Ancient History & Civilisation

5. CHRONOLOGY

Many of the difficulties of Roman chronology derive from the long-continued absence of a generally accepted era. The main points chosen by the Romans were the foundation of the city, the first consulships, and the sack of Rome by the Gauls. Attempts to establish these dates were made by two methods, either by synchronizing them with Greek Olympiads or Athenian archonships, or by standardizing the list of Roman magistrates. By the former method the foundation of Rome was set in 752 (Cato), 751–750 (Polybius and Diodorus), 748 (Fabius) or 729–728 (Cincius); the first consulship in 508–507 by Polybius and 508 by Dionysius; and the sack of Rome in 387 by Polybius and Dionysius. The list of magistrates, however, was not quite long enough to span these periods, so that various expedients were devised by Roman antiquarians. Five years of anarchy (solitudo magistratuum) were interpolated into the period of the Licinian laws (so Livy and Fasti; Diodorus gives only one); or the same college of magistrates was repeated (those of 391–387 repeated after the Gallic invasion by Diodorus), or four years were interpolated during which dictators and masters of the horse were the chief magistrates (in 333, 324, 309, 301; Fasti). Finally, the foundation of Rome was set in 754–753 by Atticus and Varro; this date was officially accepted and so fixed chronology could be established ab urbe condita. In modern times the Varronian system is generally accepted as a convenient convention and is used in this volume; thus the sack of Rome is placed in 390 rather than more accurately in 387. The year of the foundation is usually set in 753 in order to allow only the 119 years which the Capitoline Fasti establish between the first consulship and the sack of Rome.

Though the dates from the third century can be established with adequate accuracy, the Roman calendar remained confused, because the Roman year of twelve lunar months was too short and constantly got out of gear with the solar year. To counterbalance this the pontiffs used to intercalate an extra month of 22 or 23 days after February every two years. But this was not satisfactory, especially during the Hannibalic War which engrossed all attention, and in fact the Roman calendar had advanced far ahead of the Julian, perhaps by some four months, though some calculations would put it at only one or two; the problem hinges on how many intercalations were in fact made (however, an eclipse which ocurred on 14 March 190 happened according to the Roman calandar on 11 July). In 191 Acilius Glabrio passed a law to regulate intercalations, but this provisional remedy proved inadequate: thus the Roman date of an eclipse which occurred on 21 June 168 was 3 September, although intercalation had been made in 169. It needed the political scandals of the last century BC and the statesmanship of Julius Caesar to set the matter right.⁶

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

This table is designed to emphasize some of the outstanding events in early Roman history. The Varronian dating (pp. 377ff.) has been followed. Prior to 390 BC many of the dates are merely traditional and some of the facts (e.g. the foundation of colonies) are not above suspicion.

A. THE REGAL PERIOD

Growth of Rome

c. 800(?) bc	Roma Quadrata; settlement on Palatine.
c. 750-670	Septimontium; union of settlers of Palatine, Velia, Fagutal, Cispius, Oppius, and Caelius.
7th cent.	City of the Four Regions; addition of Quirinal, Viminal, and part of Forum.
7th cent. end	Last Forum burials.
6th cent.	‘Servian’ City, including Capitol and Esquiline.

Traditional Dates

753-715	Romulus.
715-673	Numa Pompilius. Established cult of Vesta, etc.
673-642	Tullus Hostilius. Destruction of Alba Longa.
642-616	Ancus Marcius. Extension of Rome’s power to coast.
616-579	L. Tarquinius Priscus. Forum drained.
579-534	Servius Tullius. ’Servian’ organization begun. Treaty with Latins. Temple of Diana on Aventine.
534-510	L. Tarquinius Superbus. Capitoline temple. Treaty with Gabii. Ager Romanus extended to c. 350 sq. miles.

B. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE REPUBLIC TO THE GALLIC SACK

509	Fall of monarchy; institution of two annual magistrates.
	First treaty with Carthage.
	War with Porsenna (who captures Rome ?).
504	Migration of Claudii to Rome.
501	First dictator appointed.
496	Battle of Lake Regillus fought by Rome against Latin League.
495	Cult of Liber, Libera and Ceres on Aventine.
	Latin colony at Signia.
494	First secession; plebeians assert their rights (or 471).
	Latin colony at Velitrae.
493	Treaty of Spurius Cassius with the Latins.
492	Corn imported from Cumae.
	Latin colony at Norba.
491	Raid of Coriolanus.
486	Sp. Cassius proposes agrarian law.
	Treaty of Rome with Hernici.
	Wars with Aequi and Volsci intermittently for fifty years.
484	Latins recover Tusculum from Aequi and Volsci.
483-474	War with Veii.
479	Battle of the Cremera.
474	Etruscans defeated off Cumae by Hiero.
471	Lex Publilia Voleronis. Concilium Plebis and tribunes officially recognized.
462	Agitation of Terentilius Harsa.
459?	Tribunes raised to ten.
458?	Minucius defeated by Aequi at Mt Algidus.
	Aequi defeated by Cincinnatus.
456	Lex Icilia de Aventino publicando.
451-450	The decemvirates. Publication of the XII Tables.
449	Secession of the plebs. Valerio-Horatian Laws. Rights of tribunes legally defined.
447	Quaestors elected by the people. Comitia Tributa Populi perhaps instituted.
445	Lex Canuleia. Military tribunes with consular power replace consulship.
444	Treaty with Ardea.
443	Censorship established.
442	Latin colony at Ardea?
439	Minucius deals with corn supply of Rome.
433	Temple of Apollo founded.
431	Decisive defeat of Aequi on the Algidus.
428-425	Rome wins Fidenae from Veil.
421	Quaestorships raised to four: opened to plebs.
418	Roman garrison (colony ?) at Labici.
409	Three quaestors plebeians.
406	Anxur reduced.
404	Velitrae receives garrison.
399	Lectisternium decreed.
396	Military pay introduced.
	Fall of Veii. Peace with Volsci.
393	Latin colony at Circeii.
390?	Latin colony at Sutrium.
390	Battle of Allia. Gauls sack Rome. (387 acc. to Polybius.)

C. THE CONQUEST OF ITALY

388	Aequi defeated at Bola.
387	Creation of four rustic tribes on ager Veiens (making total of 25).
386-385	Latins, Volsci and Hernici defeated.
385	Latin colony at Satricum.
383?	Latin colony at Nepete.
382	Latin colony at Setia.
381	Tusculum pacified.
378	‘Servian’ Wall begun.
377	Latins defeated after their capture of Satricum.
	Licinius and Sextius start their agitation.
367	Laws of Licinius and Sextius passed. Consulship restored. Creation of curule aedileship.
366	First plebeian consul. Creation of praetorship. Curule aedileship to alternate annually between patricians and plebs.
361	Romans capture Ferentinum.
359	Tarquinii revolts.
358	Hernici readmitted to alliance. Renewal of treaty with Latins. Two new tribes created on land from Antium (total 27).
357	Government tax on manumission. Rate of interest fixed.
	Falerii revolts. Gallic raid on Latium.
356	First plebeian dictator.
354	Alliance of Rome and Samnites.
353	Caere defeated: 100 years’ truce: receives half-citizenship (or later).
352	Quinqueviri mensarii established.
351	First plebeian censor.
	Tarquinii and Falerii reduced: forty years’ truce.
348	Renewal of Rome’s treaty with Carthage.
346	Gallic raid checked (or 349). Defeat of Antium and Satricum.
343	Falerii receives permanent alliance.
	Latin attack on Paeligni.
343-341	First Samnite War (very doubtful).
342	Military mutiny and secession. Leges Cenuciae.
340-338	Latin revolt.
339	Leges Publiliae.
338	Latin League dissolved. Lanuvium, Aricia, Nomentum, Pedum and Tusculum receive full citizenship. Fundi, Formiae, Cumae, Capua, etc., receive half-citizenship. Roman colony at Antium and Ostia (?).
	Land confiscated from Velitrae.
337	First plebeian praetor.
336	Teanum granted alliance.
334	Latin colony at Cales.
332	Acerrae receives half-citizenship. Two new tribes created in Latium (total 29).
	Rome’s treaty with Tarentum (or 303).
332-331	Rome makes thirty years’ truce with Senones.
c. 330	Roman alliance with Fabrateria and Frusino.
329	Privernum captured and receives half-citizenship.
	Roman colony at Tarracina (Anxur).
328	Latin colony at Fregellae.
326	First use of prorogatio imperii. Lex Poetilia concerning debt (313).
	Roman alliance with Neapolis, Nuceria and the Apulians.
	Rome captures Rufrium and Allifae.
326-304	Second Samnite War.
321	Roman defeat at Caudine Forks. Peace. Rome surrenders Fregellae.
318	Two tribes (Falernia and Oufentina) created in northern Campania (total 31).
	Alliance with Teanum (Apuli) and Canusium.
	Roman prefects sent to Capua and Cumae.
316	Samnite War renewed.
315	Luceria captured. Samnite victory at Lautulae. Revolt of Capua and Aurunci to Samnites.
314	Roman victory atTarracina. Capua and Aurunci reduced. Latin colony at Luceria.
313 (or 312)	Fregellae and Sora recaptured. Nola and Calatia made allies. Latin colonies at Suessa Aurunca, Pontia, Saticula, Interamna.
312	Censorship of Appius Claudius.
	Romans capture Peltuinum and Allifae. Via Appia started. Aqua Appia.
311	Duoviri navales appointed.
310	Naval landing at Pompeii fails. Roman advance into Etruria.
	Roman treaties with Cortona, Perusia, Arretium.
308	Alliance with Tarquinii renewed for forty years.
	Alliance with Camerinum and Ocriculum.
307	Revolt of the Hernici.
306	Anagnia stormed; receives half-citizenship.
	‘Philinus’ treaty with Carthage.
304	Repeal of reform of Appius Claudius. Flavius publishes the ‘legis actiones’.
	Aequi defeated. Samnite War ended. Alliance with Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini, Frentani.
303	Latin colony at Alba Fucens (or 300) and Sora.
	Half-citizenship to Arpinum and Trebula.
	Temple of Salus dedicated.
302	Latin colony at Carsioli (or 298). Alliance with Vestini.
300	Lex Valeria de provocatione. Lex Ogulnia, opening priestly colleges to plebeians.
299	Two new tribes, Aniensis and Terentina (total 33).
	Latin colony at Narnia (Nequinum). Alliance with Picentes.
	Gallic raid in Roman territory.
298-290	Third Samnite War.
298	Rome captures Taurasia, Cisauna, Bovianum Vetus, and Aufidena.
296	Samnite raid in ager Falernus. Roman colonies at Minturnae and Sinuessa.
295	Roman victory over Samnites, Gauls and Umbrians at Sentinum.
294	Forty years’ treaty with Volsinii, Perusia, Arretium.
	Samnite victory near Luceria.
293(?)	Lex Maenia. Cult of Aesculapius imported.
	Roman victory over Samnites at Aquilonia.
292	Falerii reduced; truce.
291	Venusia stormed: Latin colony there.
290	Peace with Samnites. Sabines granted half-citizenship.
	Latin colony at Hadria and Roman (?) colony at Castrum Novum Piceni.
289	Mint and triumviri monetales established.
287	Lex Hortensia.
284	Senones defeat Metellus at Arretium. Revolt of Vulci, Volsinii, and some Samnites and Lucanians. Senones driven out of ager Gallicus. Roman colony at Sena.
283	Boii defeated at Lake Vadimo.
282	Boii defeated near Populonia, Roman garrisons sent to Thurii, Rhegium and Locri. Roman fleet attacked by Tarentines.
281	Roman embassy at Tarentum.
280	Alliance with Vulci, Volsinii, Rusellae, Vetulonia, Populonia, Volaterrae, and Tarquinii.
280-275	War with Pyrrhus.
280	Pyrrhus lands in Italy, and defeats Romans at Heraclea.
	(Winter) Negotiations with Pyrrhus.
279	Battle of Asculum.
278	Peace negotiations fail. Rome’s treaty with Carthage.
	Pyrrhus leaves Italy.
276	Pyrrhus returns to Italy.
275	Pyrrhus defeated near Malventum; returns to Greece.
273	Latin colonies at Paestum and Cosa. Caere mulcted of some territory. Roman friendship with Egypt.
272	Livius Andronicus brought to Rome. Anio Vetus aqueduct.
	Alliance with Velia, Heraclea, Thurii, Metapontum.
	Surrender of Tarentum.
270	Capture of Rhegium.
269	First silver coinage minted at Rome. Revolt of Picentes.
268	Picentes reduced: half-citizenship. Sabines receive full citizenship.
	Latin colonies at Beneventum and Ariminum.
	Capture of Sarsina.
267	War with Sallentini. Capture of Brundisium.
266	Apulia and Messapia reduced to alliance.
264	First gladiatorial show at Rome.
	Latin colony at Firmum. Capture of Volsinii.
263	Latin colony at Aesernia.

D. THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS

264-241	First Punic War.
264	Roman alliance with Mamertines. Roman army lands in Sicily.
263	Hiero becomes Roman ally.
262	Capture of Agrigentum.
260	Naval victory off Mylae.
259	Roman occupation of Corsica.
258	Naval victory off Sulci.
257	Naval victory off Tyndaris.
256	Naval victory off Ecnomus. Regulus lands in Africa.
255	Defeat of Regulus’ army. Naval victory off Cape Hermaeum.
	Roman fleet wrecked off Pachynus.
254	Romans capture Panormus.
253	Roman fleet wrecked off Palinurus.
250	Victory at Panormus. Siege of Lilybaeum.
249	Claudius’ naval defeat at Drepana. Roman transport fleet wrecked.
247	Hamilcar Barca starts Carthaginian offensive in Sicily.
244	Latin colony at Brundisium.
243	Roman fleet built from voluntary loans.
242	Institution of praetor peregrinus.
241	Naval victory off Aegates Insulae. Peace. Roman occupation of Sicily. Falerii reduced. Latin colony at Spoletium. Two tribes created in Picenum (total 35).
241?	Reform of the Comitia Centuriata.
238-225	Occupation and reduction of Corsica and Sardinia.
238-230	Intermittent campaigns against the Ligurians.
236	First play of Naevius.
	Gallic raids in the North.
c. 235	The quadrigatus introduced.
235-234	Temple of Janus closed.
232	Distribution of ager Callicus carried by Flaminius.
231	Roman embassy to Hamilcar in Spain.
229-228	First Illyrian War. Roman protectorate established on the Illyrian coast.
228	Roman envoys in Greece.
227	Praetorships raised to four. Sicily and Sardinia under praetors.
226	Roman embassy to Hasdrubal in Spain; Ebro treaty.
225	Invading Gauls defeated at Telamon.
223	Flaminius defeats Insubres.
222	Battle of Clastidium; Insubres surrender.
221-220	North-eastern frontier secured to Julian Alps.
c. 221	Saguntines appeal to Rome.
220	Construction of Via Flaminia.
219	Second Illyrian War; Demetrius defeated.
	(aut.) Hannibal storms Saguntum.
218?	Lex Claudia.
	Latin colonies at Placentia and Cremona.
	Roman ultimatum to Carthage. War declared (spring).
218-201	Second Punic War.
218	Hannibal in northern Italy. Battles of Ticinus and Trebia.
217	Roman naval victory off the Ebro. Battle of Lake Trasimene.
216	Battle of Cannae. Revolts in central Italy, and of Capua.
215	Tributum doubled.
	Hannibal in South Italy. Hasdrubal defeated at Dertosa.
	Alliance of Carthage with Philip and Syracuse.
214	Roman successes in Spain.
214-205	First Macedonian War.
213	Hannibal occupies Tarentum. Roman siege of Syracuse.
212	Siege of Capua.
	Ludi Apollinares introduced.
212-211	The denarius introduced.
211	Hannibal’s march on Rome. Fall of Capua and Syracuse. Roman alliance with Aetolia.
	The Scipios defeated in Spain.
210	Twelve Latin colonies refuse contingents. Fall of Agrigentum.
	Scipio Africanus lands in Spain.
209	Recapture of Tarentum. Capture of New Carthage.
208	Death of Marcellus. Battle of Baecula.
207	Hasdrubal defeated at Metaurus.
206	Battle of Ilipa. Final reduction of Spain. Aetolians make peace with Philip.
205	Scipio in Sicily. Peace of Phoenice (or 204).
204	Ennius brought to Rome. Cult stone of Mother Goddess brought from Asia Minor.
	Scipio lands in Africa.
203	Syphax defeated. Battle of the Great Plains. Armistice broken.
	Defeat of Mago. Hannibal recalled in winter.
202	First prose history of Rome by Fabius Pictor.
	Scipio’s victory at Zama (aut.).
201	Peace. Masinissa king of Greater Numidia. Carthage becomes a client state. Appeal of Attalus and Rhodes.

E. EXTENSION OF EMPIRE

200-196	Second Macedonian War.
200	War declared on Philip. Insubres sack Placentia.
199	Lex Porcia, limiting Imperium of governors. Death of Naevius.
198	Flamininus’ victory at the Aoiis. Achaeans join Rome.
197	Praetorships raised to six. Spain organized as two provinces.
	Cethegus defeats Insubres. Battle of Cynoscephalae.
	Peace between Philip and Rome (winter). Revolt of Turdetani in Spain.
196	Final defeat of Insubres by Marcellus. Flamininus’ proclamation at
	Corinth. Appeal of Smyrna to Senate.
195	Repeal of Lex Oppia. Lex Porcia, forbidding scourging of citizens.
	Hannibal exiled. Masinissa starts his raids on Punic territory. Cato in Spain. War against Nabis.
194	Roman colonies at Volturnum, Liternum, Puteoli, Salernum, Pyrgi, Sipontum, Tempsa, Croton, Buxentum.
	Lusitani defeated; war drags on intermittently.
	Evacuation of Greece.
193	Latin colony at Copia.
192-189	War with Antiochus.
192	Latin colony at Vibo. The Apuani checked. War declared on Antiochus, who lands in Greece (Oct.).
191	Lex Acilia, concerning the calendar.
	Boii defeated by Scipio Nasica. Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae. War in Aetolia. Antiochus’ fleet defeated off Corycus.
190	Placentia and Cremona resettled. The Scipios in Greece.
	Antiochus’ fleet defeated at Side and Myonnesus.
189	Libertini enrolled in rustic tribes.
	Latin colony at Bononia. Campanians enrolled as citizens. Fall of Ambracia. Peace with Aetolia.
	Defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia. Manlius raids Galatia.
188	Full citizenship granted to Arpinum, Formiae, Fundi.
	Treaty of Apamea. Settlement of Asia.
187	Government liquidates war debt. Attacks on Scipios.
	Non-citizens expelled from Rome.
	Via Aemilia and Via Flaminia.
186	Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus.
	Ligurians defeat Philippus.
184	Cato censor. Death ofPlautus. Exile of Scipio Africanus.
	Roman colonies at Potentia, Pisaurum. Philip sends Demetrius to Rome.
183	Lex Furia Testamentaria. Death of Scipio Africanus.
	Roman colonies at Parma, Mutina, Saturnia.
181	Lex Baebia. Lex Orchia (sumptuary).
	Latin colony at Aquileia. Roman colony at Graviscae.
	Ingauni defeated. End of Achaeo-Spartan quarrel.
	Revolt in Corsica and Sardinia.
181-179	First Celtiberian War.
180	Lex Villia Annalis.
	Latin colony at Luca. Apuani defeated. Foundation of Graccuris in Spain.
179	Accession of Perseus.
178	Expedition against Istri.
177	Latins expelled from Rome.
	Roman colony at Luna. Annexation of Istria.
177-176	Sardinia reduced.
173	Latins expelled from Rome. Two Epicurean philosophers expelled.
	Envoys sent to arbitrate between Masinissa and Carthage.
172	Two plebeian consuls.
172-167	Third Macedonian War.
171	Temporary court de repetundis.
	Latin colony at Carteia in Spain.
169	Lex Voconia. Freedmen confined to one urban tribe.
	Quarrel between Senate and Equites.
168	Defeat of Perseus at Pydna. Romans capture Scodra.
	Antiochus checked. Delos declared a free port. Foundation of Corduba in Spain (or 151).
167	Tributum discontinued. Perseus’ library brought to Rome. Epirus plundered. Macedon divided into four, Illyria into three protectorates. 1,000 Achaeans deported to Italy.
166-159	Production of Terence’s comedies.
163	Final reduction of Corsica.
161	Lex Fannia (sumptuary). Expulsion of Greek philosophers.
	Treaty with Jews.
159	Law against bribery.
157-155	Roman campaigns in Dalmatia and Pannonia.
155	Carneades in Rome.
154	Oxybian Ligurians defeated.
154-138	Lusitanian War.
153-151	Second Celtiberian War.
151	Carthage declares war on Masinissa.
150	Return of Achaean exiles to Greece.
c. 150	Lex Aelia Fufia. Lex Aebutia, establishing a formulary system of legal procedure.
149-146	Third Punic War.
149	Permanent court de repetundis (Lex Calpurnia).
	Publication of Cato’s Origines.
	Siege of Carthage begun. Rising of Andriscus in Macedon.
148	Via Postumia.
147	Viriathus successful.
	Macedonia becomes a province.
146	Destruction of Carthage. Africa becomes a province. War between
	Rome and Achaeans. Sack of Corinth.
143-133	Third Celtiberian, or Numantine War.
139	Death of Viriathus.
133	Fall of Numantia.

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