B. Manning, An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army, 1585–1702 (Oxford, 2006), 426.
85. J. T. Rutt, ed., Diary of Thomas Burton (1828), I, 17.
86. G. Gates, The Defence of the Militarie Profession (1597), 43.
87. Some have suggested Oldcastle as a model for Falstaff. Langsam, op. cit., 111. Webb, op. cit., 173. N. de Somogyi, Shakespeare's Theatre of War (Aldershot, 1998), 37.
88. C. N. Robinson and J. Leyland, The British Tar in Fact and Fiction: The Poetry, Pathos, and Humour of the Sailor's Life (New York, 1909), 383.
89. R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (1887), III, 250.
90. J. Rushworth, Historical Collections of the Private Passages of State (1680), I, 638.
91. P. Young, Naseby, 1645: The Campaign and the Battle (1985), 157, and Edgehill, 1642: The Campaign and the Battle (Kineton, 1967), 229.
92. P. Young and W. Emberton, The Cavalier Army: Its Organization and Everyday Life (1974), 22–21.
93. M. Mann, The Veterans (Norwich, 1997), 16.
94. J. R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 (New York, 1985), 91.
95. 9 November 1663, S. Pepys, Diary (New York, 1887), IV, 12.
Conclusion: The Hand of War
1. Quoted by J. Black, Culloden and the ‘45 (Stroud, 2000), 166
2. ‘The Battle of Culloden, 16 April 1746, as described in a letter from a soldier of the Royal Army to his wife’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 1 (1921), 21–24.
3. W. Speck, The Butcher: The Duke of Cumberland and the Suppression of the ‘45 (Oxford, 1981), 161.
4. The Battle of Britain was fought above British soil.
5. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation (1992), 9, 367–68.
6. J. Sadler, Scotland's Battles (Edinburgh, 1996), 224.
7. S. Carpenter, ‘The British Army’, in H. T. Dickinson, Longman's Guide to Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford, 2002), 476. T. M. Devine, Scotland's Empire, 1600–1815 (2003), 294–96.
8. T. Smollett, The Adventures of Roderick Random, ed. P. Bouché (2002), 86.
9. Devine, op. cit., 167, 360. William Pitt, Correspondence of William Pitt (1838), II, 365.
10. D. Allen, Scotland in the Eighteenth Century (2002), 38–39. J. Burke, ed., Poems and Songs of Robert Burns (1983), 557.
11. Email from Professor T. H. Devine to author, 23 September 2010.
12. C. J. Wheatley, ‘"I hear the Irish are naturally brave”: Dramatic Portrayals of the Irish Soldier in the 17th and 18th Centuries’, Irish Sword, 77 (1995), 187–96. T. Denman, ‘Hibernia officina militum: Irish Recruitment to the British Regular Army, 1660–1815’, Irish Sword, 78 (1996), 148–67.
13. These figures are taken from material in this book, and from websites including the Battlefields Trust. Welsh figures included with English.
14. Population figures for the middle of the seventeenth century.
15. J. Blackadder, The Life and Diary of Colonel John Blackadder of the Cameronian Regiment (1824), 219, 247, 351 and 354. J. Jamieson, ‘Lt. Col. John Blackadder’, Transactions of the Stirling Natural History and Archaeological Society (1925–26), 53–68.
16. www.aboutscotland.com/theroyalscots/histmcbane.html/.
17. T. Jones, ‘A Welsh Chronicler in Tudor England’, Welsh History Review, I (1960), 15.
18. D. MacLeod, Memoirs of the Life and Gallant Exploits of the Old Highland Sergeant Donald MacLeod, ed. J. G. Fyfe (1933).
19. ‘A Williamite Veteran’, Irish Sword, 2 (1956), 331.
20. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004–9).
21. W. Whitman, The Complete Writings of Walt Whitman (1902), IV, 140.