As stated in the Introduction, nothing in Roman York, or in Britannia for that matter, happened in historical isolation. Much, if not all, that occurred in Roman York was a direct consequence of an event, political decision or aspect of foreign policy which happened or was formulated in Rome and thence disseminated to the various provinces of the empire for local implementation. This timeline will show the interrelationship between Rome, Britannia and York.
55–54 BC: Julius Caesar invades Britain.
37–41 AD: Caligula emperor; Cunobelinus was ruling most of southeast England.
41–54: Emperor Claudius.
43–49: Invasion of Britain by Claudius and Aulus Plautius. Conquest of Southern Britain. Brigantes become a client kingdom allied to Rome.
43 (August): The Romans capture the capital of the Catuvellauni tribe, Colchester.
44 (June): The Romans take the hills forts of Dorset, including Maiden Castle.
47: The Romans force their allies, the Iceni tribe of East Anglia, to surrender their weapons. The Iceni resist but their revolt is short lived.
48: The Romans have now conquered all territory between the Humber estuary and the Severn estuary. Parts that remain under British control include Dumnonii (Cornwell and Devon), Wales and North West England.
49: The Romans found a colonia at Colchester for retired soldiers – the first civilian centre of Roman Britain and, for a time, the capital.
51: The leader of the exiled Catuvellauni tribe, Caratacus, is captured. He had led a long guerrilla war against the Roman forces for years, but was eventually defeated by the Roman governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Caratacus spent the remainder of his days in in Italy.
54–68: Emperor Nero.
60: The Romans attack the druid stronghold of Anglesey. The campaign to occupy Wales was cut short by the Iceni revolt in south-east England.
61: After attempting to fully annexe East Anglia, Boudica leads a rebellion against the Romans. After razing Colchester, London and St Albans, Boudica was eventually defeated at the Battle of Watling Street.
68–69: The Brigantes break with Rome.
69–79: Vespasian emperor.
71–72: IX Legion installed at York: Eboracum wooden fortress built.
71–74: Petillius Cerialis defeats the Brigantes.
75: The palace at Fishbourne built.
78–85: Agricola governor.
80: London now houses a forum, basilica, governor’s palace and probably even an amphitheatre.
79–83: Agricola’s campaigns in northern Britain and Caledonia.
c. 80: Eboracum fortress strengthened.
84: The Romans do battle with the Caledonians at Mons Graupius, somewhere in modern-day Aberdeenshire.
90–96: Foundation of colonia at Lindum; Inchtuthil abandoned; Gleva fortress built.
98–117: Emperor Trajan; he orders a complete withdrawal from Scotland and the construction of a new frontier between Newcastle-on-Tyne and Carlisle.
100: Many of the 8,000 miles of Roman roads in Britain are completed, allowing troops and goods to travel easily across the country.
107–8: Eboracum fortress rebuilt in stone.
117–138: Emperor Hadrian.
c. 117: Roman defeat, heavy casualties.
122: Hadrian in Britain.
122–128: To strengthen the border between Roman-occupied Britain and Scotland, Hadrian orders the famous wall to be built. Significantly, many of the early forts along Hadrian’s Wall face south into the intractable Brigantes’ territory, showing the ongoing threat they posed.
c. 122: VIth Legion replaces IXth Legion.
125–130: Major fire in London.
139–140: The Antonine Wall built, dramatically shifting Rome’s northern border. It is built of earth and timber, strengthened by a series of forts.
155: St Albans, one of the largest towns in Roman Britain, is destroyed by fire.
155–158: The Antonine Wall is abandoned and Roman troops withdraw back to Hadrian’s Wall. Perhaps an uprising by the Brigantes was the cause, or the Antonine smallpox plague?
165–180: Antonine smallpox plague ravages the Roman army and civilian population empire-wide.
182: The Brigantes, along with tribes of southern Scotland and northern England, rise again against the Romans. Fighting continued for years along Hadrian’s Wall, with towns further south building precautionary preventative defences.
193–211: Emperor Septimius Severus.
193–7: Albinus, governor of Britain, attempts to become emperor, taking the army of Britain to the continent; Hadrian’s Wall overrun.
197: Destruction of York’s fortress by the Maeatae: subsequent rebuilding; Hadrian’s Wall fortified.
197: Severus defeats Albinus near Lyons.
208–11: Severus in Britain: political and military administration reorganised. Caledonia invaded.
211: Severus dies in York; area between the two walls now a protectorate – Britain is divided up into two separate provinces; the south called ‘Britannia Superior’ (‘superior’ indicating that it was closer to Rome), with the north called ‘Britannia Inferior’. London the new capital of the south, with York the capital of the north. The adjacent civil town becomes a colonia.
211–217: Emperor Marcus Antoninus.
250–271: Plague of Cyprian assails the Roman Empire.
250 onwards: New threats to Britannia emerge from the Picts from Scotland, as well as the Angles, Saxon and Jutes from Germany and Scandinavia.
259: Britain, Gaul and Spain secede from the Roman Empire, creating the so-called ‘Gallic Empire’.
274: The Gallic Empire is re-absorbed into the main Roman Empire.
284: Diocletian introduces the system of two Augusti and two Caesars.
287: The admiral of the Roman Channel fleet, Carausius, declares himself Emperor of Britain and Northern Gaul, and starts minting his own coins.
293: Carausius is assassinated by his treasurer, Allectus, who starts to build his palace in London to strengthen his claim to authority. He also builds the famous ‘Saxon Shore Forts’ along the coasts of Britain, both to strengthen defences against the Germanic tribes to the east but also to prevent Rome from sending a fleet to reclaim Britain for the empire.
296: The Roman Empire retakes Britannia and Allectus is killed in battle near Silchester. Britain is then divided into four provinces; Maxima Caesariensis (northern England up to Hadrian’s Wall), Britannia Prima (the south of England), Flavia Caesariensis (the Midlands and East Anglia) and Britannia Secunda (Wales).
293: Constantius I (Chlorus) Caesar of the West.
296: Constantius Caesar defeats Allectus and retakes Britain. Northern tribes overrun northern half of Roman Britain. York and Chester destroyed: subsequently rebuilt.
300: Hadrian’s Wall increasingly dilapidated. Repaired and rebuilt. New military command – Dux Britanniarum – in charge of the field army. HQ in York.
306: Constantius I defeats the Picts and invades Caledonia. Death of Constantius I at York. Constantine proclaimed emperor.
313: Edict of Milan grants tolerance to Christian Church.
314: Christianity now legal in the Roman Empire, thanks to Constantine amongst others; Bishop of York at Council of Arles.
343: Emperor Constans visits Britain.
364–369: Major raids by Picts, Scots, Attacotti and Saxon pirates. Hadrian’s Wall rebuilt.
367–383: Emperor Gratian.
367–369: Combined raids by Saxons, Picts and Scots. Hadrian’s Wall outflanked. Fullofaudes, Duke of Britain, routed. Count Theodosius in Britain – repairs wall.
383–388: Usurpation by Magnus Maximus, commander in Britain, who conquers Gaul and Spain.
388: Magnus Maximus defeated by Theodosia at Aquileia.
395–423: Emperor Honorius; Sertorius reorganises Britain; troops being withdrawn.
396: Massive barbarian attacks on Britain resume. Large naval engagements are ordered against the invaders, with reinforcements arriving from other parts of the empire.
399: Peace is fully restored throughout Britannia.
401: Many troops are withdrawn from Britain to assist with the war against the Goths led by Alaric I, who is intent on sacking Rome.
407: The remaining Roman garrisons in Britain proclaim one of their generals, Constantine III, Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Constantine quickly levies an army and crosses the English Channel to invade Gaul and Spain, leaving Britain with only a skeleton force to defend itself.
410: With more and more incursions from the Saxons, Scots, Picts and Angles, Britannia turns to the Roman emperor Honorius for help. He responds, telling them to ‘look to their own defences’ and refuses to send any aid. This effectively marked the end of Roman Britain.