CHRONOLOGY

753 BC

Traditional date for foundation of Rome by Romulus.

509

Expulsion of Rome’s last king, Tarquinius Superbus, and the creation of the Republic.

332–321

Alexander the Great visits Egypt and founds Alexandria.

323

Death of Alexander the Great. Ptolemy I becomes satrap of Egypt.

305–304

Ptolemy I declares himself king.

305-283/282

Reign of Ptolemy I Soter

282

Death of Ptolemy I, accession of Ptolemy II.

282-246

Reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus

273

Ptolemy II sends ambassadors to Rome, establishing friendly relations and encouraging trade.

246

Death of Ptolemy II.

246-221

Reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes I

221

Death of Ptolemy III.

221-204

Reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator

217

Ptolemy IV defeats Seleucids at the Battle of Raphia.

205

First Macedonian War between Rome and Philip V of Macedon ends in a peace treaty.

204

Death of Ptolemy IV.

204-181/180

Reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes

201

Rome wins the Second Punic War with Carthage.

197

Romans defeat King Philip V of Macedon at the Battle of Cynoscephale.

196

Second Macedonian War between Rome and Philip V ends in his defeat. Rosetta Stone set up recording decree of Ptolemy V.

189

Rome defeats the Seleucid Antiochus III in the Syrian War at the Battle of Magnesia.

181 /180

Death of Ptolemy V.

180-164

First reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor

170-163

First reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon as co-ruler

168

Rome defeats Perseus of Macedón in the Third Macedonian War at the Battle of Pydna. His kingdom is dissolved. Roman embassy forces Antiochus IV to withdraw his army from Egypt.

164

Ptolemy VI flees to Rome and appeals unsuccessfully to the Senate.

163

Ptolemy VIII flees to Rome and appeals unsuccessfully to the Senate.

163-145

Second reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor

163–145

Ptolemy VIII controls Cyrenaica.

154

Ptolemy VIII tries to occupy Cyprus, but is captured and returned to Cyrenaica.

146

Third Punic War ends with destruction of Carthage.

145

Ptolemy VI killed intervening in civil war in Syria.

145/144

Reign of Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator

145 /144

Ptolemy VII murdered by Ptolemy VIII.

145-116

Second reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon

123–122

Tribunates and death of Caius Sempronius Gracchus.

116-101

Reign of Cleopatra III Euergetis

116-107

First reign of Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II Lathyrus with Cleopatra III

113

Marcus Antonius (Antony’s grandfather) elected quaestor. He is tried and exonerated on a charge of seducing a Vestal Virgin.

107-103/102

First reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I with Cleopatra III

107–106

Ptolemy IX forced out of Egypt, and gains, loses and retakes Cyprus.

104–100

Five successive consulships for Caius Marius, who campaigns against and defeats the migrating Cimbri and Teutones.

103/102

Cleopatra III expels Ptolemy X from Egypt.

102–100

Marcus Antonius serves as praetor and governs Cilicia, where he campaigns successfully against pirates and is awarded a triumph.

101

Ptolemy X returns to Alexandria and murders Cleopatra III.

101-87

Second reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I with Cleopatra Berenice

100

Political violence in Rome as the tribune Saturninus is suppressed. Birth of Julius Caesar.

99

Consulship of Marcus Antonius.

97–93

Censorship of Marcus Antonius and Lucius Valerius Flaccus.

91—88

The Social War, the last great rebellion by Rome’s Italian allies.

88

Sulla marches his legions on Rome and seizes the city.

87

Marius occupies Rome. Marcus Antonius murdered. Ptolemy X expelled from Alexandria. Ptolemy X killed in naval battle.

87-81/80

Second reign of Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II Lathyrus

83 (or 86)

Birth of Mark Antony.

83–81

Sulla returns from the east and wins the civil war, making himself dictator.

81/80

Death of Ptolemy IX. For some months Cleopatra Berenice (daughter of Ptolemy IX and niece and widow of Ptolemy X) is sole ruler.

81/80

Reign of Cleopatra Berenice

80

Ptolemy XI (son of Ptolemy X), returns to Egypt. He marries and then murders Cleopatra Berenice.

80

Reign of Ptolemy XI Alexander II

80

Ptolemy XI killed by mob. Ptolemy XII (illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX) seizes power.

80-58

First reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes

78

Unsuccessful coup of the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (father of the triumvir).

74

Marcus Antonius (father of Antony) serves as praetor and is given an extraordinary command against the pirates.

73–71

Slave rebellion in Italy led by Spartacus, eventually suppressed by Crassus.

72

Marcus Antonius defeated by the pirates. He is ironically dubbed Creticus, but dies before returning to Rome.

71 or later?

Antony’s mother Julia marries Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura and Antony is raised in his house.

70

Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Censors expel Lentulus and Antony’s uncle, Caius Antonius, from the Senate.

69

Birth of Cleopatra.

63

Conspiracy of Catiline. Lentulus arrested and executed by Cicero after the Senate has passed the senatus consultum ultimum.

59

First consulship of Julius Caesar and dominance of the first triumvirate, his alliance with Pompey and Crassus. Ptolemy XII recognised as king and friend of the Roman people after paying them a heavy bribe.

58

Tribunate of Clodius. Roman annexation of Cyprus and suicide of Ptolemy (younger brother of Ptolemy XII). Ptolemy XII flees Alexandria and goes to Rome. His daughter Berenice IV is appointed queen.

58-55

Reign of Berenice IV

57

Aulus Gabinius made proconsul of Syria. He recruits Antony to command some or all of his cavalry.

57–56

Gabinius and Antony campaign in Judaea.

55

Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Ptolemy XII Auletes persuades Gabinius to restore him to his throne. Antony plays a conspicuous role in the expedition to Egypt. Auletes is restored and executes Berenice IV.

55-51

Second reign of Ptolemy XII Auletes

54

Crassus appointed proconsul of Syria and begins invasion of Parthia. Gabinius returns to Rome and is tried on several charges and eventually forced into exile. Late in the year Antony joins Caesar in Gaul.

53

Crassus defeated and killed by Parthians at Carrhae. Antony goes to Rome to campaign for election to the quaestorship. Elections delayed by political violence. Antony attempts to kill Clodius.

52

Clodius murdered. Pompey made sole consul to restore order. Antony elected quaestor. He returns to Gaul and serves at the siege of Alesia.

51

Death of Ptolemy XII Auletes. He is initially succeeded by Cleopatra ruling alone. Antony commands a legion during punitive expeditions in Gaul.

51-49/48

First reign of Cleopatra VII

50

Cleopatra forced to accept her brother Ptolemy XIII as coruler. Antony returns to Rome to seek election as augur and as tribune. Tribunate of Curio. Political tension heightens as his enemies attempt to have Caesar recalled from Gaul and prevent him from going straight into a second consulship. Antony becomes augur and tribune elect.

49

Antony’s tribunate. The Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum. Antony, his colleague, Cassius and Curio flee Rome and hurry to Caesar. Caesar invades Italy to start civil war. Antony serves with Caesar as he overruns Italy. Pompey retreats to Greece. Antony left as tribune with propraetorian imperium to administer Italy. Caesar defeats Pompeian forces in Spain. Curio takes Sicily, but is killed in Africa.

49/48

Cleopatra flees from Egypt and raises an army.

48

Caesar’s second consulship. He leads invasion of Macedonia. Several months later he is joined by Antony and reinforcements. They are repulsed at Dyrrachium, but win a decisive victory at Pharsalus. Cleopatra leads invasion of Egypt, but is confronted by Ptolemy XIII’s army. Pompey arrives in Egypt and is murdered. Caesar arrives, demands money and declares that he will arbitrate in the dispute between the siblings. Caelius and Milo rebel in Italy and are killed.

48–47

Alexandrian War. Briefrule of Arsinoe. Death of Ptolemy XIII. Arsinoe captured and taken to Rome. Cleopatra rules jointly with younger brother Ptolemy XIV. In his absence, Caesar made dictator for a year, with Antony as his Master of Horse. The latter administers Italy. Caesar and Cleopatra cruise the Nile. Birth of Caesarion.

48-30

Second reign of Cleopatra VII

47

Tribunate of Dolabella. Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum, but only when Antony brings troops into Rome is the tribune suppressed. Caesar returns after Zela campaign.

46

Caesar’s third consulship, with Lepidus as colleague. Antony holds no formal office and perhaps out of favour. Dolabella taken by Caesar to Africa. Caesar wins African War at Thapsus. He is made dictator for ten years, with Lepidus as Master of Horse. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visit Rome and their rule is formally recognised. Caesar celebrates four triumphs. Arsinoe appears in the Egyptian triumph.

45

Caesar’s fourth consulship. Caesar wins Spanish War at Munda and returns to celebrate triumph. Antony publicly restored to favour and named as consul for the next year. Caesar made dictator for life. Twenty-four-hour consulship of Caninius Rebilus on 31 December.

45 /44

Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV visit Rome again.

44

Caesar consul for the fifth time with Antony as colleague. In February, Antony plays a controversial role at the Lupercal. Caesar is murdered on 15 March. Dolabella becomes colleague. Antony rallies crowd against conspirators at Caesar’s funeral. Cleopatra returns to Egypt. Death/murder of Ptolemy XIV. Ptolemy Caesarion made co-ruler with Cleopatra VII. Antony seeks to build up own power on the basis of Caesar’s notebooks. Cicero begins to deliver the Philippics. Octavian arrives in Rome and accepts Caesar’s legacy. Antony goes to Cisapline Gaul and besieges Decimus Brutus at Mutina.

43

Octavian joins the consuls Hirtius and Pansa to defeat Antony, who retreats into Transalpine Gaul. Hirtius killed in battle and Pansa dies of wounds. Brutus seizes power in Macedonia and arrests Caius Antonius. Cassius seizes power in Syria. Dolabella defeated and commits suicide. Antony and Lepidus join forces. Octavian made consul in November. Octavian joins Antony and Lepidus to form the triumvirate. Decimus Brutus captured and executed. Caius Antonius is executed in reprisal. The triumvirs occupy Rome and begin proscriptions. Cicero is one of the victims.

42

Julius Caesar deified. Both sides prepare for war. Cleopatra’s subordinate in Cyprus aids Cassius, but the queen unsuccessfully attempts to take a squadron of ships to join the triumvirs. The two battles of Philippi are fought in October. Cassius and Brutus defeated and commit suicide. Antony placed in charge of the eastern provinces. Octavian returns to Italy. Power of Sextus Pompey steadily grows, allowing him to blockade Italy.

41

Antony levies taxes and appoints leaders throughout the east. Herod and his brother made tetrarchs in Judaea. Antony summons Cleopatra to Tarsus and they become lovers. Lucius Antonius consul and begins to agitate against Octavian. Arsinoe executed at Ephesus.

41–40

Antony and Cleopatra winter in Alexandria. Perusine War breaks out in Italy, with Lucius Antonius and Fulvia rallying Antony’s veterans and dispossessed farmers against Octavian. Antony’s commanders fail to intervene effectively and Lucius is besieged in Perusia. He surrenders and is sent to govern Spain, where he dies. Fulvia and Antony’s mother Julia flee to Athens.

40

Cleopatra gives birth to the twins, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Parthians and their ally Labienus invade and occupy Syria. Labienus invades Asia Minor. Parthians support an attack on Judaea. Hyrcanus deposed. Herod escapes to Egypt, but declines offer of employment from Cleopatra. He goes to Rome. Antony travels to Athens, where he repudiates Fulvia. He sails to Italy and is joined by the Republican Domitius Ahenobarbus. They are refused admission to Brundisium and begin a siege. Reluctance of soldiers to fight each other encourages negotiation and leads to the Treaty of Brundisium. Lepidus marginalised. Octavian and Antony renew their alliance and the latter marries Octavia.

39

Negotiations with Sextus Pompey to relieve the blockade of Italy lead to the Peace of Misenum.

39–38

Antony and Octavia spend winter in Athens. Ventidius Bassus defeats Labienus and the Parthian prince Pacorus in a series of battles, reconquering Asia and Syria.

38

Octavian marries Livia. Renewal of conflict between Octavian and Sextus Pompey. Sextus wins two sea battles. Antony comes to Italy for a meeting, but Octavian fails to turn up. Antony goes to the east and takes over siege of Samosata, which eventually surrenders.

37

Antony again travels to Tarentum. This time negotiations occur and result in the Pact of Tarentum. Antony returns to the east, but sends the pregnant Octavia back to Italy. He appoints several client kings, including Herod, Polemo, Archelaus and Amyntas of Galatia. Antony summons Cleopatra to Antioch and they renew their affair.

36

Sextus Pompey wins another victory, but is then decisively beaten at Naulochos. Lepidus attempts to seize control of Sicily and is deposed, his legions defecting to Octavian. Antony leads disastrous expedition to Media. Cleopatra gives birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus. Antony returns to the Mediterranean coast and summons Cleopatra.

35

Sextus Pompey flees to Asia and is killed. Antony spends winter in Alexandria. Octavia arrives with praetorians and supplies for the army. These are taken, but she is told to return to Italy.

35 —33

Octavian campaigns in the Balkans.

34

Antony consul for the second time, but remains in the east and resigns after a day. Antony leads small expedition to Armenia and captures King Artavasdes, probably through treachery. He is taken back to Alexandria and led in a Dionysiac procession into the city. The Donations of Alexandria occur soon afterwards.

33

Octavian consul for the second time, but resigns after a day. Agrippa is aedile and continues his extensive building and amenities programme in Rome. Octavian and his supporters begin more open criticism and attacks on Antony. Antony’s army concentrates on the Euphrates, but then he orders it to march to Asia Minor and begins to concentrate his forces in Greece. Antony and Cleopatra spend winter in Ephesus. Powers of the triumvirate formally lapse at end of the year. Octavian pretends to obey this. Antony ignores it and continues to use the title, but talks of laying it down in the future.

32

Domitius Ahenobarbus and Sosius consuls and begin attacks on Octavian. He replies and they flee to Antony. Antony and Cleopatra visit Samos and then Athens. Antony divorces Octavia. Munatius Plancus defects to Octavian. Octavian takes Antony’s will from the Temple of Vesta and has it read publicly. The communities of Italy take an oath of personal loyalty to Octavian. War declared on Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra station their forces along the western coast, with their headquarters at Patrae.

31

Octavian consul for the third time. Agrippa captures Methone and then raids as far as Corcyra. Octavian lands in Epirus and moves south to threaten Actium. Antony concentrates at Actium, but comes under blockade after Agrippa captures Leucas, Patrae and Corinth. Antony attempts to break out on 2 September, resulting in the Battle of Actium. Most of his fleet and all his army are abandoned and soon defect or are captured. Antony’s legions in Cyrenaica defect to Octavian. He and Cleopatra return to Alexandria. Octavian returns to Italy to deal with mutinous troops and other unrest.

30

Octavian invades Egypt from the east, while Cornelius Gallus invades from the west. Antony’s forces defect or are defeated. He kills himself on 1 August. Cleopatra captured by Octavian and there is a period of negotiation. She kills herself on 10 August. Antyllus dragged from the Caesareum and killed. Caesarion betrayed and killed.

29

Octavian returns to Rome and becomes consul for the fourth time. He celebrates three triumphs. Antony and Cleopatra’s children are amongst the prisoners in the Egyptian triumph.

27

Octavian given the name Augustus.

c. 20

King Juba II of Mauretania marries Cleopatra Selene.

13

Death of Lepidus.

12

Octavian becomes Pontifex Maximus. Death of Agrippa.

2

Julia exiled. Iullus executed.

14

ADDeath of Augustus.

37–41

Reign of Caligula.

40

King Ptolemy of Mauretania (son of Juba and Cleopatra Selene) executed by Caligula.

41–54

Reign of Claudius.

54–68

Reign of Nero.