Preface
1. From the collection published in Archives royales de Mari, vol. X, 123; translated and quoted by Bertrand Lafont in “The Women of the Palace at Mari,” in Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia by Jean Bottéro (2001), pp. 129–134. I am grateful to Mr. Lafont for summarizing the quarrel between Kirum and Shimatum.
2. Bottéro, p. 130.
Chapter One The Origin of Kingship
1. Translated by Samuel Kramer, as Appendix E of The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character (1963), p. 328.
2. See, for example, Charles Pellegrino, Return to Sodom and Gomorrah (1994), p. 155 ff.
3. In M. E. L. Mallowan, Early Mesopotamia and Iran (1965), p. 7.
4. Translated by Gwendolyn Leick in Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City (2001), p. 1.
5. Translated by Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Noah Kramer in Inanna, Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer (1983), p. 33.
Chapter Two The Earliest Story
1. My paraphrase, drawn from the prose translation by N. K. Sandars, The Epic of Gilgamesh (1972), p. 110.
2. My paraphrase, drawn from the translation offered by Bottéro, p. 69.
3. Quoted in William Ryan and Walter Pitman, Noah’s Flood: The New Scientific Discoveries about the Event that Changed History (2000), p. 54. I am grateful to Mr. Ryan and Mr. Pitman for their cogent summary of scholarly research on the flood.
4. Ryan and Pitman, p. 57.
5. This is the position taken by Charles Pellegrino, for example, in Return to Sodom and Gomorrah.
6. Quoted in John Keay, India: A History (2000), pp. 1–2.
7. See Peter James and Nick Thorpe, Ancient Mysteries (1999), p. 13.
8. Sandars, p. 112.
9. Quoted in Ryan and Pitman, p. 50.
10. Origin de los Indias, quoted by Lewis Spence in The Myths of Mexico and Peru (1994), p. 108.
11. Translated by Samuel Kramer and quoted in Bottéro, p. 19.
12. Richard J. Mouw, “‘Some Poor Sailor, Tempest Tossed’: Nautical Rescue Themes in Evangelical Hymnody,” in Wonderful Words of Life: Hymns in American Protestant History and Theology, ed. Richard J. Mouw and Mark A. Noll (2004), p. 249.
Chapter Three The Rise of Aristocracy
1. Michael Rice, Egypt’s Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000–2000 BC (2003), p. 73.
2. Stephanie Dalley, ed. and trans., Myths from Mesopotamia (2000), p. 196.
3. Ibid., pp. 198–199.
4. Pellegrino, p. 39.
5. Harriet Crawford, Sumer and the Sumerians (1991), p. 23.
Chapter Four The Creation of Empire
1. Rice, p. 11.
2. David P. Silverman, general ed., Ancient Egypt (2003), p. 107.
3. A. Rosalie David, Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt (2002), p. 46.
4. Gerald P. Verbrugghe and John M. Wickersham, Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (1996), p. 131.
Chapter Five The Age of Iron
1. Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (2004), p. 11.
2. Keay, p. 2.
Chapter Six The Philosopher King
1. J. A. G. Roberts, The Complete History of China (2003), p. 3.
2. Anne Birrell, Chinese Mythology: An Introduction (1993), p. 46.
Chapter Seven The First Written Records
1. Steven Roger Fischer, A History of Writing (2001), pp. 25–26. Fischer gives credit to Denise Schmandt-Besserat as the “leading proponent of this theory,” and points out that this theory (like pretty much every other theory about the origin of writing) is still debatable.
2. Quoted in W. V. Davies, Egyptian Hieroglyphs: Reading the Past (1987), p. 47.
Chapter Eight The First War Chronicles
1. “Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta,” translated by J. A. Black, et al., in The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature at http://www.etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/(1998–); hereafter abbreviated as ETC.
2. Translated by Sandars, p. 61.
3. Sandars, p. 71. I am indebted to N. K. Sandars for highlighting, in the introductory essay to her translation, the various historical possibilities that might lie at the root of Gilgamesh’s journey north.
4. The version of the Tummal Inscription I am working with is found in Kramer, The Sumerians, pp. 78–80. Dr. Kramer also matches the inscription to the king list to show the progress of the war between the three cities.
5. “Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish,” in ETC.
Chapter Nine The First Civil War
1. Herodotus, The Histories, translated by Robin Waterfield (1998), 2.99.
2. Ian Shaw, ed., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (2002), pp. 68–69.
3. Rudolf Anthes, “Egyptian Theology in the Third Millennium B.C.,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 18:3 (1959), p. 171.
4. Ibid.
5. Ian Cunnison, The Luapula Peoples of Northern Rhodesia (1959), p. 98.
6. Edmund Leach, “The Mother’s Brother in Ancient Egypt,” RAIN [Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland] 15 (1976), p. 20.
7. Shaw, p. 9.
8. William Flinders Petrie, Researches in Sinai (1906), p. 41.
9. Rice, p. 14.
10. Peter A. Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (1994), p. 28.
Chapter Ten The First Epic Hero
1. Dalley, p. 42 ff.
2. The quotes from the Epic of Gilgamesh are, more or less, mine. I have based them on the structure of the N. K. Sandars translation, but I have slightly condensed some of them, clarified the difficult words, and often modified them based on the translations supplied by Samuel Kramer, Maureen Gallery Kovacs, and Stephanie Dalley.
3. Drawn almost entirely from the Sandars translation, pp. 118–119.
Chapter Eleven The First Victory over Death
1. Clayton, p. 33.
2. Richard L. Zettler and Lee Horne, Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur (1998), p. 29.
3. This is J. M. Roberts’s suggestion in The Penguin History of the World (1997), p. 71.
4. Herodotus, 2.12.
5. Paul Jordan, Riddles of the Sphinx (1998), p. 73.
6. Clayton, p. 45.
7. Herodotus, 2.124.
8. Herodotus 2.126.
9. Bruce G. Trigger, “Monumental Architecture: A Thermodynamic Explanation of Symbolic Behavior,” World Archaeology 22:2 (1990), p. 119.
10. Dean Hardy and Marjorie Killick, Pyramid Energy: The Philosophy of God, the Science of Man (1994), p. 169.
11. Peter Tompkins, Secrets of the Great Pyramid (1971), p. xiv.
12. James and Thorpe, p. 208.
Chapter Twelve The First Reformer
1. Translated by Samuel Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 51.
2. Ibid., p. 313.
3. John Winthrop Hackett, ed., Warfare in the Ancient World (1989), p. 4.
4. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 149.
5. I. M. Diakonoff, ed., Early Antiquity (1991), p. 82.
6. Translated by Samuel Kramer, From the Tablets of Sumer (1956), p. 48.
7. Diakonoff, p. 82.
8. J. S. Cooper, Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions, vol. 1, Presargonic Inscriptions (1986), p. 78.
9. Nels Bailkey, “Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development,” American Historical Review 72:4 (1967), p. 1222.
10. Translated by Kramer, The Sumerians, pp. 323–324.
11. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 150.
12. Translated by Kramer, The Sumerians, pp. 322–323.
13. Cooper, p. 95.
14. Crawford, p. 25.
Chapter Thirteen The First Military Dictator
1. Adapted from the translation provided by James B. Pritchard, ed., in The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures (1958), pp. 85–86, with clarification of certain terms from the explanation provided by Gwendolyn Leick in Mesopotamia, p. 94.
2. J. M. Roberts, p. 51.
3. Translated by Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 330.
4. Xenophon, The Education of Cyrus, translated by Wayne Ambler (2001), 1.3.8–9.
5. “The Sargon Legend, Segment B,” in ETC.
6. Translated by Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 324.
7. Diakonoff, p. 85.
8. Ibid.
9. Translated by Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 324.
10. H. W. F. Saggs, The Might That Was Assyria (1984), p. 19.
11. Adapted from Benjamin R. Foster, Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature, vol. 1 (1996), p. 254.
12. Michael Roaf, Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1996), p. 97.
13. A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (1977), p. 154.
14. Diakonoff, p. 86.
15. Bailkey, p. 1225. Bailkey’s footnotes contain a full bibliography of the Old Babylonian inscriptions, the so-called Omen Texts, that record the revolt.
16. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 99.
Chapter Fourteen The First Planned Cities
1. Keay, p. 6.
2. Wolpert, pp. 14–15.
3. Fischer, p. 61.
4. Wolpert, p. 18.
5. Keay, p. 13.
6. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India (1998), p. 23.
7. Ibid., pp. 22–23.
8. Terminology and measurements supplied by Kulke and Rothermund, p. 23, and Keay, pp. 8–9.
Chapter Fifteen The First Collapse of Empire
1. Herodotus, 2.127–128.
2. Jordan, p. 80.
3. Ibid., p. xvii.
4. Herodotus, 2.129.
5. Herodotus, 2.133.
6. Herodotus, 2.131.
7. Clayton, p. 60.
8. A. Rosalie David, The Egyptian Kingdoms (1988), p. 16.
9. Spell 217 translated by J. H. Breasted in Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (University of Chicago Press, 1912); the following spell, 309, translated by R. O. Faulkner in The Ancient Pyramid Texts (Clarendon Press, 1969); both quoted by Jon E. Lewis, ed., Ancient Egypt (2003), pp. 27–29.
10. Clayton, p. 64.
11. Quoted in Clayton, p. 67.
12. Colin McEvedy, The New Penguin Atlas of Ancient History (2002), p. 36.
Chapter Sixteen The First Barbarian Invasions
1. Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 61.
2. Roaf, p. 98.
3. First noted by Hugo Radau, Early Babylonian History Down to the End of the Fourth Dynasty of Ur (1899), p. 307.
4. David Willis McCullough, ed., Chronicles of the Barbarians (1998), p. 8.
5. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, p. 62.
6. “The Cursing of Agade,” in ETC.
7. Ibid.
8. Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 330.
9. “A tigi to Bau for Gudea,” in ETC.
10. “The Victory of Utu-hegal,” in ETC.
11. Kramer, The Sumerians, p. 325.
12. “Ur-Namma the canal-digger,” in ETC.
13. “A praise poem of Ur-Namma” in ETC.
Chapter Seventeen The First Monotheist
1. Gen. 10:11–24.
2. Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1–17 (1990), p. 363.
3. Adapted from “The death of Ur-Namma (Ur-Namma A),” in ETC.
4. Jonathan N. Tubb, Canaanites: Peoples of the Past (1998), p. 15.
5. J. M. Roberts, p. 41.
6. Tubb, p. 39.
7. Donald B. Redford Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (1992), pp. 63–64.
8. Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt (2004), p. 80.
9. Quoted in Redford, Egypt, pp. 67–68.
10. Qur’an 2.144–150.
11. Roaf, p. 101.
12. Quoted in Leick, Mesopotamia, pp. 132–133.
13. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 126.
14. Roaf, p. 102.
15. Tubb, p. 38.
Chapter Eighteen The First Environmental Disaster
1. John Perlin, Forest Journey: The Role of Wood in the Development of Civilization (1991), p. 43.
2. Thorkild Jacobsen, Salinity and Irrigation Agriculture in Antiquity (1982), p. 468.
3. D. Bruce Dickson, “Circumscription by Anthropogenic Environmental Destruction: An Expansion of Carneiro’s (1970) Theory of the Origin of the State,” American Antiquity 52:4 (1987), p. 713.
4. Kramer, The Sumerians, pp. 333–334, adapted.
5. Ibid., pp. 334–335, adapted.
6. Slightly adapted from “The Lament for Urim,” in ETC.
7. Ibid.
Chapter Nineteen The Battle for Reunification
1. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 137.
2. Stephan Seidlmayer, “The First Intermediate Period,” in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw (2002), pp. 128–129.
3. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 194.
4. Clayton, p. 72.
5. “Instructions for Merikare,” in Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 1 (1975), p. 70.
6. Shaw, p. 161.
7. Ibid., p. 151.
8. Dodson and Hilton, p. 87.
9. Ibid., p. 90.
10. “The Prophecy of Nerferti,” quoted in Shaw, p. 158.
11. Clayton, p. 79.
12. Shaw, p. 160.
13. Silverman, p. 79.
Chapter Twenty The Mesopotamian Mixing Bowl
1. Reconstruction of “Ishbi-Erra and Kindattu,” segments A, B, D, and E in ETC.
2. Roaf, p. 110.
3. Saggs, Assyria, pp. 28–30.
4. Reconstructed from the somewhat fragmented “Letter from Nann-ki-ag to Lipit-Estar about Gungunum’s troops” and “Letter from Lipit-Estar to Nann-ki-ag about driving away the enemy,” both in ETC.
5. “An adab to Nanna for Gungunum (Gungunum A),” in ETC.
6. L. W. King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi, vol. 3 (1976), p. 213, translation of “Reign of Sumu-abu.”
7. Translated by A. K. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (1975), p. 155.
8. Assyrian king list quoted in Saggs, Assyria, p. 25.
9. Daniel David Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylon, Volume I: Historical Records of Assyria from the Earliest Times to Sargon (1926), p. 16.
10. Saggs, Assyria, p. 37.
11. Roaf, p. 116.
12. Saggs, Assyria, p. 25.
13. Gwendolyn Leick, The Babylonians: An Introduction (2003), p. 33.
14. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, p. 156.
15. H. W. F. Saggs, Babylonians (1995), p. 98.
Chapter Twenty-One The Overthrow of the Xia
1. Ssu-ma Ch’ien, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, ed. William H. Nienhauser, Jr., translated by Tsai-fa Cheng et al. (1994), p. 21.
2. Ibid., p. 22.
3. Ibid., p. 32.
4. John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (2002), p. 37.
5. Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, State Formation in Early China (2003), p. 35.
6. Ibid., p. 35.
7. Ch’ien, p. 37.
8. Ibid., p. 38.
9. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 5.
10. Ch’ien, p. 38; the exact quote is “I regret failing to kill T’ang in Hsia-t’ai; that is what has brought me to this.”
Chapter Twenty-Two Hammurabi’s Empire
1. Jorgen Laessoe, People of Ancient Assyria: Their Inscriptions and Correspondence (1963), p. 47.
2. Slightly paraphrased for clarity, from Laessoe, p. 50.
3. Laessoe, pp. 68–69.
4. Ibid., p. 76.
5. Ibid., p. 78.
6. André Parrot’s reconstruction, from the Mari letters, recapped in Jack M. Sasson, “The King and I: A Mari King in Changing Perceptions,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 118:4 (1998), p. 454.
7. King, vol. 2, p. 176.
8. Pritchard, p. 142.
9. Norman Yoffee, “The Decline and Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization: An Ethnoarchaeological Perspective on the Evolution of Social Complexity,” American Antiquity 44:1 (1979), p. 12.
10. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 101.
11. King, vol 1, p. xxxvii.
12. Roaf, p. 121.
Chapter Twenty-Three The Hyksos Seize Egypt
1. Shaw, p. 169.
2. Clayton, p. 93.
3. Josephus, Against Apion, 1.14.74–77, in The Works of Josephus (1987).
4. Ibid., 1.14.85.
5. Redford, Egypt, p. 126.
6. George Steindorff and Keith C. Steele, When Egypt Ruled the East (1957), p. 29.
Chapter Twenty-Four King Minos of Crete
1. J. Lesley Fitton, Minoans (2002), p. 67.
2. Ibid., pp. 104–105.
3. Ibid., p. 138.
4. Apollodorus, The Library (1921), 3.1.3–4 and 3.15.8.
5. Cyrus H. Gordon, The Common Background of Greek and Hebrew Civilizations (1965), pp. 51–52.
6. Thucydides, The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War, translated by Richard Crawley (1998), 1.4–5.
7. Herodotus, 1.171.
8. Thucydides, 1.8.
9. Rodney Castleden, Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete (1990), p. 148.
10. Fitton, p. 166.
11. Christos G. Doumas, Thera, Pompeii of the Ancient Aegean (1983), p. 134.
12. Ibid., pp. 134–135.
13. Ibid., p. 139.
14. Ibid., p. 147.
Chapter Twenty-Five The Harappan Disintegration
1. Wolpert, p. 21.
2. G. F. Dales, “The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjo Daro,” in Ancient Cities of the Indus, ed. G. L. Possehl (1979), p. 291.
3. Gregory L. Possehl, “The Mohenjo-daro Floods: A Reply,” American Anthropologist 69:1 (1967), p. 32.
4. Ibid., p. 35.
5. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2002), p. 87.
6. Julian Reade, “Assyrian King-Lists, the Royal Tombs of Ur, and Indus Origins,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 60:1 (2001), p. 27.
7. Wolpert, p. 27.
8. Ibid., p. 24.
9. Keay, p. 20.
Chapter Twenty-Six The Rise of the Hittites
1. Robert S. Hardy, “The Old Hittite Kingdom: A Political History,” American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 58:2 (1941), p. 180.
2. Trevor Bryce, Life and Society in the Hittite World (2002), pp. 116–117.
3. G. G. Giorgadze, “The Hittite Kingdom,” in Early Antiquity, ed. I. M. Diakanoff, trans. Alexan-der Kirjanov (1991), p. 271.
4. Bryce, p. 230.
5. Robert S. Hardy, p. 181.
6. Giorgadze, p. 272.
7. Robert S. Hardy, p. 194.
8. The Hittite Testament, quoted at length in Bryce, p. 11.
9. Bryce, p. 31.
10. Redford, Egypt, p. 134.
11. Leick, The Babylonians, p. 42.
12. Robert S. Hardy, p. 206.
13. Bryce, p. 107.
Chapter Twenty-Seven Ahmose Expels the Hyksos
1. Slightly paraphrased from Steindorff and Steele, p. 31.
2. Silverman, p. 30.
3. Clayton, p. 102.
4. Josephus, Against Apion, 1.14.
5. Lewis, p. 98.
6. Shaw, p. 216.
7. Redford, Egypt, p. 129.
8. Eliezer D. Oren, “The ‘Kingdom of Sharuhen’ and the Hyksos Kingdom,” in The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (1997), p. 253.
9. Lewis, p. 98.
Chapter Twenty-Eight Usurpation and Revenge
1. Dodson and Hilton, p. 127.
2. Clayton, p. 105.
3. Edward F. Wente, “Some Graffiti from the Reign of Hatshepsut,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43:1 (1984), pp. 52–53. Wente points out that the graffiti can be given alternate interpretations.
4. E. P. Uphill, “A Joint Sed-Festival of Thutmose III and Queen Hatshepsut,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 20:4 (1961), pp. 249–251.
5. I. V. Vinogradov, “The New Kingdom of Egypt,” in Early Antiquity, ed. I. M. Diakonoff, trans. Alexander Kirjanov (1991), p. 178.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., p. 180.
8. Steindorff and Steele, p. 58.
9. Ibid., p. 57.
Chapter Twenty-Nine The Three-Way Contest
1. Laessoe, p. 83.
2. Ibid., p. 87.
3. Steindorff and Steele, p. 63.
4. Robert S. Hardy, p. 206.
5. Ibid., p. 208.
6. Bryce, pp. 28–29.
7. Laessoe, p. 89.
8. Redford, Egypt, p. 164.
9. Ibid., p. 167.
10. Alan R. Schulman, “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 38:3 (1979), p. 83.
Chapter Thirty The Shifting Capitals of the Shang
1. Ch’ien, p. 43.
2. Kwang-Chih Chang, Shang Civilization (1980), p. 11.
3. Ch’ien, p. 45.
4. Arthur Cotterell, China: A Cultural History (1988), p. 16.
5. Chang, p. 10.
6. Quoted in Chang, p. 11.
7. Ch’ien, p. 47.
Chapter Thirty-One The Mycenaeans of Greece
1. Lord William Taylour, The Mycenaeans (1983), p. 18.
2. Plutarch, Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation (2001), p. 10.
3. Taylour, p. 41.
4. Ibid., p. 147; Robert Morkot, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece (1996), p. 29.
5. Taylour, p. 137.
6. John Chadwick, Linear B and Related Scripts (1987), pp. 44–49.
7. Herodotus, 3.122.
8. Taylour, p. 156.
9. Fitton, p. 179.
10. J. T. Hooker, “Homer and Late Minoan Crete,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 89 (1969), p. 60.
Chapter Thirty-Two Struggle of the Gods
1. Clayton, p. 116.
2. David O’Connor and Eric H. Cline, Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign (1998), p. 13.
3. Ibid., p. 11.
4. Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome (1996), p. 111.
5. Details found in Ernest A. Wallis Budge, Tutankhamen: Amenism, Atenism, and Egyptian Monotheism (1923), p. 68, and also Clayton, p. 117.
6. Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten: The Heretic King (1984), pp. 36–37.
7. Clayton, p. 116.
8. O’Connor and Cline, p. 20.
9. Laessoe, p. 90.
10. O’Connor and Cline, p. 243.
11. William L. Moran, ed. and trans., The Amarna Letters (1992), p. 1.
12. Ibid., pp. 1–2.
13. Ibid., p. 8.
14. O’Connor and Cline, pp. 2–3.
15. Redford, Akhenaten, p. 162.
16. Dodson and Hilton, p. 142.
17. Redford, Akhenaten, p. 52.
18. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (1988), p. 278.
19. Ibid., pp. 241–243.
20. Redford, Akhenaten, p. 141.
Chapter Thirty-Three Wars and Marriages
1. Slight paraphrase of the letter labelled El Amarna (hereafter EA) 20 by archaeologists, quoted in Moran, p. 48.
2. Redford, Akhenaten, p. 195.
3. EA 41, in Moran, p. 114.
4. EA 16, in Moran, p. 16.
5. Redford, Akhenaten, p. 197.
6. Laessoe, p. 90.
7. EA 9, in Moran, p. 18.
8. Saggs, Babylonians, pp. 118–119.
9. Clayton, p. 134.
10. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, The Tomb, The Royal Treasure (1995), p. 23.
11. Clayton, p. 135.
Chapter Thirty-Four The Greatest Battle in Very Ancient Times
1. Clayton, p. 138.
2. Ibid., p. 146.
3. Bryce, p. 111.
4. Shaw, p. 298.
5. Diakonoff, p. 189.
6. Shaw, p. 298.
7. Clayton, p. 151.
8. Letter translated and quoted in Bryce, p. 172.
9. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 27.
10. Bryce, p. 108.
11. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 40.
12. Redford, Egypt, p. 188.
13. Clayton, p. 153.
14. Ibid., p. 155.
Chapter Thirty-Five The Battle for Troy
1. Taylour, p. 159.
2. Homer, The Iliad, Book 3; this translation is E. V. Rieu’s (1950).
3. Virgil, The Aeneid, 2.13–20, translated by C. Day Lewis (1950).
4. Ibid., 2.265–267, 327.
5. E. V. Rieu, “Introduction,” in Homer, The Iliad (1950), p. xiv.
6. Chadwick, p. 36.
7. Clayton, p. 162.
8. Herodotus, 1.4.
9. Herodotus, 1.5.
10. Barbara W. Tuchman, The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam (1984), p. 43.
11. Thucydides, 1.11.1.
12. Homer, The Odyssey, Book 3, Samuel Butler translation (1898).
13. Thucydides, 1.12.2.
Chapter Thirty-Six The First Historical King of China
1. J. Legge and C. Waltham translation, quoted by Chang, p. 12.
2. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 34.
3. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 67.
4. Ibid., p. 8.
5. Chang, pp. 32–35.
6. A. Waley translation, quoted in Chang, p. 13.
7. Cotterell, China, p. 24.
Chapter Thirty-Seven The Rig Veda
1. Keay, p. 26.
2. Ranbir Vohra, The Making of India: A Historical Survey (2001), pp. 3–4.
3. Keay, p. 29. A mandala can refer to anything with qualities of circularity.
4. The Rig Veda, translated by Franklin Edgerton in The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy (1965), pp. 52–56.
5. Kulke and Rothermand, p. 35.
6. Thapar, Early India, p. 114.
Chapter Thirty-Eight The Wheel Turns Again
1. Redford, Egypt, p. 247.
2. Clayton, p. 157.
3. Bryce, p. 94.
4. Ibid., p. 22.
5. K. A. Kitchen, trans., Ramesside Inscriptions, Historical and Biographical, vol. 4 (1969), 5.3.
6. Bryce, p. 95.
7. Ibid., p. 109.
8. Ibid., p. 26.
9. Ibid., p. 234.
10. Redford, Egypt, p. 245.
11. Adapted from the letter labelled RS 34, found in Sylvie Lackenbacher, Le roi bâtisseur. Les récits de construction assyriens des origins à Teglatphalasar III (1982).
12. Itamar Singer, “New Evidence on the End of the Hittite Empire,” in The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (2000), p. 22.
13. Laessoe, p. 98.
14. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 209.
15. Chronicle P, quoted in Saggs, Babylonians, p. 119.
16. Quoted in Roaf, p. 148.
17. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 49.
18. Saggs, Assyria, p. 52.
19. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 49.
20. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 251.
21. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 120.
22. The Great Harris Papyrus, quoted by A. Malamat in “Cushan Rishathaim and the Decline of the Near East around 1200 BC,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 13:4 (1954), p. 234.
Chapter Thirty-Nine The End of the New Kingdom
1. Clayton, p. 160.
2. Condensed slightly from the translation in Lewis, p. 219.
3. Jacobus van Dijk, “The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom,” in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Shaw (2000), pp. 304–305.
4. Condensed slightly from the translation in Redford, Egypt, p. 251.
5. Redford, Egypt, p. 252.
6. Lewis, p. 245.
7. David O’Connor, “The Sea Peoples and the Egyptian Sources,” in The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (2000), p. 95.
8. Ibid., p. 85.
9. Lewis, pp. 245–246.
10. van Dijk, p. 306.
11. Lewis, p. 247.
12. Ibid., p. 252.
13. Ibid., p. 254.
14. Clayton, p. 168.
15. See van Dijk, p. 308, and also Lewis, p. 265.
16. Clayton, p. 171.
Chapter Forty The Dark Age of Greece
1. Taylour, p. 159.
2. Morkot, p. 46.
3. Herodotus, 5.76.
4. Konon, Narratives, Sec. 26, in The Narratives of Konon: Text Translation and Commentary of the Diegesis by Malcolm Brown (2003).
5. Thucydides, 1.12.2–4.
6. Taylour, p. 161.
7. E. Watson Williams, “The End of an Epoch,” Greece & Rome, 2d series, 9:2 (1962), pp. 119–120.
8. Philip P. Betancourt, “The Aegean and the Origin of the Sea Peoples,” in The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, ed. Eliezer D. Oren (2000), p. 300.
9. Homer, The Iliad, 1.12–14, translated by Robert Fitzgerald (1974).
10. Williams, p. 117.
11. Quoted in Williams, p. 112.
Chapter Forty-One The Dark Age of Mesopotamia
1. Translated by H. Otten in the journal Mitteilungen des deutschen Orientgesellschaft 94 (1963), p. 21, and quoted in Redford, Egypt, p. 254.
2. Roaf, p. 149.
3. A. T. Olmstead, “Tiglath-Pileser I and His Wars,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 37 (1917), p. 170.
4. J. N. Postgate, “The Land of Assur and the Yoke of Assur,” World Archaeology 23:3 (1992), p. 255.
5. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 83.
6. Olmstead, “Tiglath-Pileser I and His Wars,” p. 186.
7. Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 212.
8. Olmstead, “Tiglath-Pileser I and His Wars,” p. 180.
9. W. G. Lambert, “Studies in Marduk,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 47:1 (1984), p. 4.
10. Postgate, p. 249.
11. J. A. Brinkman, “Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 625 BC: The Documentary Evidence,” American Journal of Archaeology 76:3 (1972), p. 276.
12. Quoted in Leick, Mesopotamia, p. 254.
Chapter Forty-Two The Fall of the Shang
1. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 10.
2. Ch’ien, p. 51.
3. Mencius, Mencius, translated by D. C. Lau (1970), p. 172.
4. Ibid., p. 26.
5. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 13.
6. Cotterell, China, p. 28.
Chapter Forty-Three The Mandate of Heaven
1. Tsui Chi, A Short History of Chinese Civilisation (1942), p. 47.
2. Ch’ien, p. 64.
3. Cotterell, China, p. 42.
4. Claudio Cioffi-Revilla and David Lai, “War and Politics in Ancient China, 2700 BC to 722 BC: Measurement and Comparative Analysis.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 39:3 (1995), p. 473.
5. Constance A. Cook, “Wealth and the Western Zhou,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 60:2 (1997), pp. 254–275.
6. Ch’ien, p. 63.
7. Ibid,, p. 62.
8. Li Xueqin, Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations (1985), p. 16.
9. Sarah Allan, “Drought, Human Sacrifice and the Mandate of Heaven in a Lost Text from the ‘Shang Shu,’” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 47:3 (1984), p. 533.
10. Edward L. Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” in The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, ed. Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy (1999), p. 311; also Xueqin, p. 16.
11. This is preserved in the Shang shu; see Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 314.
12. Quoted in Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 322.
13. Ibid.
14. Ch’ien, p. 66.
15. Paraphrased slightly from Ch’ien, p. 68.
16. Ibid.
Chapter Forty-Four The Bharata War
1. Kulke and Rothermund, p. 36.
2. Keay, p. 40.
3. Wolpert, p. 37.
4. Keay, pp. 3–4.
5. Chakravarthi V. Narasimhan, trans., The Mahabharata: An English Version Based on Selected Verses (1998), pp. 14–15.
6. Wolpert, p. 30.
7. Narasimhan, p. 34.
8. Kulke and Rothermund, p. 44.
9. Keay, p. 43.
10. Narasimhan, p. 44.
11. Ibid., p. 47.
12. Wolpert, p. 30.
13. Keay, p. 41.
14. Wolpert, p. 36.
Chapter Forty-Five The Son of David
1. Josh. 1:4, New International Version (hereafter NIV).
2. Pellegrino, p. 256.
3. Josh. 13:2–4, NIV.
4. Judg. 15:11, NIV.
5. Judg. 16:30, NIV.
6. 1 Sam. 8:11–18, NIV.
7. 1 Sam. 13:19–21, NIV.
8. 1 Sam. 17:51–52, NIV.
9. Dimitri Baramki, Phoenicia and the Phoenicians (1961), p. 25.
10. 1 Kings 4:22–26, NIV.
11. E. W. Heaton, Solomon’s New Men: The Emergence of Ancient Israel as a National State (1974), p. 34.
12. 1 Kings 10:1–2, 13, NIV.
13. Robert G. Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (2001), p. 13.
14. Ibid., p. 38.
15. 1 Kings 9:11, NIV.
16. Homer, The Iliad, Book 9, 460–469, translated by Samuel Butler (1898).
17. Clayton, p. 184.
18. 1 Kings 14:25–27, NIV.
Chapter Forty-Six From Western to Eastern Zhou
1. Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 324.
2. Constance A. Cook, “Wealth and the Western Zhou,” p. 283.
3. Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 326.
4. Ch’ien, p. 70.
5. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 18.
6. Shaugnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 329.
7. Ch’ien, p. 71.
8. The Greater Odes 3.7, Ezra Pound, in trans., The Confucian Odes: The Classic Anthology Defined by Confucius (1954), p. 180
9. Constance A. Cook, “Wealth and the Western Zhou,” p. 288.
10. Ch’ien, p. 71.
11. Ibid., p. 72.
12. Edward L. Shaughnessy, “Historical Perspectives on the Introduction of the Chariot into China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48:1 (1988), p. 223.
13. Edward Kaplan, An Introduction to East Asian Civilizations: The Political History of China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia from an Economic and Social History Perspective (1997), sec. 12.3.
14. Shaughnessy, “Western Zhou History,” p. 347.
15. Ch’ien, p. 73.
16. Ibid., p. 74.
17. Chi, p. 48.
18. Ibid., pp. 48–49.
19. Quoted in Cotterell, China, p. 39.
20. Chi, p. 49.
Chapter Forty-Seven The Assyrian Renaissance
1. 2 Sam. 8:5–6, NIV.
2. Saggs, Assyria, p. 70.
3. Joan Oates, Babylon (1979), p. 106.
4. Saggs, Assyria, p. 72.
5. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, pp. 158, 171.
6. Laessoe, p. 102.
7. Ibid., p. 104.
8. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, pp. 164–166.
9. 1 Kings 16:21–25, NIV.
10. John Rogerson, Chronicle of the Old Testament Kings (1999), p. 102.
11. A. T. Olmstead, History of Assyria (1923), p. 87–88.
12. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 147.
13. Ibid., p. 201.
14. Charles F. Pfeiffer, Old Testament History (1973), p. 314.
15. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 136.
16. 1 Kings 22:7 ff., NIV.
17. 2 Kings 10:32, NIV.
18. Michael C. Astour, “841 B.C.: The First Assyrian Invasion of Israel,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 91:3 (1971), p. 386.
19. Pfeiffer, p. 318.
Chapter Forty-Eight New Peoples
1. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, pp. 202–203, 264.
2. Oates, pp. 109–110.
3. Alan R. Millard, “Chaldeans,” entry in Dictionary of the Ancient Near East, ed. Piotr Bienkowski and Alan Millard (2000), p. 70.
4. Brinkman, “Foreign Relations of Babylonia,” p. 279.
5. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 144.
6. Saggs, Assyria, p. 77.
7. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 254.
8. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 156.
9. R. W. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, vol. 2 (1971), p. 95.
10. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 259.
11. J. A. Brinkman, APolitical History of Post-Kassite Babylon, 1158–722 BC (1968), pp. 169–170.
12. Brinkman, “Foreign Relations of Babylonia,” p. 279.
13. Saggs, Assyria, p. 79.
14. Terry Buckley, Aspects of Greek History, 750–323 BC: A Source-Based Approach (1996), p. 35.
15. Donald Latimer, “The Iliad: An Unpredictable Classic,” in Robert Fowler, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Homer (2004), p. 18.
16. Ken Dowden, “The Epic Tradition in Greece,” in Fowler, p. 190.
17. Robin Osborne, “Homer’s Society,” in Fowler, p. 206.
18. Ibid., p. 218.
19. Robert Fowler, “Introduction,” in Fowler, p. 5.
20. Sarah B. Pomeroy et al., Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History (1999), p. 79.
Chapter Forty-Nine Trading Posts and Colonies
1. Homer, The Iliad, Book 2, translated by Alexander Pope (1713).
2. T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC) (1995), pp. 31–33.
3. David Ridgway, Italy Before the Romans: The Iron Age (1979), pp. 24–25.
4. Cornell, pp. 35–36.
5. H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World, 753 to 146 BC (2003), p. 39.
6. Buckley, p. 36.
7. Judith Swaddling, The Ancient Olympic Games (1999), pp. 10–11.
8. Livy, 1.4, from The Early History of Rome, Books I–V of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (1971), pp. 37–38.
9. Plutarch, Romulus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1: The Dryden Translation, p. 27.
10. Livy 1.6, Early History of Rome, p. 39.
11. Ibid., p. 40.
12. Livy, 1.1, Early History of Rome, p. 33.
13. R. M. Ogilvie, “Introduction: Livy,” in Livy, Early History of Rome, p. 17.
14. Livy, 1.7–9, Early History of Rome, pp. 42–43.
15. Livy, 1.9, Early History of Rome, p. 43.
16. Livy, 1.13–14, Early History of Rome, pp. 48–49.
17. Buckley, p. 39.
18. Hesiod, Works and Days, ll. 37–40, in Theogony, Works and Days, Shield (2004), p. 66.
19. Ibid., ll. 220–221, p. 70.
20. Ibid., ll. 230–235, p. 71.
Chapter Fifty Old Enemies
1. Saggs, Assyria, p. 81.
2. 2 Kings 14: 25–28.
3. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 114.
4. Saggs, Assyria, p. 80.
5. Ibid., p. 83.
6. Ibid.
7. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 124.
8. Oates, p. 112.
9. Hayim Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (1994), p. 45.
10. Ibid.
11. Oates, p. 114.
12. Saggs, Assyria, p. 88.
13. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 273.
14. Ernest A. Fredricksmeyer, “Alexander, Midas, and the Oracle at Gordium,” Classical Philology 56:3 (1961), p. 160.
15. Herodotus, 1.14.
16. 2 Kings 15–16.
17. Reconstruction from fragmentary translations offered by Oates, p. 114, and Brevard S. Childs in Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis (1967), p. 81.
18. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 179.
19. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 285.
20. Daniel David Luckenbill, “The First Inscription of Shalmaneser V,” American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 41:3 (1925), p. 164.
21. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 1, p. 283.
Chapter Fifty-One Kings of Assyria and Babylon
1. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 9.14, in The Works of Josephus (1987), pp. 264–265.
2. 2 Kings 17:4, NIV.
3. Clayton, p. 189; Jan Assmann, The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs (2002), p. 312.
4. Assmann, pp. 317–319.
5. Quoted in Assmann, p. 320.
6. Saggs, Assyria, p. 92.
7. Daniel David Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylon, Volume II: Historical Records of Assyria from Sargon to the End (1927), p. 71.
8. Ibid., p. 2; 2 Kings 17:6.
9. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 2.
10. Ibid., p. 3.
11. A. Leo Oppenheim, “The City of Assur in 714 B.C.,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 19:2 (1960), pp. 142, 147.
12. Paul Zimansky, “Urartian Geography and Sargon’s Eighth Campaign,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49:1 (1990), p. 2.
13. Translated in Saggs, Assyria, p. 93.
14. Ibid., p. 94.
15. Oppenheim, “The City of Assur in 714 B.C.,” p. 134.
16. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 10.
17. Zimansky, p. 3.
18. Laessoe, p. 113; Hoyland, p. 19.
19. J. A. Brinkman, “Elamite Military Aid to Merodach-Baladan,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24:3 (1965), pp. 161–162.
20. Oates, p. 116.
21. Slightly condensed from the annals of Sargon, as translated by Brinkman in “Elamite Military Aid,” p. 163.
22. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 15.
23. Oates, p. 116.
Chapter Fifty-Two Spectacular Defeat
1. Isa. 14:29, NIV.
2. Daniel David Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (1924), p. 9.
3. Ibid., p. 10.
4. Grant Frame, Rulers of Babylonia from the Second Dynasty of Isin to the End of Assyrian Domination (1157–612 BC) (1995), p. 137.
5. Luckenbill, Annals, pp. 10–11.
6. Assmann, p. 335.
7. This quote and following from 2 Kings 20:12 ff., NIV.
8. This quote and following from 2 Kings 18:1 ff., NIV.
9. Luckenbill, Annals, p. 10.
10. Condensed and language updated slightly, from Luckenbill, Annals, p. 10.
11. Herodotus, 2.14.
12. The Nebi Yunus Inscription (H4), translated in Luckenbill, Annals, p. 85.
13. Luckenbill, Annals, p. 15.
14. Ibid., p. 16.
15. Ibid., p. 17.
16. Emil G. Kraeling, “The Death of Sennacherib,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 53:4 (1933), p. 338.
Chapter Fifty-Three The Decline of the King
1. Xueqin, p. 16.
2. Ch’ien, p. 74.
3. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 49.
4. Xueqin, p. 37.
5. Ch’ien, p. 75.
6. G. W. Ally Rickett, trans., Guanzi, vol. 1 (1985), p. 5.
7. Ibid., p. 6.
8. Ch’ien, p. 75.
9. Ibid.
10. Tso chuan, quoted by Nicola Di Cosmo in Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (2002), pp. 98–99.
11. Ch’ien, p. 76.
12. Ibid., p. 77.
Chapter Fifty-Four The Assyrians in Egypt
1. Isa. 37:38, NIV.
2. Adapted from the translation by R. C. Thompson and quoted in Kraeling, pp. 338–340.
3. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 343.
4. Frame, p. 164.
5. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 351.
6. Adapted from J. A. Brinkman’s compilation of the various versions of Esarhaddon’s inscriptions, in “Through a Glass Darkly: Esarhaddon’s Retrospects on the Downfall of Babylon,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 103:1 (1983), p. 39.
7. Brinkman, “Through a Glass Darkly,” p. 41.
8. Frame, 167.
9. Francis Reynolds, ed., State Archives of Assyria, vol. 18: The Babylonian Correspondence of Esarhaddon and Letters to Assurbanipal and Sin-saru-iskun from Northern and Central Babylonia (2003), p. 4.
10. E. D. Phillips, “The Scythian Domination in Western Asia: Its Record in History, Scripture, and Archaeology,” World Archaeology 4:2 (1972), p. 131.
11. Slightly paraphrased for the sake of clarity from the translation by Ivan Starr in State Archives of Assyria, vol. 4, Queries to the Sungod: Divination and Politics in Sargonid Assyria (1990), Queries 18, 20, 24, and 43, pp. 22, 24–25, 30, 48.
12. C. H. Emilie Haspels, The Highlands of Phrygia: Sites and Monuments, vol. 1, The Text (1971), p. 73.
13. Strabo, The Geography of Strabo in Eight Volumes (1928), 1.3.21.
14. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, pp. 516, 530, 533, 546.
15. Starr, Query 84, p. 98.
16. Slightly condensed from Laessoe, p. 114.
17. Clayton, p. 193.
18. Shaw, p. 358.
19. Slightly condensed from Frame, p. 194.
20. Clayton, p. 195.
21. Gebel Barka Stele, translated by Assmann, pp. 336–337, language slightly modernized.
22. Herodotus, 2.151; also Redford, Egypt, p. 431.
23. Assmann, p. 337.
24. James Henry Breasted, A History of Egypt (1967), p. 468.
25. Nah. 3:8–10.
26. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 417.
27. Ibid., p. 422.
28. The Nitiqret Adoption Stele, paraphrased slightly from the translation in Shaw, p. 376.
29. Olmstead, History of Assyria, p. 423.
30. Phillips, “The Scythian Domination in Western Asia,” p. 132.
Chapter Fifty-Five Medes and Persians
1. Konstantinos Staikos, The Great Libraries: From Antiquity to the Renaissance (3000 BC to AD 1600) (2000), p. 13.
2. Condensed slightly from Benjamin R. Foster, Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature, vol. 2 (1996), p. 714.
3. Frame, p. 255.
4. Ibid., p. 258.
5. Epigraphs arranged chronologically by John Malcom Russell, The Writing on the Wall: Studies in the Architectural Context of Late Assyrian Palace Inscriptions (1999), p. 159.
6. Herodotus, 1.98.
7. A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (1959), p. 30.
8. Starr, pp. 267–270.
9. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 161.
10. Frame, p. 260.
11. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 114.
12. Ezra 4:9–10, NIV.
13. P. Calmeyer, “Greek Historiography and Acheamenid Reliefs,” in Achaemenid History II: The Greek Sources, ed. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Amelie Kuhrt (1987), p. 11.
14. David Frankel, The Ancient Kingdom of Urartu (1979), p. 19.
15. Phillips, p. 135.
16. 2 Kings 23.
17. Herodotus, 1.105.
18. Ibid., 1.106.
Chapter Fifty-Six Conquest and Tyranny
1. Buckley, p. 37.
2. Phaedo 109b, quoted in Robin Waterfield, Athens (2004), p. 41.
3. Pomeroy et al., p. 92.
4. Herodotus, 4.156–157.
5. Ibid., 4.159.
6. Fragment 5, quoted in Buckley, p. 66.
7. Fragment 6, quoted in Buckley, p. 67.
8. Herodotus 6.52.
9. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, pp. 291–292.
10. Herodotus, 6.57.
11. Lycurgus 15, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, translated by Robin Waterfield (1998), p. 24.
12. Lycurgus 12–14, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, pp. 18–22.
13. Lycurgus 10, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 18.
14. Herodotus, 7.104.
15. Waterfield, p. 39.
16. Eusebius, Chronicle, in A. Schoene and H. Petermann, trans. Armeniam versionem Latine factam ad libros manuscriptos recensuit H. Petermann (1875), pp. 182–183.
17. Waterfield, p. 43.
18. Eusebius, Chronicle, p. 198.
19. Thucydides, 1.125.
20. Thucydides, 1.126.
21. Solon 12, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 55.
22. Athenian Constitution, translated by H. Rackham, 2.1–3, in Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 20 (1952).
23. Solon 17, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 61.
24. Lycurgus 15, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 25.
25. Michael Gagarin, Drakon and Early Athenian Homicide Law (1981), pp. 19–21.
26. Solon 1, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 46.
27. Solon 14, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 57.
28. Buckley, pp. 91–92.
29. Solon 6, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 50.
30. Herodotus, 1.29.
31. Solon 25, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, pp. 69–70.
Chapter Fifty-Seven The Beginnings and End of Empire
1. Livy, 1.15, Early History of Rome, p. 50.
2. R. M. Ogilvie, “Introduction: Livy,” in Livy, Early History of Rome, p. 18.
3. Livy, 1.1–1.2, Early History of Rome, pp. 34–36.
4. Livy, 1.15, Early History of Rome, p. 50.
5. Livy, 1.16, Early History of Rome, p. 51.
6. Livy, 1.19, Early History of Rome, p. 54.
7. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, vol. 1, Books I–II (1937), 2.62.
8. Livy, 1.33, Early History of Rome, p. 72.
9. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, vol. 2, Books III–IV (1939), 3.45.
10. Gary Forsythe, ACritical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (2005), pp. 39–40.
11. Salvatore Settis, ed., The Land of the Etruscans: From Prehistory to the Middle Ages (1985), p. 30.
12. Jacques Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans (1964), p. 136.
13. Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History (2004), p. 12.
14. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, vol. 2, 3.61–62.
15. Ray Kamoo, Ancient and Modern Chaldean History: A Comprehensive Bibliography of Sources (1999), p. xxxi.
16. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 417.
17. Kamoo, p. xxxiii; Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 419.
18. Herodotus, 1.103.
19. Christopher Johnston, “The Fall of Nineveh,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 22 (1901), p. 21.
20. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, vol. 1 (1956), p. 171; Paul Haupt, “Xenophon’s Account of the Fall of Nineveh,” in Journal of the American Oriental Society 28 (1907), p. 101.
21. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 420.
22. Nah. 2:6–10, 3:3, 3:19, NIV.
23. Assmann, p. 338.
24. 2 Kings 23:29, NIV.
25. 2 Chron. 35:21, NIV.
26. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol. 2, p. 421.
27. 2 Kings 23:31–35.
28. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 58.
29. Jer. 46:2–6, NIV.
30. Donald B. Redford, From Slave to Pharaoh: The Black Experience of Ancient Egypt (2004), p. 146.
Chapter Fifty-Eight A Brief Empire
1. Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 10.6.1.
2. Jer. 36.
3. Quoted in Ronald H. Sack, Images of Nebuchadnezzar: The Emergence of a Legend (2004), p. 49. I am grateful to Mr. Sack for his thematic organization of the ancient and classical sources for the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus.
4. Herodotus, 2.158.
5. Clayton, p. 196.
6. Herodotus, 4.42; Shaw, p. 381; Redford, Egypt, p. 452.
7. Herodotus, 4.42.
8. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 10.6.2.
9. Sack, p. 49.
10. 2 Kings 24; Rogerson, p. 151.
11. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 10.7.3.
12. The Wadi-Brisa Inscription, in Sack, p. 16.
13. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 58.
14. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 167.
15. Paraphrased and slightly condensed from Diodorus Siculus, pp. 149–150.
16. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 59.
17. Saggs, Babylonians, p. 166.
18. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 58.
19. Politics 3.1276, in H. Rackham, trans., Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 21 (1944).
20. Redford, Egypt, p. 461.
21. Redford, From Slave to Pharaoh, p. 146.
22. Clayton, p. 196.
23. Redford, Egypt, p. 463.
24. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 10.7.3.
25. Jer. 37:7–10, NIV.
26. Jer. 38:4; also Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 10.7.3.
27. Letter 4, quoted in Rogerson, p. 153.
28. 2 Kings 25:4–6, NIV.
29. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 10.8.4.
30. Raymond Philip Dougherty, Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (1929), p. 33; Herodotus, 1.74.
31. Herodotus 1.74.
32. Dan. 4:33, NIV.
33. Quoted in Sack, p. 44.
34. Matthias Henze, The Madness of King Nebuchadnezzar: The Ancient Near Eastern Origins and Early History of Interpretation of Daniel 4 (1999), pp. 96–99.
Chapter Fifty-Nine Cyrus the Great
1. Herodotus, 1.107.
2. The following is all drawn from Herodotus, 1.108–119.
3. Herodotus, 1.119.
4. 2 Kings 25:27–29.
5. The Chronicle of Jerachmeel, quoted in Sack, pp. 58–59.
6. Verbrugghe and Wickersham, p. 60.
7. Quoted in Sack, p. 22. The work of Megasthenes is lost, but he is quoted in Eusebius.
8. Leick, The Babylonians, p. 64.
9. Dougherty, p. 24.
10. Quoted in Oates, p. 132.
11. Quoted in Dougherty, pp. 72–73.
12. Diodorus Siculus, 2.32.2–3.
13. Herodotus, 1.123–126.
14. Ibid., 1.129–130.
15. Ibid., 1.75–87.
16. Ibid., 1.88–90.
17. Xenophon, The Education of Cyrus (2001), 8.2.1.
18. Ibid., 1.1.2.
19. Ibid., 1.1.5.
20. Ibid., 8.2.8–9.
21. Ibid., 8.2.11–12.
22. Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (2002), pp. 38–40.
23. The Verse Account of Nabonidus, quoted in Sack, p. 17.
24. Harran Inscription of Nabonidus, translated by Oppenheim, quoted in Henze, pp. 59–60.
25. The Verse Account of Nabonidus, quoted in Sack, p. 18.
26. Gene R. Garthwaite, The Persians (2005), p. 29.
27. Herodotus, 1.189.
28. Xenophon, Education of Cyrus, 8.5.13.
29. The Cyrus Cylinder, slightly condensed from the translation in Dougherty, pp. 176–168.
30. Ezra 1:1–3, NIV.
31. Ezra 3:12–13, NIV.
Chapter Sixty The Republic of Rome
1. Herodotus 1.164–165.
2. A. Trevor Hodge, Ancient Greek France (1998), p. 19.
3. Barry Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek: The Man Who Discovered Britain (2002), p. 16.
4. Daithi O’Hogain, The Celts: A History (2002), p. 1.
5. Ibid., p. 2.
6. Hodge, pp. 5, 190–193.
7. Heurgon, p. 13.
8. David Soren et. al., Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia (1990), p. 49.
9. Politics, 3.1280, Rackham, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 21.
10. Heurgon, p. 13.
11. Arnaldo Momigliano, “An Interim Report on the Origins of Rome,” Journal of Roman Studies 53:1–2 (1960), pp. 108–109.
12. Livy, Early History of Rome, 1.41–43.
13. Ibid., 1.47.
14. This quote and the following from Livy, Early History of Rome, 2.10.
15. Thomas Babington Macaulay, “Horatius: A Lay Made About the Year of the City CCCLX,” stanza 27.
16. Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire (1979), 3.22.
17. Livy, Early History of Rome, 5.34.
18. O’Hogain, p. 2; Bernhard Maier, The Celts: A History from Earliest Times to the Present (2003), pp. 44–45.
19. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 2.17.
20. Maier, p. 24; O’Hogain, p. 7.
21. Cunliffe, pp. 19–20.
22. Epitome of the Philippic History, quoted in Maier, p. 38.
23. Mackay, pp. 26–28.
24. Livy, Early History of Rome, 2.17–19.
Chapter Sixty-One Kingdoms and Reformers
1. Edgerton, p. 54.
2. Thapar, Early India, p. 152.
3. The Laws of Manu, translated by Georg Buhler (1970), 1.93–100.
4. Jan Y. Fenton et al., Religions of Asia (1993), pp. 46–48.
5. Thapar, Early India, pp. 146–148.
6. Rig Veda 10.90, in Edgerton, p. 68.
7. Wolpert, p. 39.
8. Thapar, Early India, p. 149.
9. Fenton et al., p. 90.
10. From the Introduction to the Jataka, 1.54, translated by Henry Clarke Warren in Buddhism in Translation (1896), pp. 56–61.
11. Quoted in Michael Carrithers, Buddha: A Very Short Introduction (2001), p. 46.
12. Ibid., p. 62.
13. Karen Armstrong, Buddha (2004), p. 9.
14. Ibid., p. xi.
15. A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (1963), p. 47.
16. Thapar, Early India, p. 152.
Chapter Sixty-Two The Power of Duty and the Art of War
1. Xueqin, p. 5.
2. Gai Shiqi, Zuozhuan Jishibenmuo, vol. 45 (1979), quoted in Xueqin, p. 170.
3. Ch’ien, p. 77.
4. Cho-yun Hsu, Ancient China in Transition: An Analysis of Social Mobility, 722–222 BC (1965), pp. 59–60.
5. Jonathan Clements, Confucius: A Biography (2004), pp. 10–15. I am grateful to Mr. Clements for assembling the scattered details about the life of Confucius into a chronological record.
6. Clements, pp. 21–22.
7. James Legge, trans., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27: The Texts of Confucianism, Li Ki, I–X (1968), 17.9.6.
8. Ibid., 2.1.7.
9. Ibid., 3.2.1, 12.
10. James Legge, trans., Confucian Analects, The Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean (1971), 7.19.
11. Ibid., 1.1.
12. Ibid., 3.1, 3.
13. Clements, p. 39.
14. Ch’ien, p. 787.
15. Jaroslav Prusek, Chinese Statelets and the Northern Barbarians in the Period 1400–300 BC (1971), p. 187.
16. Hsu, p. 69.
17. Sun-Tzu, The Art of War, translated by Lionel Giles (2002), 2.6.
18. Ibid., 3.2.
19. Ibid., 2.2–4.
20. Ibid., 1.18–19.
21. Ibid., 9.24, 26.
22. Quoted in Xueqin, p. 7.
Chapter Sixty-Three The Spreading Persian Empire
1. Herodotus, 1.216.
2. Ibid., 1.214.
3. Ibid., 4.159.
4. Ibid., 2.161.
5. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (1906–1907), 4.1000, pp. 510–511.
6. Herodotus, 2.162.
7. Breasted, Ancient Records, 4.1003, p. 511.
8. Ibid., 4.1005, p. 512.
9. J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire (1983), p. 46.
10. Briant, p. 57.
11. Herodotus, 3.64–66.
12. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 50.
13. Herodotus, 3.72.
14. Maria Brosius, trans. and ed., The Persian Empire from Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I (2000), p. 21.
15. Ibid., p. 48.
16. Ibid., p. 23.
17. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 53.
18. Brosius, pp. 32–33.
19. Ezra 5:3–9, NIV.
20. Basham, p. 47.
21. Thapar, Early India, p. 154.
22. Keay, p. 67.
23. Ibid.
24. Thapar, Early India, p. 155.
25. Herodotus, 4.44.
26. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, p. 145; Herodotus, 3.94 and 4.44; Brosius, p. 40.
27. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, p. 145.
Chapter Sixty-Four The Persian Wars
1. Herodotus, 4.127.
2. Ibid., 4.64–65, 73–75.
3. Ibid., 4.89.
4. The Persians, in Aeschylus, The Complete Plays, vol. 2, translated by Carl R. Mueller (2002), p. 12
5. Herodotus, 4.126, 131.
6. Briant, p. 144.
7. Herodotus, 5.3.
8. Morkot, p. 65.
9. Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 BC: A Historical Biography (1991), pp. 1–2.
10. Herodotus, 5.18.
11. Waterfield, p. 51.
12. Solon 29, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 73; Athenian Constitution, in Rackhain, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 20, secs. 13–14.
13. Solon 29, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 74.
14. Herodotus, 1.61.
15. Athenian Constitution, in Rackham, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 20, sec. 15.
16. Ibid., sec. 16.
17. Ibid., sec. 19
18. Lycurgus 16, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 26.
19. Pomeroy et al., p. 152.
20. Herodotus, 5.73.
21. Athenian Constitution, in Rackham, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 20, sec. 21.
22. Politics, in Rackham, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 21, 1302b; Buckley, p. 145.
23. Herodotus, 5.97.
24. Ibid., 5.96.
25. Ibid., 5.99.
26. Buckley, pp. 161–162.
27. H. T. Wallinga, “The Ancient Persian Navy and its Predecessors,” in Achaemenid History I: Sources, Structures, and Synthesis, ed. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg (1987), p. 69.
28. Herodotus, 5.102.
29. Herodotus, 5.103.
30. H. T. Wallinga, in Sancisi-Weerdenburg, p. 69.
31. Herodotus, 6.17.
32. Herodotus, 6.19.
33. Herodotus, 6.112.
34. John Curtis, Ancient Persia (1990), p. 41.
35. Garthwaite, p. 36; Briant, p. 547.
36. H. T. Wallinga, in Sancisi-Weerdenburg, p. 43; Shaw, p. 384.
37. M. Jameson, in Peter Green, Xerxes of Salamis (Praeger, 1970), p. 98, quoted in Pomeroy et al., p. 194.
38. Pomeroy et al., p. 195.
39. Plutarch, Themistocles, sec. 9, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
40. Aeschylus, The Complete Plays, pp. 139–140.
41. Ibid., p. 140.
42. Ibid., p. 142.
43. Plutarch, Themistocles, sec. 16, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
44. Herodotus, 9.84.
45. H. T. Wallinga, in Sancisi-Weerdenburg, p. 74.
Chapter Sixty-Five The Peloponnesian Wars
1. Aeschylus, Persians (1981), pp. 67–68.
2. Herodotus, 9.106.
3. Waterfield, p. 72.
4. Thucydides, 1.90.2.
5. Ibid., 1.93.2.
6. Ibid., 1.133–134.
7. Plutarch, Themistocles, secs. 19–21, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
8. Plutarch, Themistocles, sec. 22, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
9. Plutarch, Themistocles, sec. 29, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
10. Thucydides, 1.138.4; Plutarch, Themistocles, sec. 31, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation.
11. Esther 2:12–16.
12. Herodotus, 9.585.
13. Brosius, p. 54.
14. Diodorus Siculus, 11.69.2–6.
15. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 127.
16. Thucydides, 1.103.2.
17. Ibid., 1.99.4.
18. Ibid., 1.99.1–2.
19. Pericles 13, Plutarch, in Greek Lives, p. 156.
20. Thucydides, 1.108.4.
21. Pomeroy et al., p. 251.
22. Thucydides, 1.45.3.
23. Ibid., 1.50.2.
24. Ibid., 2.7.1.
25. Ibid., 2.43.1.
26. Ibid., 2.49.2–8.
27. Thucydides, 2.4.
28. Thucydides, 2.52.2–3.
29. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 129.
30. Alcibiades 1–3, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
31. Pomeroy et al., p. 306.
32. Buckley, p. 388.
33. Pomeroy et al., p. 309.
34. Thucydides, 7.51.1.
35. Ibid., 7.84.2–5, 85.1.
36. Aristophanes, Lysistrata (1912), p. 1.
37. Alcibiades 24, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
38. Thucydides, 8.78.
39. Alcibiades 35, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
40. Alcibiades 37, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
41. Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.2.10, translated by Peter Krentz.
42. Waterfield, p. 209; Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.2.23; Victor Davis Hanson, in Thucydides, p. 549.
43. Waterfield, p. 210.
44. Athenian Constitution, in Rackham, Aristotle in 23 Volumes, vol. 20, p. 35.
Chapter Sixty-Six The First Sack of Rome
1. Livy, Early History of Rome, 2.21.
2. Ibid., 2.24.
3. Mackay, p. 34.
4. Livy, Early History of Rome, 2.23.
5. Ibid., 2.32.
6. Ibid., 2.32.
7. Ibid., 3.35.
8. Ibid., 3.333.
9. Based partly on Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources, vol. 3: The Roman World (1901), pp. 9–11.
10. Livy, Early History of Rome, 5.21.
11. Ibid., 5.32.
12. Ibid., 5.36.
13. Ibid., 5.38.
14. Ibid., 5.41.
15. Ibid., 5.47.
16. Cunliffe, pp. 21–22.
17. Livy, Early History of Rome, 5.55.
Chapter Sixty-Seven The Rise of the Ch’in
1. Ch’ien, p. 79.
2. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 54.
3. J. J. L. Duyvendak, trans., in his introduction to The Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the Chinese School of Law (1928), p. 1.
4. Ch’ien, p. 108.
5. Cotterell, China, p. 53.
6. Shih chi 68, translated in Duyvendak, p. 14.
7. Ibid., p. 15.
8. Ibid., p. 16.
9. Shih chi 68, translated in Cotterell, China, p. 55.
10. Shu-Ching Lee, “Agrarianism and Social Upheaval in China,” American Journal of Sociology 56:6 (1951), p. 513.
11. The Book of Lord Shang, translated by Duyvendak, p. 180.
12. Shih chi 68, in Duyvendak, p. 16.
13. Shih chi 68, in Cotterell, China, p. 57.
14. Shih chi 69, in Duyvendak, pp. 16–17.
15. Ibid., p. 17.
16. Ch’ien, p. 79.
17. Franz Michael, China Through the Ages: History of a Civilization (1986), p. 48.
18. Mencius, I.A.7.
19. Fairbank and Goldman, pp. 53–54.
20. Quoted in Michael, pp. 49–50.
21. “Giving Away a Throne,” in The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, translated by Burton Watson (1968), n.p.
22. “Discussion on Making All Things Equal,” in Watson, The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu.
Chapter Sixty-Eight The Macedonian Conquerors
1. Pomeroy et al., pp. 327–328.
2. Scene 1, in Aristophanes, The Birds and Other Plays, translated by David Barrett and Alan H. Sommerstein (2003), p. 221.
3. Scene 3, Ibid., p. 257.
4. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 212.
5. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation.
6. Xenophon, The Persian Expedition (also known as Anabasis) 1.1, translated by Rex Warner (1972), p. 56.
7. This detail from Ctesias comes to us via Diodorus Siculus; see George Cawkwell’s “Introduction” to the Warner translation of Xenophon, The Persian Expedition, p. 40.
8. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 646.
9. Xenophon, The Persian Expedition, 1.4.
10. Ibid., pp. 86–87.
11. Ibid., 4.5.
12. Ibid., 4.7.
13. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 658.
14. Clayton, pp. 201–202.
15. Hellenica, 5.19, in The Works of Xenophon, vol. 2, translated by H. G. Dakyns (1892).
16. Ibid., 5.23.
17. Clayton, p. 203.
18. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 48.
19. Panegyricus 50, in Isocrates, Isocrates II, translated by Terry L. Papillon (2004), p. 40.
20. Panegyricus 166, in Isocrates, p. 68.
21. Green, p. 14.
22. Ibid., p. 22.
23. Justin, The History, 7.5, in William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Ancient History, vol. 1 (Allyn and Bacon, 1912).
24. Green, pp. 23–24.
25. Alexander 6, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
26. Alexander 3, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
27. To Philip 15–16, Isocrates, p. 78.
28. Diodorus Siculus, 16.14.
29. Pomeroy et al., p. 389.
30. Justin, History, 8.8.
31. Alexander 10, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
32. Parts of the story are told by Diodorus Siculus, and by Aristotle in his Politics (translated by Rackham); see also Guy MacLean Rogers, Alexander: The Ambiguity of Greatness (2004), pp. 31–34.
33. Alexander 11, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
Chapter Sixty-Nine Rome Tightens Its Grasp
1. Livy, Rome and Italy: Books VI–X of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, 6.42, translated by Betty Radice (1982), p. 95.
2. Ibid., 6.42.
3. Edward T. Salmon, The Making of Roman Italy (1982), p. 5.
4. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire 3.24.
5. Mary T. Boatwright et al,. The Romans: From Village to Empire (2004), p. 79.
6. Livy, Rome and Italy, 7.29, p. 135.
7. Ibid., 7.30, pp. 136–137.
8. Ibid., 8.6, pp. 164–165.
9. Ibid., 8.10–11, pp. 171–173.
10. Salmon, p. 40.
11. Livy, Rome and Italy, 8.14, p. 178.
12. Boatwright et al., p. 82.
13. Ibid., p. 84.
14. Diodorus Siculus, 9.9.
15. Soren et al., p. 91.
16. Ibid., pp. 90–91, 128–130.
17. Diodorus Siculus, 20.6–7.
18. Soren et al., p. 92.
19. Livy, Rome and Italy, 10.13, 304–305.
20. Ibid., 10.28, pp. 327–328.
Chapter Seventy Alexander and the Wars of the Successors
1. Green, p. 114.
2. Plutarch, The Life of Alexander the Great, translated by John Dryden (2004), p. 13
3. Green, p. 118; Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 13.
4. Diodorus, Siculus, 17.5–6.
5. Ibid., 17.17.
6. Quintus Curtius Rufus, The History of Alexander (lost, summarized by John Yardley), translated by John Yardley (2001), p. 23; also Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, 1.12, translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (1971).
7. Arrian, I.15, p. 73.
8. Didodorus Siculus, 17.20; Arrian, 1.16.
9. Arrian, 1.17.
10. Rufus, 3.15–18, p. 27.
11. Arrian, 2.8.
12. Rufus, 3.12, p. 42.
13. Arrian, 2.15, p. 128.
14. Alexander 29, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 339.
15. G. M. Rogers, pp. 124–145.
16. Arrian, 3.23.
17. G. M. Rogers, p. 135.
18. Arrian, 4.9.
19. Ibid., 5.4, p. 259.
20. Ibid., 5.9, p. 267.
21. Alexander 63, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 369.
22. Rufus, 9.19.
23. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 64.
24. Ibid., p. 67.
25. Rufus, 10.3.14.
26. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 71.
27. Rufus, 10.6.13.
28. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 72; also Diodorus Siculus, 18 and 19.
29. Rufus, 10.9.1.
30. Ibid., 10.10.7–8.
31. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore, eds. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (1957), p. 198.
32. Vohra, p. 25.
33. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 520.
34. Plutarch, Demetrius, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 480.
35. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 537.
Chapter Seventy-One The Mauryan Epiphany
1. Keay, p. 88.
2. Thapar, Early India, p. 5.
3. Wolpert, p. 57.
4. Keay, p. 90.
5. Ibid., p. 91.
6. Thapar, Early India, p. 180.
7. Translated by Romila Thapar in Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (1998), p. 255.
8. Ibid., pp. 255–256.
9. Ibid., p. 256 and Keay, pp. 91–92.
10. Keay, p. 95.
11. Wolpert, p. 64. The story of Mahinda is found in the Dîpavamsa 7, 28–31; see Max Muller’s introduction in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 10: The Dhammapada (1981).
12. Vohra, p. 25.
13. Ibid.
Chapter Seventy-Two First Emperor, Second Dynasty
1. Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (1975), p. 40.
2. Ibid., p. 41.
3. Ch’ien, p. 83.
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., p. 130.
6. Ibid., p. 123.
7. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 56.
8. Hucker, pp. 43–44.
9. Ch’ien, p. 140.
10. Ibid., p. 147.
11. Sima Qian, “The Biography of the Chief Minister of Qin,” in Historical Records, translated by Raymond Dawson (1994), p. 31.
12. Sima Qian, “The Annals of Qin,” in Historical Records, p. 69.
13. Jorge Luis Borges, “The Wall and the Books,” in Daniel Schwartz, The Great Wall of China (2001), p. 10.
14. Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China (1998), pp. 18–19.
15. Ch’ien, p. 155.
16. Arthur Cotterell, The First Emperor of China (1981), p. 28.
17. Ch’ien, p. 156.
18. Ibid., pp. 161–162.
19. Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Volume I: The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220 (1986), p. 113.
20. Ibid., p. 117.
21. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I, translated by Burton Watson (1993), pp. 74–75.
Chapter Seventy-Three The Wars of the Sons
1. Plutarch, Demetrius, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 465.
2. Diodorus Siculus, 21.12.
3. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, pp. 540–541, and Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 2.43.
4. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.5, p. 45.
5. Ibid., 1.7–12.
6. Ibid., 1.20, p. 62.
7. J. H. Thiel, A History of Roman Sea-power before the Second Punic War (1954), p. 63.
8. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.21, p. 64.
9. Polybius, The Histories, 1.75, translated by Evelyn Shuckburgh (1889), pp. 83, 85.
10. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.58, p. 105.
11. Livy, The War With Hannibal: Books XXI–XXX of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, 21.41, translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (1965), p. 66.
12. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1. 63, p. 109.
13. Plutarch, Cleomenes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 351.
14. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 5.34, p. 291.
15. Clayton, p. 211.
16. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 5.34, p. 292.
17. Ibid., 15.33, p. 491.
18. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 12.3.3.
19. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.11, p. 189.
20. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 2.1, pp. 111–12.
21. Soren et al., p. 102.
22. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.20–21.
23. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 21.1, p. 23.
24. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.33, p. 209.
25. Ibid., 3.49.
26. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 21.32, p. 56.
27. Ibid., 21.47, p. 72.
28. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.68, p. 237.
29. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 11.57, p. 83.
30. Ibid., 22.7, p. 102.
31. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.90, p. 257.
32. Ibid., 3.118, p. 275.
33. Livy, The War With Hannibal, 27.48, p. 493.
34. Ibid., 27.51.
35. Ibid., 30.20, p. 644.
36. Ibid., 30.36, p. 664.
37. Leonard Cottrell, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome (1992), p. 242.
Chapter Seventy-Four Roman Liberators and Seleucid Conquerors
1. Livy, The Dawn of the Roman Empire: Books 31–40 [of The History of Rome from Its Foundation], 33.19, translated by J. C. Yardley (2000), pp. 112–113.
2. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 18.45, p. 514.
3. Ibid., 18.46, p. 516.
4. Ibid., 3.11, p. 189.
5. Livy, Dawn of the Roman Empire, 36.17, p. 268.
6. Plutarch, Flamininus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 515.
7. The story is found, among other places, in the Maitreyopanishad of the Sama-Veda.
8. Polybius, Histories, 23.7.
9. Livy, Dawn of the Roman Empire, 40.5, p. 486.
10. Polybius, Histories, 27.1.
11. Livy, The History of Rome, vol. 6, translated by E. Roberts (1912), 42.36.
12. Ibid., 42.26.
13. Ibid., 45.12.
14. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1.1, in The Works of Josephus, p. 546.
15. John Bright, A History of Israel (1974), pp. 424–425.
16. Ibid., p. 424.
17. 2 Macc. 6:10, Revised Standard Version.
18. 2 Macc. 8:1, 7–9.
19. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1.4.
20. Ibid.
21. A. N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (1973), p. 42.
Chapter Seventy-Five Between East and West
1. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, p. 77, 84.
2. Di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies, p. 157.
3. Ibid., p. 165.
4. Burton Watson, trans., Records of the Grand Historian of China: Translated from the Shih chi of Ssu-ma Ch’ien, vol. 2 (1968), p. 129.
5. Twitchett and Loewe, p. 384.
6. Ibid., p. 386.
7. Sima Qian, Shih chi 9: The Basic Annals of the Empress Lu, in Records of the Grand Historian, p. 267.
8. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, p. 269.
9. Ibid., p. 270.
10. Ibid., pp. 273–274.
11. Ibid., p. 284.
12. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 264.
13. Hucker, pp. 123–125.
14. Hucker, p. 128.
15. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 264.
16. Ibid., p. 269.
17. T. W. Rhys Davids, trans., The Questions of King Milinda (1963), Book 1, p. 7.
18. Ibid., Book 7, p. 374.
19. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 13.14.
20. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 268.
21. Plutarch, Sylla, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 610.
22. Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 276.
Chapter Seventy-Six Breaking the System
1. Soren et al., p. 115.
2. Livy, The History of Rome, 6.42.23.
3. Plutarch, Marcus Cato, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 478.
4. Ibid., p. 478.
5. Philip Matyszak, Chronicle of the Roman Republic (2003), p. 120.
6. Plutarch, Marcus Cato, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 479.
7. Polybius, Histories, 38.3–11.
8. Ibid. 39, p. 530.
9. M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (1980), p. 97.
10. Diodorus Siculus, 34.1–4.
11. Ibid., 34.16.
12. Ibid., 34.48.
13. Finley Hooper, Roman Realities (1979), p. 155.
14. Appian, The Civil Wars, 1.1, translated by Oliver J. Thatcher in The Library of Original Sources, vol. 3: The Roman World (1901).
15. Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 357–358.
16. Ibid., p. 361.
17. Ibid., p. 369.
18. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.2.
19. Diodorus Siculus, 34.21.
20. Ibid., 34.23.
21. Plutarch, Caius Gracchus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 381–383.
Chapter Seventy-Seven The Problems of Prosperity
1. The Jugurthine War 41, in Sallust, The Jugurthine War/The Conspiracy of Cataline, translated by S. A. Handford (1963), p. 77.
2. The Jugurthine War 8, in Sallust, p. 41.
3. The Jugurthine War 14, in Sallust, p. 47.
4. The Jugurthine War 28, in Sallust, p. 64.
5. The Jugurthine War 37, in Sallust, p. 73.
6. Marius 28, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 148.
7. Marius 32 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 152.
8. Cicero, On the Commonwealth, 3.41, in On the Commonwealth and On the Laws, translated and edited by James E. G. Zetzel (1999), p. 74.
9. Justin 38.4.13, quoted in Salmon, p. 128.
10. Salmon, p. 129.
11. Marius 33 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 153.
12. Sulla 6 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 179.
13. Marius 34 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, pp. 153–154.
14. Marius 35 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 154.
15. Sulla 9, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 185.
16. Twitchett and Loewe, p. 410.
17. Shi chi 109, in Watson, Records, vol. II, pp. 142–143.
18. Shi chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 282.
19. Ibid., 123, p. 284.
20. Han shu 96, quoted in Twitchett and Loewe, p. 410.
21. Marius 43, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 164.
22. Sulla 22 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 199.
23. Sulla 30, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 208.
24. Sulla 31, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 210.
25. Hooper, p. 215.
26. Ibid., p. 223.
Chapter Seventy-Eight New Men
1. Carlin A. Barton, “The Scandal of the Arena,” Representations 27 (1989), p. 2.
2. Tertullian, De spectaculis 22, in Barton, p. 1.
3. Crassus 8, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch, translated by Rex Warner (1972), p. 122.
4. Crassus 9, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 123.
5. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.118.
6. Crassus 9, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 124.
7. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.119.
8. Crassus 11, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 127.
9. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.121.
10. Crassus 11, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 127.
11. Crassus 12, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 128.
12. Hooper, p. 226.
13. Ibid., p. 121.
14. Ibid., p. 120.
15. Pompey 48 and Caesar 14, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, pp. 207, 257.
16. Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, 2.35, translated by S. A. Handford, revised by Jane F. Gardner (1982), p. 73.
17. Caesar 20, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 263.
18. Caesar 21, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 265.
19. Acton Griscom, The Historia Regum Britannia of Geoffrey of Monmouth (1929), p. 221.
20. Caesar, Conquest of Gaul, 5.14, p. 111.
21. Ibid., 4.36, p. 103.
22. Plutarch, quoted in Hooper, p. 273.
23. Caesar 28, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 271.
24. Caesar 32–33, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 276.
25. Caesar 35, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 279.
26. Plutarch, Antony, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 487.
27. Clayton, p. 216.
28. Pompey 79–80, Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, pp. 240–241.
29. Harriet I. Flower, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2004), p. 328.
30. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus, translated by Clayton M. Hall (1923).
31. Suetonius, The Deified Julius Caesar 82, in Lives of the Caesars, translated by Catharine Edwards (2000), p. 39.
Chapter Seventy-Nine Empire
1. Suetonius, The Deified Julius Caesar 83, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 39.
2. Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 586.
3. Ibid., p. 587.
4. Plutarch, Antony, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 490–491.
5. Ibid., p. 491.
6. Ibid., p. 492.
7. Suetonius, The Deified Augustus 16, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 49.
8. Plutarch, Antony, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 496.
9. Suetonius, The Deified Augustus 16, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 50.
10. Hooper, p. 305.
11. Chris Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (1995), p. 18.
12. Hooper, p. 331.
13. Mackay, p. 184.
14. Hooper, pp. 332–333; Mackay, p. 185.
15. Res Gestae, ll.38–41, 58, in The Monumentum Ancyranum, translated by E. G. Hardy (1923).
16. Ibid., ll.74–80, 85–87.
17. Mackay, p. 185.
18. Suetonius, The Deified Augustus 79, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 84.
19. Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome, 1.1.
20. Garthwaite, p. 80.
21. Suetonius, Augustus 31, in The New Testament Background: Selected Documents, edited by C. K. Barrett, p. 5.
22. Hooper, p. 334.
23. Suetonius, Tiberius, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 131.
24. Garthwaite, p. 80.
25. Suetonius, The Deified Augustus 98, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 95.
Chapter Eighty Eclipse and Restoration
1. Twitchett and Loewe, p. 225.
2. Clyde Bailey Sargent, trans. Wang Mang: A Translation of the Official Account of His Rise to Power (1977), p. 55.
3. Ibid., p. 178.
4. Hucker, p. 129.
5. Ban Gu, historian of the Former Han, quoted in J. A. G. Roberts, p. 57.
6. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 57.
7. Paludan, p. 45.
8. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 59.
9. Michael, p. 82.
10. Fenton, p. 141.
Chapter Eighty-One The Problem of Succession
1. Suetonius, Tiberius 25, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 111.
2. Ibid.
3. Suetonius, Tiberius 43, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 119.
4. Suetonius, Tiberius 75, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 134.
5. Acts of Thomas, 2.4.
6. Ibid., 1.16.
7. Rom. 6:8–14, NIV.
8. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, ii.184–203.
9. Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome, 12.62, 280.
10. I. A. Richmond, Roman Britain (1978), p. 30.
11. Ibid., p. 33.
12. Dio Cassius, Roman History (1916), 62.16–1.
13. Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome, 15.44.
14. Sulpicius Severus, “The Sacred History of Sulpicius Severus,” in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, vol. 11, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (1974), book 2, chapter 29.
15. Suetonius, Nero 57, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 227.
16. Suetonius, Galba, in Lives of the Caesars, pp. 236–237.
17. Hooper, p. 393.
Chapter Eighty-Two The Edges of the Roman World
1. Hooper, p. 403.
2. Pliny, Letter 6.20 in The Letters of the Younger Pliny (1963).
3. De Vita Caesarum: Domitianus, in Suetonius, edited by J. C. Rolfe (1914), vol. 2, 339–385.
4. Domitian 13, in Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, sec. 13, p. 289.
5. Tacitus, “Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola,” in Complete Works of Tacitus, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (1964), pp. 707–708.
6. Scarre, p. 83.
7. Scarre, p. 88.
8. Trajan, in Anthony Birley, Lives of the Later Caesars (1976), p. 44.
9. Epictetus, “Discourses 4,” in Discourses, Books 3 and 4, translated by P. E. Matheson (2004), i. 128–131.
10. Dio Cassius, Roman History, p. lxix.
11. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, translated by A. C. McGiffert, 1890.
12. Ibid.
Chapter Eighty-Three Children on the Throne
1. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 60.
2. Hucker, p. 131.
3. J. A. G. Roberts, p. 60.
4. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 60.
5. Hucker, p. 131.
6. Michael, p. 84.
7. Ibid.
Chapter Eighty-Four The Mistake of Inherited Power
1. Scarre, p. 110.
2. Marcus Antoninus 2, in Birley, p. 110.
3. Birley, Marcus Antoninus 7, in Birley, p. 115.
4. Birley, Marcus Antoninus 12, in Birley, p. 122.
5. Birley, Marcus Antoninus 17, in Birley, p. 125.
6. Marcus Aurelius, The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, translated by George Long (1909), 6.2.
7. Ibid., 30.
8. Marcus Antoninus 28, in Birley, p. 136.
9. Scarre, p. 122.
10. Commodus 9, in Birley, p. 170.
11. Commodus 16, in Birley, p. 175.
12. Rafe de Crespigny, trans., To Establish Peace, vol. 1 (1996), p. xi.
13. Ibid., p. 17.
14. Michael, p. 133; Paludan, p. 55.
15. de Crespigny, vol. 1, p.xxxviii.
16. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 396.
17. Hucker, p. 133.
18. Caracallus 2, in Birley, p. 251.
19. Caracallus 4, in Birley, p. 253.
20. Darab Dastur Peshotan Sanjana. The Kârnâmê î Artakhshîr î Pâpakân, Being the Oldest Surviving Records of the Zoroastrian Emperor Ardashîr Bâbakân, the Founder of the Sâsânian Dynasty in Irân (1896), 1.6.
21. Scarre, p. 147.
22. Birley, Heliogabalus 5, in Birley, p. 293.
Chapter Eighty-Five Savior of the Empire
1. al-Mas’udi, El Masudi’s Historical Encyclopedia, Entitled “Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems,” Book 2 (1841).
2. Curtis, p. 61.
3. “Yasna 12: The Zoroastrian Creed,” translated by Joseph H. Peterson (electronic text at www.avesta.org, 1997), sections 1, 3, 9.
4. Jordanes, The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, translated by Charles C. Mierow (1908), 1.9.
5. Jordanes, 2.20.
6. Lactantius, “Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died,” in The Anti-Nicene Fathers, vol. 7: Fathers of the Third and Fourth Centuries, edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (1974).
7. Ibid.
8. Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History, translated by John Selby Watson (Bohn, 1853), 9.13.
9. Ibid., 9.14.
10. Scarre, p. 193.
11. Eusebius, “The Oration of the Emperor Constantine,” 24, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. I, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (1974).
12. Eutropius, 9.18.
13. Ibid., 9.18.
14. Ibid., 9.20.
15. Lactantius, “On the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died.”
16. Ibid.
17. Eutropius, 9.23.
18. Ibid., 9.27.
19. Eusebius, “Life of Constantine,” in Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, Second Series, vol. 1, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (1974), 26.
20. Ibid., 28, 29.
21. Ibid., 38.