FURTHER READING

The bibliography on the history of Rome is more than any one person could master. What follows are suggestions for exploring further the topics I have discussed, directions to some of the more out-of-the-way texts and sources that I have mentioned, including some personal favourite contributions to the subject, new and old. Under specific chapters I first note important thematic studies before identifying the source of particular arguments or pieces of information which might otherwise be hard to track down.

General

Almost all the ancient literature I draw on is available in good modern translation. The volumes of the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press) include all but a handful of mainstream classical authors, with a Greek or Latin text and facing English translation. The series of Penguin Classics is more selective and does not include the original Greek or Latin but is more affordably priced. Increasingly, texts are available free online. The most useful sites are Lacus Curtius (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home.html) and the Perseus Digital Library (www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collections). Both include a mixture of the original language and translations, and often have both. I give pointers here mainly to translations not available in these standard series.

Ancient inscriptions and papyri can be harder to track down. Their original texts are often included in huge ongoing collections, which began to be compiled in the nineteenth century (and, in what was then a gesture to easy understanding across different modern countries, were written entirely in Latin). The main collection (the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum) also has a website,http://cil.bbaw.de/cil_en/index_en.html. It is technical, but now mostly available in English. The website of the Oxford Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents (www.csad.ox.ac.uk/) gives a glimpse into the vivid evidence that can come from papyri. Some smaller collections of translations of these documents, chosen by period or theme, are available, noted below.

Anyone who has the nerve to write about a thousand years of Roman history follows in the footsteps of distinguished predecessors. The beginning of Edward Gibbon’s The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire remains one of the most memorable accounts of the first two centuries CE; the abridged version edited by David Womersely (Penguin, 2000) is in a handy single volume with a good introduction but omits substantial sections in this period. Two useful multi-authored series cover the period of SPQR. The Routledge History of the Ancient World includes two especially relevant volumes: T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC) (1995), and Martin Goodman, The Roman World, 44 BC–AD 180 (2nd edition, 2011). In the Edinburgh History of Ancient Rome (Edinburgh UP), note Nathan Rosenstein, Rome and the Mediterranean 290 to 146 BC: The Imperial Republic (2012), Catherine Steel, The End of the Roman Republic 146 to 44 BC: Conquest and Crisis (2013), J. S. Richardson, Augustan Rome 44 BC to AD 14: The Restoration of the Republic and the Establishment of Empire (2012) and, picking up more or less where I stop, Clifford Ando, Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284 (2012). The relevant weighty parts – volumes 7.2 to 11 – of the Cambridge Ancient History (Cambridge UP, 2nd edition, from 1990 on) include even more detailed accounts and analysis. On a more succinct scale, I have learned a lot from Christopher Kelly, The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction(Oxford UP, 2006), Simon Price and Peter Thonemann, The Birth of Classical Europe: A History from Troy to Augustine (Viking, 2011), Brian Campbell, The Romans and Their World: A Short Introduction (Yale UP, 2011), Greg Woolf, Rome: An Empire’s Story (Oxford UP, 2013) and Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2014). All these underlie my discussion throughout this book.

Most aspects of Roman religion can be followed up in Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price, Religions of Rome (Cambridge UP, 1998), and I have discussed the details and history of the ceremony of triumph in my The Roman Triumph (Harvard UP, 2007). The essays in The Cambridge Economic History of the GrecoRoman World, edited by Walter Scheidel, Ian Morris and Richard P. Saller (Cambridge UP, 2007), offer up-to-date discussion of the economy and demography of the Roman world, though all population estimates in SPQR should be taken for what they are: (rough) estimates.

For general reference, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, edited by Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth and Esther Eidinow (Oxford UP, 4th edition, 2012, and online), includes reliable entries on hundreds of classical people, places and topics (a good present for anyone interested in the history of Rome). For maps, the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, edited by Richard J. A. Talbert (Princeton UP, 2000), is the gold standard, and also available cheaply as an app. Free online, Orbis, the rather ponderously subtitled “Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman World”, allows you to plot routes and distances across the Roman world and shows the time and money it would have taken to get from A to B (http://orbis.stanford.edu/). All my journey times are based on this. For anyone planning a visit to ancient sites in Rome, the guidebook to take is Amanda Claridge, Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (Oxford UP, 2nd edition, 2010).

Prologue

The essay by a Roman doctor (Galen) is translated by Vivian Nutton in Galen: Psychological Writings, edited by P. N. Singer (Cambridge UP, 2014). The technical data from the Greenland ice cap are presented by, for example, S. Hong et al. in ‘Greenland ice’, Science 265 (1994), and by C. J. Sapart et al. in ‘Natural and anthropogenic variations’, Nature 490 (2012). The cesspit in Herculaneum has a share of the limelight in Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Herculaneum: Past and Future (Frances Lincoln, 2011).

Chapter 1

My favourite modern biography of Cicero is still Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero: A Portrait (Allen Lane, 1975; reprint, Bristol Classical Paperbacks, 1994). The Cambridge Companion to Cicero, edited by Catherine Steel (Cambridge UP, 2013), is a good guide to more up-to-date approaches. There is an astute discussion of Cicero’s rhetoric against Catiline in Thomas Habinek, The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome (Princeton UP, 1998). The Greek historian resident in the second century BCE was Polybius, who takes a leading part in Chapter 5. John R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (Bloomsbury, 2000) is a succinct guide to exactly that. For the conditions of Roman urban life at this period, John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Johns Hopkins UP, 1988) is a useful introduction.

Cicero ‘the lodger’ is put in the mouth of Catiline by Sallust, War against Catiline 31; his joke about the rats is found in his Letters to Atticus 14, 9; his abject self-pity when in exile is captured in his letters to his wife collected in Book 14 of his Letters to Friends, while the boastful fragments of his poem on his consulate are largely preserved in his treatise On Divination. The line ‘O fortunatam natam …’ is targeted by Juvenal, Satires 10, 122, and by Cicero’s admirer Quintilian, Handbook on Oratory 11, 1, 24, while defended, for example, by Sander M. Goldberg, Epic in Republican Rome (Oxford UP, 1995). The letter to Lucceius is Letters to Friends 5, 12; the Greek poet whom Cicero hoped would take on his consulship is Archias, who features in Chapter 6. Alvaro Sanchez-Ostiz analyses the bilingual fragments of the speeches on papyri in ‘Cicero graecus’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 187 (2013). The echoes of ‘Quo usque …’ are explored by Andrew Feldherr in ‘Free spirits’, American Journal of Philology 134 (2013); the story of Manlius is told, and his speech concocted, at Livy, History 6, 11–20; and Catiline’s cameo appearance comes at Aeneid 8, 666–70. The calculations of the money supply are clearly explained by Keith Hopkins in ‘Taxes and trade’, Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980), with more general reflections on the use of coins in ancient historical argument by Christopher Howgego, Ancient History from Coins (Routledge, 1995). The allegation that Cicero turned the conspiracy to his advantage is made in Ps-Sallust, Invective against Cicero 2. The medieval and Renaissance traditions of Catiline are the subject of Patricia J. Osmond, ‘Catiline in Fiesole and Florence’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition 7 (2000).

Chapter 2

R. Ross Holloway, The Archaeology of Early Rome and Latium (Routledge, 1994), Christopher J. Smith, Early Rome and Latium: Economy and Society c. 1000–500 BC (Oxford UP, 1996) and G. Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (Univ. of California Press, 2005) are useful introductions to the period of this and the next chapters. T. P. Wiseman brilliantly (if, in the end, unconvincingly) discusses the mythology of Romulus and Remus in Remus: A Roman Myth (Cambridge UP, 1995) and explores related themes in the earliest history of the city in Unwritten Rome (Exeter UP, 2008); the story of Troy at Rome is the theme of Andrew Erskine, Troy Between Greece and Rome: Local Tradition and Imperial Power (Oxford UP, 2003). Livy’s account is dissected by G. Miles, Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome (Cornell UP, 1997). Emma Dench’s Romulus’ Asylum: Roman Identities from the Age of Alexander to the Age of Hadrian (Oxford UP, 2005) is a sophisticated discussion of the role of foundation legends in Roman identity.

Cicero as the new Romulus is one theme in Ann Vasaly, Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory (Univ. of California Press, 1993); ‘Romulus of Arpinum’ is a sneer in Ps-Sallust, Invective against Cicero 7. The case for the bronze wolf as a medieval work is put by Anna Maria Carruba, La Lupa capitolina: Un bronzo medievale (De Luca, 2007). Cicero’s version of the foundation legend is in On the State 2, 4–13. The tragedy on the Rape of the Sabines was by Ennius; the one line can be found in volume 1 of the Loeb collection Remains of Old Latin (Harvard UP, 1935). Juba’s calculations are recorded by Plutarch, Romulus 14; the passage of Sallust’s History (Book 4, 67) is translated by Patrick McGushin in Sallust, The Histories 2 (Oxford UP, 1992); the inheritance of Romulus is the view of an early Roman historian, quoted by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 13, 23, 13; and Ovid’s jokes are at Love Lessons 1, 101–34. What little is known about Egnatius is included in The Fragments of the Roman Historians, edited by T. J. Cornell (Oxford UP, 2014); Dionysius gives his view of Romulus’ reaction in Roman Antiquities 1, 87; Horace’s reflections on civil war are in Epode 7. P. S. Derow and W. G. Forrest discuss ‘An inscription from Chios’ in Annual of the British School at Athens 77 (1982); it is now in the Archaeological Museum at Chios. A translation of Claudius’ speech is included in David C. Braund, Augustus to Nero: A Sourcebook on Roman History 31 BC–AD 68 (Croom Helm, 1985; reprint, Routledge, 2014). The words of the king of Macedon (preserved in an inscription) are cited in Michel Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation (Cambridge UP, 2nd edition, 2006); Juvenal’s scorn is found in his Satires 8; the ‘crap’ of Romulus is a quip in Cicero’s Letters to Atticus 2, 1. The hut of Romulus was seen by Dionysius (Roman Antiquities 1, 79) and is discussed by Catharine Edwards in Writing Rome (Cambridge UP, 2006). The debates on the date of the origin of Rome are a major theme in Denis Feeney, Caesar’s Calendar: Ancient Times and the Beginnings of History (Univ. of California Press, 2007). For the ‘fate of Romulus’ as a threat, see Plutarch, Pompey 25. Dionysius mentions Romus and Odysseus in Roman Antiquities 1, 72, 5 and refers to the tomb of Romulus at 1, 64, 4–5; the embassy from Delos is discussed by Andrew Erskine in ‘Delos, Aeneas and IG XI.4.756’, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 117 (1997). Dionysius’ attempt to make sense of ‘Aborigines’ is in Roman Antiquities 1, 10. For the learned Varro’s discussion of the Septimontium, see his On the Latin Language 6, 24. The hut at Fidenae is described by Rosanna Cappelli, Fidene: Una casa dell’età del ferro (Electa, 1996). The wattle and daub in the Forum is reanalysed by Albert J. Ammerman, ‘On the origins of the Forum Romanum’, American Journal of Archaeology 94 (1990). Various interpretations of the black stone are found in Festus, On the Significance of Words 184L (no convenient translation) and Dionysius, Roman Antiquities 1, 87 and 3, 1.

Chapter 3

The Roman Historical Tradition: Regal and Republican Rome, edited by James H. Richardson and Federico Santangelo (Oxford UP, 2014), is an important collection of essays on this and the early Republican period. The working of the Roman calendar is the main theme of Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History and the Fasti (Blackwell, 2011). For an introduction to Etruria, see Christopher Smith, The Etruscans (Oxford UP, 2014), and The Etruscan World, edited by Jean MacIntosh Turfa (Routledge, 2013). The central role of libertas throughout Roman history is recently discussed by Valentina Arena, Libertas and the Practice of Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge UP, 2012). The later debates around the story of Lucretia are analysed in Ian Donaldson, The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and Its Transformation (Oxford UP, 1982).

G. Dumézil, Archaic Roman Religion (Chicago UP, 1970) proposes the ‘excrement interpretation’ of the Forum inscription. One classic statement of nineteenth-century scepticism on the Roman kings can still be found in Ettore Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History (Dodd, Mead, 1905). Fabius Pictor’s population estimate is quoted at Livy, History 1, 44. A translation of the letter to Teos is given in Beard, North and Price, Religions of Rome, volume 2 (see General, above), along with further details on the Antium calendar. Livy dismisses the idea of Numa being a pupil of Pythagoras at History 1, 18. The bronze for the decoration of St John Lateran is documented in John Franklin Hall, Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era (Indiana UP, 1996). The Latin names in early Etruria are discussed by Kathryn Lomas, ‘The polis in Italy’, in Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of Political Organization and Community in Ancient Greece, edited by Roger Brock and Stephen Hodkinson (Oxford UP, 2002). The François Tomb is the subject of one chapter in Peter J. Holliday, The Origins of Roman Historical Commemoration in the Visual Arts (Cambridge UP, 2002). Wiseman in Unwritten Rome (see Chapter 2) sceptically reviews the evidence for the large houses near the Forum. Pliny’s complaints about the Cloaca Maxima are in his Natural History 36, 104. For Martial’s quips on Lucretia, see his Epigrams 11, 16 and 104, and for Augustine’s reflections, see City of God 1, 19. Pliny, Natural History 34, 139 hints that Lars Porsenna held power in Rome. The phrase ‘getting rid of kings’ is borrowed from John Henderson’s article with that title in Classical Quarterly 44 (1994), which scrutinises the surname ‘Rex’. Livy, History 7, 3 refers to the nail in the Capitoline temple, and 2, 5 to the formation of the Tiber’s island. The Greek theorist is again Polybius. Mortimer N. S. Sellers discusses later appropriations of the Roman ideal of liberty in ‘The Roman Republic and the French and American Revolutions’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower (Cambridge UP, 2014).

Chapter 4

In addition to useful chapters in A Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert MorsteinMarx (Blackwell, 2007), the conflicts in early Republican Rome are the theme of Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub (Univ. of California Press, 1986). A careful overview of office holding in the early Republic is given by Christopher Smith, ‘The magistrates of the early Roman Republic’, in Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic, edited by Hans Beck et al. (Cambridge UP, 2011). The structures of Republican political life in general are the subject of C. Nicolet, The World of the Citizen in Republican Rome (Univ. of California Press, 1980).

The ‘chief praetor’ is mentioned at Livy, History 7, 3; the translation ‘colonels’ I have borrowed from T. P. Wiseman (in Remus; see Chapter 2). The suspicious burnt layer in the Forum and elsewhere is noted by Filippo Coarelli in Il Foro Romano 1 (Quasar, 1983) and Il Foro Boario dale origini alla fine della repubblica (Quasar, 1988). The Tomb of the Scipios on the Appian Way is the theme of Filippo Coarelli, ‘Il sepolcro degli Scipioni’, in his Revixit Ars: Arte e ideologia a Roma (Quasar, 1997). The sarcophagus of Barbatus is well analysed by Harriet I. Flower, in The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2011), who disposes of the common idea that his epitaph is a much later composition; translations of the main epitaphs from the family mausoleum are available online, at www.attalus.org/docs/cil/epitaph.html (see also Livy, History 10 for the context of Barbatus’ career). Duris’ comments on Sentinum are quoted by Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 21, 6. For Roman barbers, see Varro, On Country Matters 2, 11. An up-to-date analysis of the work of Fabius Pictor is included in The Fragments of Roman Historians, edited by T. J. Cornell (see Chapter 2); the exploit of the Fabii is described by Livy, History 2, 48–50; Coriolanus is carefully scrutinised by Tim Cornell, ‘Coriolanus: Myth, History and Performance’, in Myth, History and Culture in Republican Rome, edited by David Braund and Christopher Gill (Exeter UP, 2003). A glimpse of ancient dentistry is offered by D. J. Waarsenburg, ‘Auro dentes iuncti’, in Stips Votiva, edited by M. Gnade (Allard Pierson Museum, 1991). The Loeb collection Remains of Old Latin, volume 3 (Harvard UP, 1938), assembles the fragments of the Twelve Tables, but the most up-to-date edition is in Roman Statutes, edited by M. H. Crawford (Institute of Classical Studies, 1996). The irritated lawyers are mentioned by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 20, 1. On the conversion of the Roman senate to a permanent body, see T. J. Cornell, ‘Lex Ovinia and the emancipation of the senate’, in The Roman Middle Republic: Politics, Religion and Historiography, edited by C. Bruun (Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, 2000). The baseline for the archaeology of Veii is still J. B. Ward-Perkins, ‘Veii: the historical topography of the ancient city’, Papers of the British School at Rome 29 (1961), with now Roberta Cascino et al., Veii, the Historical Topography of the Ancient City: A Restudy of John Ward-Perkins’s Survey (British School at Rome, 2012). Propertius’ view is found at Elegies 4, 10. On a possible circuit wall earlier than the fourth century, see S. G. Bernard, ‘Continuing the debate on Rome’s earliest circuit walls’, Papers of the British School at Rome 80 (2012). The tragedy on Sentinum is by Lucius Accius; its extant fragments are in Remains of Old Latin 2 (Harvard UP, 1936). The Esquiline tomb is discussed by Holliday, The Origins of Roman Historical Commemoration (see Chapter 3). The ‘Upper’ and ‘Lower’ Seas are referred to by Plautus, Menaechmi 237 and Cicero, Letters to Atticus 9, 5. The Roman impact on the landscape is well emphasised by Nicholas Purcell, ‘The creation of the provincial landscape’, in The Early Roman Empire in the West, edited by Thomas Blagg and Martin Millett (Oxbow, 1990).

Chapter 5

Modern debates on Roman imperialism go back to William V. Harris’s classic study War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC (Oxford UP, 2nd edition, 1985), which puts a strong case for aggressive Roman expansion. The work of Arthur Eckstein – for example, Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome (Univ. of California Press, 2006) – offers an alternative view, which in many ways I have followed in this book; even more powerful is J. A. North’s brief essay ‘The development of Roman imperialism’, in Journal of Roman Studies 71 (1981). The cultural origins of Roman literature and the interaction between the Roman and Greek worlds are explored by Erich S. Gruen in Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (Cornell UP, 1992) and very differently by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill in Rome’s Cultural Revolution (Cambridge UP, 2008). Brian C. McGing, Polybius (Oxford UP, 2010) is a succinct introduction to the historian; Polybius’ main analysis of Roman politics is found in Book 6 of his Histories. Useful discussions of the Roman wars against the Carthaginians and of their major players include A. E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (Oxford UP, 1967), Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC (Cassell, 2003), and A Companion to the Punic Wars, edited by Dexter Hoyos (Blackwell, 2011). Philip Kay discusses economic aspects of Roman imperialism in Rome’s Economic Revolution (Oxford UP, 2014). Roman funerals and commemoration are the subject of Harriet I. Flower,Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture (Oxford UP, 1999). Important contributions to the debates on the popular element of Roman politics include John North, ‘Democratic politics in Republican Rome’, in Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society, edited by Robin Osborne (Cambridge UP, 2004), Fergus Millar, The Crowd in the Late Republic (Michigan UP, 1998), Henrik Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge UP, 2001) and Robert Morstein-Marx, Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic (Cambridge UP, 2004).

The warlike Muse is imagined by Porcius Licinius, quoted in Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 17, 21. Aemilianus’ tears are described by Polybius, Histories 38, 21–22. The story of Pyrrhus’ stunt with the elephants is told by Plutarch, Pyrrhus 20; the rams are discussed by Sebastiano Tusa and Jeffrey Royal, ‘The landscape of the naval battle at the Egadi Islands’, Journal of Roman Archaeology25 (2012). A translation of the surviving fragments of Ennius’ epic on Rome (the Annales, or Chronicles) is included in volume 1 of the Loeb collection Remains of Old Latin (Harvard UP, 1935); Livy’s ‘quotation’ from Maharbal is at History 22, 51. The reality of the Battle of Cannae is discussed by Victor Davis Hanson in Experience of War: An Anthology of Articles from MHQ, the Quarterly Journal of Military History (Norton, 1992); Aemilius Paullus’ quip on battles and games is quoted by Polybius, Histories 30, 14, while Polybius’ advice to Aemilianus is recorded by Plutarch, Table Talk 4. Cato’s jibe about the elderly Greeks is mentioned by Polybius, Histories 35, 6, and the story of the unfortunate crow by Cassius Dio, Roman History 36, 30. Polybius notes the Roman habits of Antiochus Epiphanes at Histories 26, 1, and Valerius Maximus tells the anecdote about Scipio Nasica in his Memorable Deeds and Sayings 7, 5. Jupiter’s prophecy is scripted at Aeneid 1, 278–79. A translation of the inscription from Teos is given in Robert K. Sherk, Rome and the Greek East to the Death of Augustus (Cambridge UP, 1984); the Spanish mines are discussed in Kay’s Rome’s Economic Revolution; the vocabulary of empire is a theme in John Richardson, The Language of Empire: Rome and the Idea of Empire from the Third Century BC to the Second Century AD (Cambridge UP, 2011); and the idea of obedience is stressed by Robert Kallet-Marx, Hegemony to Empire: The Development of the Roman Imperium in the East from 148 to 62 BC (Univ. of California Press, 1996). The trick of Laenas is described by Polybius, Histories 29, 27; the Greek ambassador who fell down the sewer was Crates of Mallos (Suetonius, On Grammarians 2); and jokes about bad Roman accents in Greek are recorded by, for example, Dionysius, Roman Antiquities 19, 5. For the inscription of Lucius the mercenary, see Sherk, Rome and the Greek East; and for the Cossutii, Elizabeth Rawson, ‘Architecture and sculpture: the activities of the Cossutii’, Papers of the British School at Rome 43 (1975). The establishment of Carteia is noted by Livy, History 43, 3, and the presence of ‘prostitutes’ by the surviving ‘Summary’ of the lost Book 57 of his History. The historian Lucius Annaeus Florus compared later spoils to ‘the cattle of the Volsci’ (Epitome 1, 13). The awkward ‘happy ending’ is in Terence’s Hecyra; the relevant plays of Plautus are The Persian and The Little Carthaginian, and one joke about ‘barbarising’ is in the prologue of the Asinaria (‘Comedy of asses’). Many of Cato’s bons mots are collected in Alan E. Astin, Cato the Censor (Oxford UP, 1978); the insistence of standing up at the theatre is mentioned by Valerius Maximus,Memorable Deeds and Sayings 2, 4.

Chapters 6 and 7

Rome in the Late Republic: Problems and Interpretations by Mary Beard and Michael Crawford (Duckworth, 2nd edition, 2000) is a brief account of the main issues of this period; Tom Holland’s Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic (Little, Brown, 2003) is an excellent popular history. One of the sharpest analyses of socio-economic changes in the late Republic remains the first chapter of Keith Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge UP, 1978). The major characters of these chapters have attracted modern biographies, although (apart from Cicero; see Chapter 1) there is almost never enough material to tell a life story in the conventional sense. That said, Robin Seager, Pompey the Great (Blackwell, 2nd edition, 2002) is a careful political account of Pompey’s career; Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus (Yale UP, 2006) offers a clear outline of what we know of Julius Caesar, and W. Jeffery Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1999) of what we know of Cicero’s great adversary; Barry Strauss, The Spartacus War (Simon and Schuster, 2009) is a reliable popular overview of Spartacus and his slave uprising. Note that I refer to Pompey, Caesar and Crassus as the ‘Gang of Three’, though they are more commonly now known by the spuriously formal title ‘The First Triumvirate’.

The fullest account of the destruction of Carthage is Appian, Punic Wars; its archaeology is discussed by Serge Lancel, Carthage: A History (Blackwell, 1995). Polybius, Histories 38, 20 records the suicide of Hasdrubal’s wife, and Pliny, Natural History 18, 22 highlights the works of Mago. Corinthian bronze is discussed at Pliny, Natural History 34, 7. Key anecdotes about Mummius are found in Polybius, Histories 39, 2 (gaming boards) and Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 1, 13 (‘new for old’, also reprised in a much later collection of Roman jokes, the Philogelos). His spoils are discussed by Liv Yarrow, ‘Lucius Mummius and the spoils of Corinth’, Scripta Classica Israelica 25 (2006). For Cato’s stunt with the figs, see Plutarch, Cato the Elder 27. Polybius cites the view that the Romans now aimed at extermination for its own sake at Histories 36, 9. Virgil references Mummius at Aeneid 6, 836–37; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2, 1 reflects on the abandonment of virtue. Maria C. Gagliardo and James E. Packer provide an up-to-date discussion of Rome’s first permanent stone theatre in ‘A new look at Pompey’s Theater’, American Journal of Archaeology 110 (2006). Plutarch’s Tiberius Gracchus is the source of many of the details of, and comments on, his life: the first political bloodshed since the monarchy (20), the story of Tiberius’ ‘conversion’ (8), ‘masters of the world’ (9), Aemilianus’ Homeric quotation (21). Alessandro Launaro, Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy (200 BC to AD 100) (Cambridge UP, 2011) is an important recent discussion of the demography and agricultural history of Italy, though D. W. Rathbone, ‘The development of agriculture in the “Ager Cosanus” during the Roman Republic’, Journal of Roman Studies 71 (1981), remains one of the clearest introductions to the problems; ‘fighting for their own displacement’ is the phrase of Keith Hopkins in Conquerors and Slaves. On the rituals of Roman elections, see Hopkins, ‘From violence to blessing’, in City States in Classical and Medieval Italy, edited by A. Molho et al. (Franz Steiner, 1991). Cicero’s reference to partes is at On the State 1, 31, and his huffing and puffing over the secret ballot is at On the Laws 3, 34–35. Juvenal, Satires 10, 81 coined ‘bread and circuses’. The Roman food supply is clearly discussed by Peter Garnsey, Food and Society in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge UP, 1999); see also, for the Thessaly inscription, Garnsey and Dominic Rathbone, ‘The background to the grain law of Gaius Gracchus’, Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985). The outburst of Frugi is recorded by Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 3, 48, Gaius’ turning away from the comitium and demolition of the seating by Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus 5 and 12, the exchange with the consul’s attendants and the carving on the Temple of Concord by Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus 13 and 17. Modern theories of the emergency powers act are fully discussed by Gregory K. Golden, Crisis Management During the Roman Republic: The Role of Political Institutions in Emergencies (Cambridge UP, 2013). Gaius’ words on the affair of Teanum are quoted by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 10, 3 (as are Cato’s earlier complaints about the consul dissatisfied with his supply arrangements). P. A. Brunt, ‘Italian aims at the time of the Social War’, in his The Fall of the Roman Republic (Oxford UP, 1988), and H. Mouritsen, Italian Unification: A Study in Ancient and Modern Historiography (Institute of Classical Studies, 1998) are major interventions on different sides of the question of motivation for the Social War. The friezes from Fregellae are discussed by F. Coarelli, ‘Due fregi da Fregellae’, Ostraka 3 (1994), and Praeneste by Wallace-Hadrill in Rome’s Cultural Revolution (see Chapter 5). For the Social War as a civil war, see Florus, Epitome 2, 18; for ‘seeking citizenship’, Velleius Paterculus,History of Rome 2, 15 and for ‘wolves’, 2, 27. Publius Ventidius Bassus, the general who appeared on both sides of the triumph, features in Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6, 9. The siege of Pompeii is documented in Flavio Russo and Ferruccio Russo, 89 a.C.: Assedio a Pompei (Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 2005); the heads in Sulla’s atrium are mentioned by Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 3, 1; the new low in the quotation of Greek is referred to by Appian, Civil War 1, 94; the dictator’s death and epitaph are at Plutarch, Sulla 36–38. Catiline’s misdeeds in the proscriptions are recorded by Plutarch, Sulla 32. The evidence on Spartacus is collected in Brent D. Shaw, Spartacus and the Slave Wars: A Brief History with Documents(Bedford/St Martins, 2001). Cicero refers to the problems at Pompeii in his speech In Defence of Lucius Sulla 60–62; the story of the comic at Asculum is told by Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 37, 12.

The activities of Verres in Sicily are the subject of Cicero’s final speech Against Verres 2, 5. Gaius’ sharp words are recorded by Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus 2. Both the Penguin and Loeb editions of Cicero’s Letters are arranged in roughly chronological order; although this loses the logic of the original book division and demands a different numbering system, it makes the material from particular periods of his career (including his provincial governorship) easy to access. His philosophical treatise on provincial rule is Letters to his Brother Quintus 1.1. The law of Gaius can be found in Roman Statutes, edited by M. H. Crawford (see Chapter 4), and in a full study by A. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic: A New Edition, with Translation and Commentary, of the Laws from Urbino (Cambridge UP, 1992). The Roman equites are discussed by P. A. Brunt, ‘The equites in the late Republic’, in his The Fall of the Roman Republic, and publicani by Nicolet, The World of the Citizen in Republican Rome (see Chapter 4). The senator who returned to his province in exile is mentioned by Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 2, 10. The slogan ‘Rome for sale’ goes back to Sallust, War Against Jugurtha 35, 10. The impact of Marius’ army reforms and the ‘private’ armies of the late Republic are one theme of a classic essay by Brunt, ‘The army and the land’, in The Fall of the Roman Republic. The death of Marius is described by Plutarch, Marius 45. Cicero’s speech advocating Pompey’s command is known by two titles, On the Command of Pompey and In Support of the Manilian Law. The old pirate is conjured up by Virgil, Georgics 4, 125–46; Valerius Maxinus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6, 2 quotes the phrase ‘kid butcher’. F. W. Walbank discusses ‘The Scipionic legend’ in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 13 (1967). Horace Odes 2, 1 pinpoints 60 BCE as a key turning point; Cato’s remark is quoted by Plutarch, Pompey 47; the notebook is joked about, sardonically, in Cicero, Letters to Atticus 4, 8b. The fate of Crassus’ head is mentioned by Plutarch, Crassus 33; Cicero’s unsuccessful plea on behalf of Clodius’ murderer is his In Defence of Milo. The absence of wine is noted in Julius Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic War 2, 15 and 4, 2, the position of the Druids at 6, 13–16. Catullus’ reference is in his Poems 11; the ‘crimes’ of Caesar are stressed by Plutarch, Cato the Younger 51 and Pliny, Natural History 7, 92. The Greek visitor who saw the heads was Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, Geography 4.4. Peticius is mentioned by Plutarch, Pompey 73; the story of Soterides is explained by Nicholas Purcell, ‘Romans in the Roman world’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus, edited by Karl Galinsky (Cambridge UP, 2005). Cato’s lurid death is described by Plutarch, Cato the Younger, 68–70. The incident at the Lupercalia is examined by J. A. North, ‘Caesar at the Lupercalia’, Journal of Roman Studies 98 (2008). For jokes about the short-term consul, see Cicero, Letters to Friends 7, 30 and Macrobius, Saturnalia 2, 3.

Chapter 8

Good introductions to some of the main topics include Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law and Society (Croom Helm, 1986), Florence Dupont, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (Blackwell, 1994), Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman Empire, edited by D. S. Potter and D. J. Mattingly (Univ. of Michigan Press, 1999), Roman Women, edited by Augusto Fraschetti (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2001), The Cambridge World History of Slavery, volume 1, edited by Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge (Cambridge UP, 2011), Christian Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within (Cambridge UP, 2011) and Henrik Mouritsen, The Freedman in the Roman World (Cambridge UP, 2011).

The twenty-five books on the Latin language (some of which survive) are by Marcus Terentius Varro; Cicero’s jokes are one theme in my Laughter in Ancient Rome: On Joking, Tickling, and Cracking Up (Univ. of California Press, 2014). Susan Treggiari sees things from the side of Cicero’s female relations in Terentia, Tullia and Publilia: The Women of Cicero’s Family (Routledge, 2007). The story of the dinner with Caesar is told in Letters to Atticus 13, 52; Gore Vidal’s essay is in his Selected Essays (Abacus, 2007). The classic study of Roman marriage is Susan Treggiari, Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (Oxford UP, 1993); Claudia’s epitaph is included in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome (Duckworth, 3rd edition, 2005). The tough line of Egnatius Metellus is highlighted by Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6, 3; Livia’s wool working is mentioned in Suetonius, Augustus 73, Volumnia Cytheris by Cicero, Letters to Atticus 10, 10 and 16, 5. Marilyn B. Skinner, Clodia Metelli: The Tribune’s Sister (Oxford UP, 2011) attempts to reconstruct Clodia’s career; the tricky court case is what we know as In Defence of Caelius. The problems of Verres’ dinner are discussed by Catherine Steel, ‘Being economical with the truth: what really happened at Lampsacus?’, in Cicero the Advocate, edited by J. Powell and J. Paterson (Oxford UP, 2004). Cicero’s reference to women’s weakness is at In Defence of Murena 27, the joke about tying his son-in-law to a sword at Macrobius Saturnalia 2, 3. Glimpses into the marriage of Quintus and Pomponia are at Letters to Atticus 5, 1 and 14, 13. Marriage age is discussed in Brent D. Shaw, ‘The age of Roman girls at marriage’, Journal of Roman Studies 77 (1987). Terentia’s view of an old man’s infatuation is reported by Plutarch, Cicero 41; Cicero’s quip is praised by Quintilian, Handbook on Oratory 6, 3. Evidence for ancient contraception is collected by John M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Harvard UP, 1994). The letter from the husband in Roman Egypt is included in Jane Rowlandson, Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook (Cambridge UP, 1998). Issues of life expectancy and family relations are discussed in Richard P. Saller, Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family (Cambridge UP, 1997). House ownership is the theme of Elizabeth Rawson, ‘The Ciceronian aristocracy and its properties’, in her Roman Culture and Society (Oxford UP, 1991). Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum (Princeton UP, 1994) explores the layout of the Roman house; Pliny, Natural History 36, 5–6 discusses Scaurus’ house; and the problem of luxury is highlighted in Catharine Edwards, The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome (Cambridge UP, 2002). The Antikythera wreck is documented in The Antikythera Shipwreck: The Ship, the Treasures, the Mechanism, edited by N. Kaltsas et al. (National Archaeological Museum, Athens, 2012). The Sestii are a case study in John H. D’Arms, Commerce and Social Standing in Ancient Rome (Harvard UP, 1981). The bright idea of slave uniforms is mentioned in Seneca, On Mercy 1, 24, slave runaways in Cicero’s Letters to Friends 5, 9; 5, 10a; 13, 77 and Letters to Atticus 7, 2. Tiro is a major focus of my ‘Ciceronian correspondences’, in Classics in Progress: Essays on Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by T. P. Wiseman (Oxford UP, 2006), and his collection of Cicero’s jokes is criticised by Quintilian, Handbook on Oratory 6, 3. Greg Woolf, ‘Monumental writing’, Journal of Roman Studies 86 (1996), discusses the explosion of writing. The ménage à trois is described in the long epitaph of Allia Potestas, translated in Lefkowitz and Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome.

Chapter 9

The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus, edited by Karl Galinsky (see Chapters 6 and 7), is a good introduction to this period, as is Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects, edited by Fergus Millar and Erich Segal (Oxford UP, 1984). Augustus, edited by Jonathan Edmondson (Edinburgh UP, 2009), is a collection of some of the best recent essays on the emperor. Paul Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Univ. of Michigan Press, 1988) transformed our understanding of the art and architecture of the period. The period of civil war following the death of Caesar is the subject of Josiah Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 2006). Jane Bellemore, in Nicolaus of Damascus (Bristol Classical Press, 1984), gives a translation of the surviving sections of his early biography of Augustus (or see www.csun.edu/~hcf11004/nicolaus.html). Alison Cooley’s Res Gestae Divi Augusti (Cambridge UP, 2009) translates Augustus’ own account of his life, with a full discussion.

The best modern analysis of the details of Caesar’s assassination is in T. P. Wiseman, Remembering the Roman People (Oxford UP, 2009). The stories of Octavian’s early brutality and the ‘banquet of the twelve gods’ are told by Suetonius, Augustus 27 and 70. Decapitation is the subject of Amy Richlin’s ‘Cicero’s head’, in Constructions of the Classical Body, edited by James I. Porter (Univ. of Michigan Press, 2002); Seneca’s Suasoriae (Pleas) 6 and 7 give a flavour of the rhetorical exercises on the subject of Cicero’s death. Appian, Civil War 4 is a good source of anecdotes about the proscriptions. Josiah Osgood, Turia: A Roman Woman’s Civil War (Oxford UP, 2014) explores the female bravery commemorated on the epitaph; Judith Hallett brings the sling bullets from Perugia to life in ‘Perusinae glandes’, American Journal of Ancient History 2 (1977). Cleopatra’s departure is noted by Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14, 8. The disapproving account of Cleopatran luxury is Pliny, Natural History 9, 119–21; Plutarch, Antony 50 reports his treatment of Alexandria as if it were Rome; and there is plenty of sensible discussion of Antony and Cleopatra in C. B. R. Pelling, Plutarch: Life of Antony (Cambridge UP, 1988). The ‘below stairs’ source is mentioned by Plutarch, Antony 28. Konstantinos L. Zachos, ‘The tropaeum of the sea-battle at Actium’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 16 (2003), analyses the monument. The story of ravens is told in Macrobius, Saturnalia 2, 4. Debates at the funeral are reported by Tacitus, Annals 1, 9. Price and Thonemann, The Birth of Classical Europe (see General) stress Augustus’ abolition of nothing. For the importance of civilitas, see Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Civilis princeps’, Journal of Roman Studies 72 (1982); for the chameleon and the sphinx, Julian Saturnalia 309 and Suetonius, Augustus 50. The display of ‘maps’ is discussed by Claude Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire (Univ. of Michigan Press, 1991), with Pliny, Natural History 3, 17. Jas Elsner emphasises the importance of building in the Res Gestae in ‘Inventing imperium’, in Art and Text in Roman Culture, edited by Elsner (Cambridge UP, 1996). The inscription on the calendar of Asia is translated in Sherk, Rome and the Greek East (see Chapter 5). One attempt to calculate the total cost of the Roman army is by Keith Hopkins, ‘Taxes and trade’ (see Chapter 1). The senate is discussed by P. A. Brunt in ‘The role of the senate’, Classical Quarterly 34 (1984); the defeat of the Romans in Germany is the subject of Peter S. Wells, The Battle That Stopped Rome (Norton, 2004). Egnatius Rufus and other opponents are discussed by K. A. Raaflaub and L. J. Samons II, ‘Opposition to Augustus’, in Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate, edited by Raaflaub and Mark Toher, problems of succession by The Julio-Claudian Succession: Reality and Perception of the “Augustan Model”, edited by A. G. G. Gibson (Brill, 2013). Livia’s role is fully documented in Nicholas Purcell’s ‘Livia and the womanhood of Rome’, inAugustus, edited by Jonathan Edmondson.

Chapter 10

Important overviews of the rulers and the political life of Rome during the first two centuries of the empire include Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (Bristol Classical Press, revised edition, 1992), P. A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes (Oxford UP, 1990), R. J. A. Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton UP, 1984) and Keith Hopkins, Death and Renewal (Cambridge UP, 1985), especially Chapter 3. The biographical approach remains popular, despite the fragile factual base. Nevertheless, Aloys Winterling, Caligula: A Biography (Univ. of California Press, 2011) and Edward Champlin, Nero (Harvard UP, 2003) are interesting for their revisionist stances on two ‘monstrous’ emperors. I have also used the gratifyingly sober accounts of Claudius by Barbara Levick (Routledge, 1993), Nero: The End of a Dynasty by Miriam T. Griffin (Routledge, revised edition, 1987) and Hadrian: The Restless Emperor by Anthony R. Birley (Routledge, 1997).

The assassination of Gaius is analysed by T. P. Wiseman, The Death of Caligula (Liverpool UP, 2nd edition, 2013), translating and analysing Josephus’ account in his Jewish Antiquities 19. Eric R. Varner, Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture (Brill, 2004) discusses the recarving of portrait statues. The ancient source for most lurid anecdotes about Gaius is Suetonius’ biography: the mistranslated passage about sex at dinner (24), the ‘seashells’ (46). The victims of Claudius are tallied at Suetonius, Claudius 29. Commodus in the amphitheatre provides the opening to my Laughter in Ancient Rome (see Chapter 8); the ‘little fishes’ appear in Suetonius, Tiberius 44, and the fly killing in Suetonius, Domitian 3. There is a story along the lines of ‘pecunia non olet’ in Suetonius, Vespasian 23; Vespasian’s triumphal common sense is quoted by Suetonius, Vespasian 12. The set piece with the collapsible boat is at Tacitus, Annales 13, 3–7. The sardonic quip about plots is attributed to Domitian at Suetonius, Domitian 21 and to Hadrian at Augustan History (SHA), Avidius Cassius 2. The graffiti about the ‘Golden House’ is quoted by Suetonius, Nero 39. Susan Treggiari analyses ‘Jobs in the household of Livia’ in Papers of the British School at Rome 43 (1975). The desk job of the emperor is conjured up by Fergus Millar, ‘Emperors at work’, in Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire, edited by Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers (Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2004). Augustus’ judgement on the chamber pot case is translated in Sherk, Rome and the Greek East (see Chapter 5). Sacrificial biscuits are discussed by Richard Gordon, ‘The veil of power’, in Pagan Priests: Religion and Power in the Ancient World, edited by Mary Beard and John North (Duckworth, 1990). Fronto’s comment on imperial images is made in his Letters 4, 12. Caroline Vout reflects on ‘What’s in a beard’ in Rethinking Revolutions Through Ancient Greece, edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin Osborne (Cambridge UP, 2006). The scale, impact and financing of the Colosseum are themes in Keith Hopkins and Mary Beard, The Colosseum (Profile, 2005). For the Talmudic story of Titus’ death, see Gittin 56 B; for Domitian’s mirrored walls, Suetonius, Domitian 14; for the ‘Golden Sheep’, Tacitus, Annales 13, 1. ‘The secret of imperial rule’ are the words of Tacitus, Histories 1, 4. Vespasian’s miracles are mentioned by Suetonius, Vespasian 7 and Tacitus, Histories 4, 81–82. Hugh Lindsay, Adoption in the Roman World (Cambridge UP, 2009) discusses the adoption of imperial heirs and the wider background. Pliny’s remarks are from his Panegyric 7–8; Galba’s speech is scripted in Tacitus, Histories 1, 14–17. Hadrian’s poem is in the Palatine Anthology 6, 332. The story of Tiberius and the sharp senator is reported by Tacitus, Annales 1, 74, ‘men fit for slavery’ at 3, 65 and Nero’s first speech at 13, 4. Hadrian’s execution of the ex-consuls is alleged by Augustan History (SHA), Hadrian 5. Alain Gowing, Empire and Memory: The Representation of the Roman Republic in Imperial Culture (Cambridge UP, 2005) explores exactly that. Cordus is supposed to have pointed out that Livy had praised Pompey (Tacitus, Annales 4, 34). For Lucan’s death, see Tacitus, Annales 15, 70. Domitian’s black dinner party is described by Cassius Dio, Roman History 67, 9. The conversation at dinner with Nerva is quoted at Letters 4, 22; Tacitus’ admission is made at Histories 1, 1. Cassius Dio, Roman History 66, 12 and Suetonius, Vespasian 15 mention clashes between Helvidius Priscus and Vespasian. Pliny reports Fannia’s illness at Letters 7, 19. Cassius Dio, Roman History 63, 26 references the temple of Venus Sabina. The subtlety of emperor worship is a major theme in S. R. F. Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge UP, 1986), which discusses the inscription from Gytheum; a translation is included in Beard, North and Price, Religions of Rome, volume 2 (see General). Livia’s ‘reward’ is noted by Cassius Dio, Roman History 56, 46, Vespasian’s quip by Suetonius, Vespasian 23.

Chapter 11

Roman city life and planning are discussed by Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (see Chapter 1), including a chapter on Timgad. Useful overviews of non-elite lives in ancient Rome are given by Jerry Toner, Popular Culture in Ancient Rome (Polity, 2009) and Robert Knapp, Invisible Romans: Prostitutes, Outlaws, Slaves, Gladiators, Ordinary Men and Women … the Romans That History Forgot (Profile, 2013). The Romans, edited by Andrea Giardina (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1993), includes essays on representative characters of all ranks of Roman society, including the poor. Despite the title, the Anthology of Ancient Greek Popular Literature, edited by William Hansen (Indiana UP, 1998), includes translations of plenty of the Roman material I discuss in this chapter. John R. Clarke, Art in the Lives of Ordinary Romans: Visual Representations and Non-elite Viewers in Italy, 100 BC–AD 315 (Univ. of California Press, 2003) explores popular art. An influential but pessimistic view of levels of literacy is found in William V. Harris, Ancient Literacy (Harvard UP, 1991).

One-legged tables and multiple rings are described by Pliny, Natural History 34, 14 and 33, 24. Pliny the Younger’s villa at Laurentum is described in Letters 2, 17 and discussed in a chapter of Roy K. Gibson and Ruth Morello, Reading the Letters of Pliny the Younger (Cambridge UP, 2012). The law with specifications on a minimum number of roof tiles is part of a local charter for the town of Tarentum, translated in Kathryn Lomas, Roman Italy, 338 BC–AD 200: A Sourcebook (Univ. College London Press, 1996). The rich residents of Timgad are the subject of Elizabeth W. B. Fentress, ‘Frontier culture and politics at Timgad’, Bulletin Archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques 17 (1984). The lack of city zoning, including ‘moral zoning’, is discussed by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Public honour and private shame: the urban texture of Pompeii’, in Urban Society in Roman Italy, edited by Tim J. Cornell and Kathryn Lomas (UCL Press, 1995). Juvenal’s complaints are in his Satires 3; at most, plostra (heavy carts) were banned during the daytime, to judge from regulations going back to Julius Caesar found at Heraclea in southern Italy – the ‘Table of Heraclea’, translated in Roman Statutes, edited by M. H. Crawford (see Chapter 4). Fronto’s version of ‘bread and circuses’ is in his Introduction to History 17 (part of his series of Letters). Cicero’s scorn of work is at On Duties 1, 150–51. The continuity of the majority of British lifestyles under the Romans is a point forcefully made by Richard Reece in My Roman Britain (Oxbow, 1988). Marginal Romans are discussed by John R. Patterson, ‘On the margins’, in Death and Disease in the Ancient City, edited by Valerie M. Hope and Eireann Marshall (Routledge, 2002). For the demand for day labourers, see David Mattingly, ‘The feeding of imperial Rome’, in Ancient Rome: The Archaeology of the Eternal City, edited by Jon Coulston and Hazel Dodge (Oxford Univ. School of Archaeology, 2000); Ancarenus Nothus features in another fine essay in the same volume, ‘Living and dying in the city of Rome’ by John R. Patterson. Details of the textile works outside Rome are in S. Musco et al., ‘Le complexe archéologique de Casal Bertone’, Les Dossiers d’Archéologie 330 (2008). Work is the theme of S. R. Joshel, Work, Identity, and Legal Status at Rome: A Study of the Occupational Inscriptions (Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1992) and N. Kampen, Image and Status: Roman Working Women in Ostia (Mann, 1981). The tomb of Eurysaces is discussed by Lauren Hackforth Petersen, The Freedman in Roman Art and Art History (Cambridge UP, 2006). A translation of the rules for the collegium (not in this case a specifically trade organisation) is included in Beard, North and Price, Religions of Rome, volume 2 (see General). The inscription relating to the bakers’ strike is translated in Barbara Levick, The Government of the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook (Routledge, 2002). The slogans (and the bar paintings) from Pompeii are discussed in Mary Beard, Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town (Profile, 2008). For laundry workers, see Miko Flohr, The World of the Fullo: Work, Economy, and Society in Roman Italy (Oxford UP, 2013). Juvenal’s Ostian bar is conjured up in Satires 8. Roman gambling in all its aspects is the subject of Nicholas Purcell, ‘Literate games: Roman society and the game of alea’, in Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society, edited by Robin Osborne (see Chapter 5). Jerry Toner, Roman Disasters(Blackwell, 2013) is an accessible book on all the kinds of misfortunes, from flooding to fire, that threatened ordinary Romans. Crimes (and responses to them) in Roman Egypt are documented in technical detail by Benjamin Kelly, Petitions, Litigation, and Social Control in Roman Egypt (Oxford UP, 2011) and Ari Z. Bryen, Violence in Roman Egypt: A Study in Legal Interpretation (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2013). The case of the woman from Herculaneum (Petronia Justa) is discussed by Wallace-Hadrill, Herculaneum (see Prologue). Curses from Roman Bath are translated in Stanley Ireland, Roman Britain: A Sourcebook (Routledge, 3rd edition, 2008); the Oracles of Astrampsychus are translated in The Anthology of Ancient Greek Popular Literature, edited by William Hansen. The spirit of Phaedrus’ fables is beautifully captured by John Henderson in Telling Tales on Caesar: Roman Stories from Phaedrus (Oxford UP, 2001) and Aesop’s Human Zoo: Roman Stories about our Bodies (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2004); see especially Phaedrus, Fables 1, 2; 1, 3 and 1, 28. Riots are attested by Suetonius, Claudius 18, Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 1, 15 (Aspendus) and Tacitus, Annales 14, 42–45 (murder of a senator). For literate culture among ordinary Romans, see Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Scratching the surface: a case study of domestic graffiti at Pompeii’, in L’écriture dans la maison romaine, edited by M. Corbier and J. P. Guilhembert (Paris, 2011), and Kristina Milnor, Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii (Oxford UP, 2014). The Bar of the Seven Sages is an important topic in Clarke’s Art in the Lives of Ordinary Romans and Looking at Laughter: Humor, Power, and Transgression in Roman Visual Culture, 100 BC–AD 250 (Univ. of California Press, 2007).

Chapter 12

Pliny’s exchanges with Trajan in Letters Book 10 provide a linking theme in this chapter. The letters are usefully collected by Wynne Williams in Pliny, Correspondence with Trajan from Bithynia (Epistles X) (Aris and Phillips, 1990) and the underlying ideology discussed by Greg Woolf, ‘Pliny’s province’, in Rome and the Black Sea Region: Domination, Romanisation, Resistance, edited by Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen (Aarhus UP, 2006), and Carlos F. Norena, ‘The social economy of Pliny’s correspondence with Trajan’, American Journal of Philology 128 (2007). They also touch on one of the most controversial topics in all of ancient history: the rise of Christianity. A particularly illuminating short account of this is in Kelly, The Roman Empire (see General); the early sections of Diarmaid MacCullough, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (Penguin, 2010) are also a sensible starting place. A Companion to the Roman Empire, edited by David S. Potter (Blackwell, 2006), includes several useful essays on the principles, practice and administration of the empire. The essays of Fergus Millar collected in Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire (see Chapter 11) are some of the most important contributions to the subject (including discussion of Pliny and Trajan). Levick, The Government of the Roman Empire (see Chapter 11) offers a vivid glimpse of the rich primary evidence. Martin Goodman’s chapter in Garnsey and Saller, The Roman Empire (see General) considers various forms and locations of resistance to Rome. Greek literature under Rome is the theme of Tim Whitmarsh, Greek Literature and the Roman Empire: The Politics of Imitation (Oxford UP, 2002), likewise Being Greek under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire, edited by Simon Goldhill (Cambridge UP, 2001). The title of this chapter is borrowed from Beard, North and Price, Religions of Rome, volume 2 (see General); I have also stressed the idea of becoming Roman, using the title of Greg Woolf’s important study of imperial cultural interactions, Becoming Roman: The Origins of Roman Provincial Civilization in Gaul (Cambridge UP, 1998).

Lucian’s skit on the oracle is titled On the False Prophet, and on Syrian religion On the Syrian Goddess. S. von Schnurbein, ‘Augustus in Germania and his new “town” at Waldgirmes east of the Rhine’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 16 (2003), presents the half-finished town. Strabo’s assessment of the potential of Britain is at Geography 4, 5. The puzzle of Hadrian’s Wall is explored in David J. Breeze and Brian Dobson, Hadrian’s Wall (Penguin, 2000). The quality of provincial government is scrutinised by P. A. Brunt, ‘Charges of provincial maladministration under the early principate’, in Roman Imperial Themes (see Chapter 10); Tiberius’ view is quoted by Cassius Dio, Roman History 57, 10. Stephen Mitchell discusses ‘Requisitioned transport in the Roman Empire’ in the Journal of Roman Studies 66 (1976). The disreputable reasons for Otho’s appointment are alleged by Suetonius, Otho 3. A ‘world full of gods’ is Keith Hopkins’s phrase in his engagingly quirky study of Roman religions, A World Full of Gods: Pagans, Jews and Christians in the Roman Empire (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999). The infrastructure at Vindolanda is vividly described by Alan K. Bowman, Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and Its People (British Museum Press, 1998); the documents are online at http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/. The shoes are discussed by Caroline Van Driel-Murray, ‘Gender in question’, in Theoretical Roman Archaeology: Second Conference Proceedings, edited by P. Rush (Avebury, 1995), which raises the possibility that some might have belonged to adolescent men. A report on the Wroxeter swimming pool is included in G. Webster and P. Woodfield, ‘The old work’, Antiquaries Journal 46 (1966). Martin Millett’s Romanization of Britain: An Essay in Archaeological Interpretation (Cambridge UP, 1990) has been hugely influential in countering old ideas of a top-down approach to ‘Romanisation’; David Mattingly, An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire (Penguin, 2006) is a thorough modern overview. The ‘bilinguals’ of La Graufesenque are discussed in J. N. Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language (Cambridge UP, 2003), though Alex Mullen offers alternative views in ‘The language of the potteries’, in Seeing Red, edited by Michael Fulford and Emma Durham (Institute of Classical Studies, 2013). Horace’s slogan is in his Epistles 2, 1; the adjustments for ‘Roman’ display at a ‘Greek’ stadium are described by K. Welch, ‘The stadium at Aphrodisias’, American Journal of Archaeology 102 (1998). The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tod A. Marder and Mark Wilson Jones (Cambridge UP, 2015), is an up-to-date study of the temple; the source of the grey granite at Mons Claudianus and associated documents are reviewed in Roger S. Bagnall and Dominic W. Rathbone, Egypt from Alexander to the Copts (British Museum Press, 2004); and the letter on the 50-foot column is discussed by Theodore J. Peña, ‘Evidence for the supplying of stone transport operations’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 2 (1989). The ship from India is the subject of Dominic Rathbone, ‘The Muziris papyrus’, in ‘Alexandrian Studies II in Honour of Mostafa el Abbadi,’ special issue, Bulletin de la Société d’Archéologie d’Alexandrie 46 (2000); Zeuxis features in Peter Thonemann, The Maeander Valley: A Historical Geography from Antiquity to Byzantium (Cambridge UP, 2011); and the trade behind Monte Testaccio is the theme of D. J. Mattingly, ‘Oil for export?’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 1 (1988). Roman Diasporas: Archaeological Approaches to Mobility and Diversity in the Roman Empire, edited by Hella Eckhardt (Journal of Roman Archaeology supplement 78, 2011), considers how mobility can be measured; Barates and ‘Queenie’ are discussed by Alex Mullen, ‘Multiple languages, multiple identities’, inMultilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds, edited by Mullen and Patrick James (Cambridge UP, 2012). The best discussion of the numbers of early Christians is Keith Hopkins, ‘Christian number’, Journal of Early Christian Studies 6 (1998); Perpetua’s martyrdom is minutely analysed by Thomas J. Heffernan, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity (Oxford UP, 2012). Septimius’ treatment of his sister is described at Augustan History (SHA), Septimius Severus 15; Zoilos is discussed in detail in R. R. R. Smith, The Monument of C. Julius Zoilos (von Zabern, 1993).

Epilogue

The number of citizens created by Caracalla is carefully calculated by Myles Lavan, ‘The spread of Roman citizenship’, Past and Present 229 (2016) (I am grateful for the preview). An important appraisal of the Arch of Constantine is Jas Elsner, ‘From the culture of spolia to the cult of relics’, Papers of the British School at Rome 68 (2000). The misunderstanding of ‘senate’ is in Parastaseis, translated by Averil Cameron and Judith Herrin (Brill, 1984), Chapter 43.