ZAWIYET UMM EL-RAKHAM. Fortress, 25 kilometers west of Mersa Matruh. Recent excavations have indicated that the fort was considerably larger than the 80 × 100 meters that were cleared by Labib Habachi. It was probably the farthest west of a chain of fortresses built in the reign of Ramesses II, extending from Memphis along the edge of the Delta and the coast at approximately 50 kilometer intervals. Others in the line stood at Alamein, Gharbaniyat, Karm Abu-Girg, and Rakote (later Alexandria). The fortress appears to have been built to control the movement of Libyans along the coast because it stands at a controlling point and had a large well within its walls. The fort stands close to the later town of Paraitonion, which marked the westernmost limit of Egypt in the Ptolemaic period.
ZENOBIA (SEPTIMIA) (reigned 267–272 AD). Zenobia (the Aramaic form of the name is Bath Zabbai) was the wife of Septimius Odaenathus, who made himself king of Palmyra in circa 250 AD. Odaenathus established himself as protector of the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire against the threat from the Sasanid Empire in Persia and was honored by the Roman emperor, Gallienus (253–268 AD), with the titles dux and corrector totius orientis. Odenaethus in practice ruled the whole eastern provinces from Egypt to Asia Minor, but always acknowledged the superiority of the Roman emperor. Following the death of Odenaethus, in a family dispute (267 AD), his widow, Zenobia, seized power in the name of their son, Septimius Vaballathus. Her rule was initially tolerated by the emperors Gallienus and Claudius II Gothicus (268–70 AD) as long as she maintained the frontier.
Zenobia moved to establish an independent empire, taking Egypt and much of Asia Minor. Zenobia was invited into Egypt by Tima-genes early in the reign of Claudius II (268 AD), bringing an army of 70,000 under the command of Zabdas. Following Roman resistance, the Palmyrenes withdrew, leaving a garrison of 5,000, but these, too, were forced out by the Roman general, Probus. Zabdas and Tima-genes returned, but were defeated by Probus, who attempted to cut off their retreat near the fortress of Babylon. However, Timagenes had superior local knowledge and the Palmyrenes ultimately gained the victory. Probus committed suicide.
Between 270 and 272 AD, Zenobia and Vaballathus are named as the power holders in Egyptian documents. On the death of Claudius II in 270 AD, Vaballathus was given increasingly exalted titles and declared by Zenobia to be the junior colleague of the new emperor, Aurelian (270–75 AD). However, his position in the west consolidated, Aurelian led his armies against Zenobia, who now proclaimed her son Augustus and herself Augusta (272 AD). Aurelian defeated her armies at Antioch and Emesa, then besieged Zenobia within Palmyra, where she was captured. Her life was spared.
In spring 273 AD, Aurelian was back in the east to deal with a further rebellion in Palmyra and another, apparently related, in Egypt where the Palmyrenes allied themselves with the Blemmyes, confining Roman authority to Alexandria. In Upper Egypt, Palmyrene archers were stationed at Koptos. Aurelian forced the Palmyrenes and adherents into the Brucheion, a suburb of Alexandria, where they were besieged and eventually forced by hunger to capitulate. Aurelian destroyed the walls of Alexandria.