NOTES

INTRODUCTION

¹ Plutarch, Caesar 15 for the figures of 1 million dead and as many enslaved during the Gallic campaigns.

² Quote from P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 664.

³ In just the last few years, several biographies of Cleopatra were published, including J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (hardback 2008, paperback 2009), J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (hardback 2008, paperback 2009) and the briefer S. Ashton, Cleopatra and Egypt (2008), which followed on from the same author’s The Last Queens of Egypt (2003). Other recent offerings include S. Burnstein, The Reign of Cleopatra (2004), and E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999). There were also two biographies of the couple: D. Preston & M. Preston, Cleopatra and Antony (2008), which notably reversed the usual order of their names to emphasise Cleopatra, and P. Southern, Antony and Cleopatra (hardback 2007, paperback 2009), which was based on earlier individual biographies of the couple by the same author. There have been no biographies dedicated to Antony since P. Southern, Mark Antony (1998), and A. Roberts, Mark Antony: His Life and Times (1988), and books devoted to Cleopatra have always been far more common. The same is true of TV documentaries.

⁴ R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939, paperback 1960) remains one of the most important studies of this period. Writing as fascist dictators in Germany and Italy threatened a new World War, he had little taste for Octavian. This encouraged a generosity in his treatment of Antony — ‘the frank and chivalrous soldier’, Syme (1960), p. 104.

⁵ For general studies of the Hellenistic period, see F. Walbank, The Hellenistic World (3rd edn, 1992), G. Shipley, The Greek World after Alexander 323–30 BC (2000), and Green (1990).

⁶ Both Tyldesley and Fletcher are Egyptologists, and naturally develop these threads more strongly and in greater detail than Greek or Roman elements. For instance, note the allusions to Hatshepsut, who ruled as a female pharaoh in the fifteenth century BC, in Tyldesley (2009), pp.45, 121, Fletcher (2008), pp.43, 82–83, 86, and the particular concern for traditional iconography. This in itself is no bad thing and particularly valuable to Classicists who lack knowledge of earlier Egyptian history. The danger is that it comes to dominate the narrative of Cleopatra’s own times and culture. Ashton has more of a background in Classics, but openly chose to emphasise the Egyptian aspects of the queen, feeling that these had been neglected, and wanted ‘to consider her as a ruler of Egypt, not as a Greek monarch’ — Ashton (2008), p. 3, cf. p. 1. Her study focused in particular on representations of the queen in art.

⁷ P. van Minnen, ‘An Official Act of Cleopatra (with a Subscription in her Own Hand)’, Ancient Society 30 (2000), pp.29–34.

⁸ Plutarch, see the excellent commentary provided by C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988).

⁹ The comment was made by W Tarn, in S. Cook, F. Adcock & M. Charlesworth (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. X: The Augustan Empire 44 BC—AD 70 (1934, reprinted with corrections 1952), p. 111–‘For Rome, who had never condescended to fear any nation or people, did in her time fear two human beings; one was Hannibal, and the other was a woman.’

I THE Two LANDS

¹ An Egyptian priest named Manetho drew up the list of pharaohs as part of a history he wrote in Greek at the request of Ptolemy II. It survives only in fragments quoted in much later sources, see D. Mendels, ‘The Ptolemaic Character of Manetho’s Aegyptica’,in H. Verdin, G. Schepens & E. De Keyser, Purposes of History: Proceeding of the International Colloquim — Leuven, 24–26 May 1988 (1990), pp.91–110. For earlier Egyptian history in general, a useful introduction is 1. Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (2000).

² For claims about the size of Egypt’s population, see Josephus, BJ 2. 385, Diodorus Siculus 1. 31. 6–9, with R. Bagnall & B. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt (1994), T. Parkin, Demography and Roman Society (1992), W Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age, and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in Ancient Demography, JRA Supplementary Series 21 (1996), and D. Rathbone, ‘Villages, Land and Population in Graeco-Roman Egypt’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 36 (1990), pp.103–142.

³ See F. Dunand & C. Zivie-Coche, Gods and Men in Egypt 3000 BCE to 395 CE (trans. D. Lorton) (2002), esp. pp.197–199.

⁴ Plutarch, Caesar 11, Suetonius, Caesar 7. 1–2, and Dio 37. 52. 2.

⁵ P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.3–7, and F. Walbank, The Hellenistic World (3rd edn with amendments, 1992), pp.29–45.

⁶ For discussion and sources see Green, (1990), pp.3–20.

⁷ J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), p. 24.

⁸ For Ptolemy I’s career see W Ellis, Ptolemy of Egypt (1994); on language see W Clarysee, ‘Ethnic Diversity and Dialect among the Greeks of Egypt’, in A. Verhoogt & S. Vleeming (eds.), The Two Faces of Graeco-Roman Egypt: Greek and Demotic and Greek-Demotic Texts and Studies Presented to P. W. Pestman (1998), pp.1–13.

⁹ For introductory discussion of what happened at Siwah see P. Cartledge, Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past (2004), pp.265–270.

¹⁰ Walbank, (1992), pp.108–110.

¹¹ W Scheidel, Death on the Nile: Disease and the Demography of Roman Egypt (2001), pp.184–248.

¹² R. Bagnall, ‘Greeks and Egyptians: Ethnicity, Status and Culture’, in R. Bianchi (ed.), Cleopatra’s Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies (1988), pp.21–25, N. Lewis, Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World (1986), pp.26–35, 69–87 and 124–154; the soldier’s will, see W. Clarysee, ‘Greeks and Egyptians in the Ptolemaic Army and Administration’, Aegyptus 65 (1985), pp.57–66, esp. 65.

¹³ Lewis (1986), pp.104–123, and Clarysee (1985), pp.57–66.

II THE ‘SHE-WOLF ’: ROME’S REPUBLIC

¹ A. Lampela, Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt: The Development of their Political Relations 273–80 BC (1998), pp.50–51, E. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome. Vol. 2 (1984), pp.672–719, esp. 673–678, and P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.146 and 231.

² Gruen (1984), pp.674–677.

³ F. Walbank, The Hellenistic World (3rd impression, 1992), pp.228–240. There was brief reluctance on the part of the Roman people to vote for war so soon after the end of the Second Punic War. This reluctance was quickly overcome, see Livy 31. 5–9.

⁴ Polybius 1. 1. 5 (Loeb translation by W. Paton (1922)).

⁵ On the development of the army see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp.14–63, and in general F. Adcock, The Roman Art of War under the Republic (1940), P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), and E. Gabba, The Roman Republic, the Army and the Allies (trans. P. Cuff)(1976).

⁶ E. Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972).

⁷ For the economic impact of imperialism see K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978); on the wine trade see B. Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), pp.59–105, esp. p. 74, N. Roymans, Tribal Societies in Northern Gaul: An Anthropological Perspective, Cingula 12 (1990), pp.147–167, and A. Tchernia, ‘Italian Wine in Gaul at the End of the Republic’, in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins & C. Whittaker (eds.), Trade in the Ancient Economy (1983), pp.87–104.

⁸ Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 9 (Penguin translation by 1. Scott-Kilvert (1965)).

⁹ Catullus 10; Cicero, Verrines 1. 40.

¹⁰ See M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007) for a detailed discussion of triumphs, emphasising in particular the variations in ritual.

III THE PTOLEMIES

¹ For spear-won land and the nature of Hellenistic kingship see P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.5, 187, 194, 198 and 367, and N. Hammond, ‘The Macedonian Imprint on the Hellenistic World’, in P. Green (ed.), Hellenistic History and Culture (1993), pp.12–37.

² See J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.15–30, esp. 18–19; for stories that Philip was his father see Curtius 9. 8. 22, Pausanius 1. 6. 2.

³ R. Bianchi, Cleopatra’s Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies (1988), pp.29–39, F. Dunand & C. Zivie-Coche, Gods and Men in Egypt 3000 BCE to 395 BCE (trans. D. Lorton) (2002), pp.197— 341, esp. pp.199–210, N. Lewis, Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World (1986), pp.4–5, and M. Chauveau, Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra (trans. D. Lorton) (2000), pp.37–39, 100–109; on the return of objects taken by the Persians see J. Winnicki, ‘Carrying off and Bringing Home the Statues of the Gods’, Journal of Juristic Papyrology 24 (1994), pp.149–190.

⁴ Diodorus Siculus 20. 100. 3–4, with Green (1990), pp.32–33.

⁵ In general see A. Erskine, ‘Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria’, Greece & Rome 42 (1995), pp.38–48, and G. Shipley, The Greek World after Alexander 323–30 BC (2000), p. 243; on the aggressive acquisition of books see Galen, Comm. In Hipp.Epid. 111, CMG 5. 10. 2. 1, pp.78–79.

⁶ See Shipley (2000), p. 139.

⁷ For Arsinoe in general see S. Pomeroy, Women in Hellenistic Egypt (1984), pp.14–20, and Bingen (2007), pp.30–31.

⁸ Polybius 5. 34. 1–11, 15. 25. 1– 33.13.

⁹ Polybius 5. 107. 1–3, and in general Shipley (2000), pp.203–205.

¹⁰ M. Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation (1981), p. 227.

¹¹ Polybius 15. 20. 1–2.

¹² Polybius 29. 27. 1–11, Livy 45. 12. 3–8.

¹³ Green (1990), pp.442–446.

¹⁴ Green (1990), pp.537–543, Pomeroy (1984), pp.23–24, and Chauveau (2000), pp.14–16.

¹⁵ Polybius 34. 14. 1–7, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 12.

¹⁶ Lewis (1986), pp.15–20 and 29–30, A. Samuel, From Athens to Alexandria: Hellenism and Social Goals in Ptolemaic Egypt (1983), pp.110–117, and Shipley (2000), pp.232–234; for the Potter’s Oracle see S. Burnstein, The Reign of Cleopatra (2004), pp.142–143.

¹⁷ See Green (1990), pp.158–160.

¹⁸ Diodorus 33. 28b.1–3, Athenaeus 6. 273a.

IV THE ORATOR, THE SPENDTHRIFT AND THE PIRATES

¹ On childbirth in this period see B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), esp. pp.99–113; for an especially poignant tombstone see that of ‘Ertola, properly called Vellibia, who lived most happily four years and sixty days’ from Corbridge, which is decorated with a child-like carving of the little girl playing with a ball, RIB 1181. There was also a tradition of very specific ages, even for adults, on tombstones in some parts of Italy.

² For a general survey of the significance of Roman names see B. Salway, ‘What’s in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from 700 BC—AD 700’, JRS 84 (1994), pp.124–145, esp. pp.124–131.

³ Cicero, Brutus 138–141 (Loeb translation).

⁴ Valerius Maximus 3. 7. 9, 6. 8. 1, and see E. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149–78 BC (1968), pp.127–132.

⁵ For Mithridates and his wars with Rome see P. Matyszak, Mithridates the Great: Rome’s Indomitable Enemy (2008), and A. Mayor, The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithridates (2009).

⁶ For Marius’ career see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp.113–136, and for more detail R. Evans, Gaius Marius (1994); for Sulla see A. Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (1982).

⁷ Appian, BC 1. 72, Plutarch, Marius 44, Valerius Maximus 8. 9. 2.

⁸ Valerius Maximus 9. 2. 2 (Loeb translation by D. Shackleton Bailey); heads displayed on the Rostra by Marius see Livy, Pers. 80.

⁹ It has sometimes been suggested that Antony was born in 86 BC, but the evidence is not convincing; 83 BC is now universally accepted.

¹⁰ Plutarch, Sulla 31; on the proscriptions see Keaveney (1982), pp.148–168, Appian, BC 1. 95, and Velleius Paterculus 2. 31. 3–4.

¹¹ Plutarch, Sulla 38.

¹² Plutarch, Antony 1, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.117–120, Sallust, Histories 3. 3.

¹³ P. Asconius 259, cf. Plutarch, Lucullus 5–6.

¹⁴ Velleius Paterculus 2. 31. 4.

¹⁵ On the shortages of supply for Pompey in war with Sertorius see Plutarch, Sertorius 21; on the pirate wars see Cicero, 2 Verrines 2. 2. 8, 3. 213–216, Livy, Pers. 97, Sallust, Histories 3. 4–7, most readily accessible in Sallust: The Histories: Volume 2(translation by P. Mc Gushin) (1994), pp.64–70 and 122–125.

¹⁶ Cicero, Philippics 2. 44.

V THE OBOE PLAYER

¹ P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.480–496, G. Shipley, The Greek World after Alexander 323–30 BC (2000), pp.346–350, F. Walbank, The Hellenistic World (1992), pp.189–190, and M. Chauveau, Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra (trans. D. Lorton) (2000), pp.176–177.

² In general see G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.204–214, and D. Thompson in CAH² IX (1994), pp.310–317; for the inscription see Hölbl (2001), p. 204, fn. 121.

³ Hölbl (2001), pp.210–211, CAH² IX (1994), pp.316–317.

⁴ For thorough discussion see C. Bennett, ‘Cleopatra Tryphaena and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies’, Ancient Society 28 (1997), pp.39–66, esp. 43–45.

⁵ A Ptolemy referred to as boy (puer) by Cicero, De reg. Alex. F9, see discussion in Bennett (1997), pp.47 and 48–51, who argues that this does not refer to Ptolemy XII.

⁶ Sulla sent his quaestor, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, see Plutarch, Lucullus 2. 2–3. 3.

⁷ A visit of a senator in 112 BC is described in some detail in Tebtunis Papyrus 1. 33, see Hölbl (2001), p. 207.

⁸ Cicero, Agr. 1. 1, 2. 41–42, CAH² IX (1994), p. 316; Ptolemy Euergetes II had already willed Cyrene to Rome in 155 BC, although this is not mentioned by any literary source and is known to us through an inscription, SEG 9. 7.

⁹ Cicero, Verrines 2. 4. 61–68.

¹⁰ Hölbl, (2001), pp.223–225, CAH² IX (1994), pp.318–319.

¹¹ The ‘young butcher’, Valerius Maximus 6. 2. 8; for Pompey’s early career in general see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.20–39.

¹² See Plutarch, Crassus 2–3, and A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp.46–57.

¹³ For the campaign against the pirates see Appian, Mithridatic Wars 91–93, Plutarch, Pompey 26–28, and A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp.164–169.

¹⁴ Goldsworthy (2003), pp.169–179.

¹⁵ For gifts to Pompey see Josephus, AJ 14. 35, Appian, Mithridates 114 and Pliny, NH 33. 136; on the attempt to annex Egypt see Plutarch, Crassus 13, Suetonius, Caesar 11 and Dio 37. 9. 3–4; Ward(1977), pp.128–135, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp.39–41.

¹⁶ Cicero, Agr. 2. 43, Hölbl (2001), pp.224–225, and for more detail on the Rullan land bill see Gelzer (1968), pp.42–45, D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.84–91, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic and the founder of the Empire, Vol. 1 (1928), pp.242–249, and Ward (1977), pp.152–162.

¹⁷ Seager (2002), pp.75–85.

¹⁸ On the triumvirate and consulship see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.158–181.

¹⁹ Suetonius, Caesar 54. 3, with M. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp.306–340, esp. 315–316.

²⁰ A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC to AD 1 (1984), pp.268–270, who is sceptical as to whether Cyprus yielded much money in the short term to Rome.

²¹ On attitudes to Romans and the cat incident see Diodorus Siculus 1. 83. 1–9, 1. 44. 1; in general see Siani-Davies (1997), pp.317–322, and Hölbl (2001), pp.225–227.

²² CAH² IX (1994), pp.319–320.

²³ Bennett (1997), pp.63–64.

²⁴ Bennett (1997), pp.57–65; for alternative views see CAH² IX (1994), p. 319, accepting Cleopatra VI as a sister, and Hölbl (2001), p. 227, and Green (1990), pp.650, 901, n. 21 where the co-ruler is her mother; cf. Hölbl (2001), p. 223, asserting that Cleopatra’s mother was an Egyptian concubine, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.3–4, accepting that her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, and J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.52–53, arguing that Cleopatra’s mother was a concubine, but not Egyptian.

²⁵ Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 11 (Loeb translation).

²⁶ For Cleopatra’s possible visit to Italy see G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.128–141, esp. 131–132, backed by Grant (1972), pp.15–16.

VI ADOLESCENT

¹ Plutarch, Antony 2, 20.

² See S. Dixon, The Roman Mother (1988), passim, but esp. pp.13–70; on Cornelia see Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 1. Some have suggested that it was Ptolemy VI, rather than Physcon, who proposed to her.

³ Tacitus Dialogues 28. 6 (Loeb translation by Sir W. Peterson, revised M. Winterbottom (1970), p. 307).

⁴ Cicero, Orator 120; on breastfeeding see K. Bradley, ‘Wet-nursing at Rome: A Study in Social Relations’, in B. Rawson, The Family in Ancient Rome (1986), pp.201–229;on childhood in general see B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), esp. pp.99–113, and on the mother’s role and that of nurses see Dixon (1988), pp.104–167; on education see H. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (1956), pp.229–291, A. Gwynn, Roman Education (1926), esp. pp.1–32; Cicero, de Re Publica 4. 3.

⁵ For an introduction to the client system see R. Saller, Personal Patronage in the Early Empire (1982); for boys accompanying fathers as they went about their business see Gellius, NA 1. 23. 4, Pliny, Epistulae 8. 14. 4–5, and on importance of father’s influence from age of seven see Quintilian 2. 2. 4, and comments in Marrou (1956), pp.231–233.

⁶ Rawson (2003), pp.153–157.

⁷ Cicero, Brutus 138–145, 296, Orator 18, 132; Antonius’ refusal to write down his speeches, Cicero, pro Cluentio 140.

⁸ Plutarch, Antony 2, 4.

⁹ On the expulsions from the Senate in 70 BC see T. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2 (1952), pp.126–127.

¹⁰ For the importance of the Liberalia festival see Ovid, Fasti 3. 771–788; on the sacrifice to Iuventus see Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4. 15. 5; on the ceremonies associated with adopting the toga virilis in general see Rawson (2003), pp.142–144.

¹¹ Cicero, pro Caelio 28–30. Even if Cicero exaggerates, he clearly expected his audience to have some sympathy with this view.

¹² Sallust, Bell. Cat. 12. 1–2 (Loeb translation).

¹³ Cicero, In Catilinam 2. 22 (Loeb translation by C. Mac Donald (1977), p. 91); Hercules, see Plutarch, Antony 4. On the Julii’s descent from Venus see Velleius Paterculus 2. 41. 1, and Suetonius, Caesar 6. 1; for Caesar’s style see Suetonius, Caesar 45. 3.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Antony 2.

¹⁵ Plutarch, Pompey 2.

¹⁶ P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (1986), pp.112–115 and 226–237, and S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), esp. pp.105–106, 232–238, 253–261, 264, 270–275 and 299–319.

¹⁷ Sallust, Bell. Cat. 25.

¹⁸ Suetonius, Caesar 47, 50. 1–52.

¹⁹ Cicero, Philippics 2. 44.

²⁰ Cicero, Philippics 2. 45 –46, Plutarch, Antony 2.

²¹ See Sallust, Bell. Cat. 23. 5–24. 1. For Cicero’s career and election to the consulship see E. Rawson, Cicero (1975), T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), esp. pp.93ff., and D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), esp. pp.71–81; for attitudes to Antonius, see Plutarch, Cicero 11.

²² For Catiline see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 15. 1–5, with E. Salmon, ‘Catiline, Crassus, and Caesar’, American Journal of Philology 56 (1935), pp.302–316, esp. 302–306; E. Hardy, The Catilinarian Conspiracy in its Context: A Re-study of the Evidence (1924), pp.12–20;T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 1 (1928), pp.234–235.

²³ Sallust, Bell. Cat. 14. 1–7, 16. 1–4.

²⁴ Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 3.

²⁵ Sallust, Bell. Cat. 31. 4–48. 2, Rice Holmes (1928), pp.259–272, Stockton (1971), pp.84–109.

²⁶ Plutarch, Antony 2; on the provinces see Cicero, In Pisonem 5, cf. Pro Sestio.8.

²⁷ Sallust, Bell. Cat. 59. 4; see also E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.287–289.

²⁸ Cicero, Philippics 2. 3–4.

²⁹ Cicero, ad Att. 2. 19.

³⁰ On Clodius see Plutarch, Antony 2, Cicero, Philippics 2. 48, with W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999), esp. pp.70 and 235–236, A. Lintott, ‘P. Clodius Pulcher — Felix Catilina’, Greece and Rome 14 (1967), pp.157–169, W Rundell, ‘Cicero and Clodius: The Question of Credibility’, Historia 28 (1979), pp.301–328, and E. Gruen, ‘P. Clodius: Instrument or Independent Agent?’, Phoenix 20 (1966), pp.120–130.

VII THE RETURN OF THE KING

¹ Dio 39. 12. 1–3, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 11, with P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.649–650, and M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.16–19.

² Plutarch, Cato the Younger 6, 35–36; Sallust, Bell. Jug. 35. 10 for quote; for Cicero’s comment about Cato see Cicero, ad Att. 2. 1.

³ Dio 39. 13. 1–14. 4, Cicero, pro Caelio 23–24, with E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.305–309.

⁴ R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.111–112, Plutarch, Pompey 49, Cicero, ad Fam. 1. 1–8.

⁵ Dio 39. 57. 1–2, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. II; see also M. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp.306–340, esp. 323–327, Green (1990), pp.650–652, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.225–229.

⁶ See E. Badian, ‘The Early Career of A. Gabinius (cos. 58 BC)’, Philologus 103 (1958), pp.87–99.

⁷ Plutarch, Antony 3, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.120–122.

⁸ Josephus, BJ 1. 160–178, AJ 14. 27–104, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.233–242 and 267– 269.

⁹ Plutarch, Antony 3, Dio 39. 57. 2–58. 3, Cicero, Philippics 2. 48, pro Rabirio Postumo 19–20, with A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC to AD 1 (1984), pp.271–279 for more detail.

¹⁰ Appian, BC 5. 8.

¹¹ Plutarch, Antony 4, with Pelling (1988), pp.123–126; on Gabinius see Gruen (1974), pp.322–331.

VIII CANDIDATE

¹ Dio 39. 59. 160. 4, 62. 1–63. 5, R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.123–125 and 128–130, E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.323–327.

² Plutarch, Crassus 16, Dio 39. 39. 3–8, with T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 2 (1923), pp.147–148.

³ For a summary of the campaign see T. Wiseman in CAH² IX, pp.402–403.

⁴ Cicero, Philippics 2. 48; Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem 3. 1. 15 for Gabinius’ arrival in Rome.

⁵ Caesar, BG 7. 65; for a discussion of Caesar’s legates see Gruen (1974), pp.114–118.

⁶ Pliny, NH 7. 92, Suetonius, Caesar 54, 71, Plutarch, Caesar 17.

⁷ Caesar first refers to Antony as a legate in Caesar, BG 7. 31, but in BG 8. 2 and subsequently he is a quaestor.

⁸ For officers in Gaul see K. Welch, ‘Caesar and his Officers in the Gallic War Commentaries’, in K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments (1998), pp.85–110; on the public thanksgiving see Caesar, BG 4. 38, Dio 39. 53. 1–2, and on the expedition in general see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.278–292.

⁹ For a narrative of these operations see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.293–314.

¹⁰ Cicero, Philippics 2. 49 on Caesar’s support for his candidature.

¹¹ Cicero, Philippics 2. 21, 49.

¹² On the death of Clodius see Wiseman in CAH² IX, pp.405–408, Rice Holmes (1923), pp.164–167.

¹³ Seager (2002), pp.133–139.

¹⁴ For discussions of elections see L. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), esp. pp.50–75, and Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp. pp.78–106, A. Lintott, ‘Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic’, JRS 80 (1990), pp.1–16, F. Millar, The Crowd in the Late Roman Republic (1998), H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), esp. pp.63–89, and A. Yakobson, ‘Petitio et Largitio: Popular Participation in the Centuriate Assembly of the Late Republic’, JRS 8 (1992), pp.32–52.

¹⁵ Cicero, Philippics 2. 50, ad Att. 6. 6. 4, 7. 8. 5, ad Fam. 2. 15. 4; for an account of the rebellion of 53–52 BC see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.315–342; on favours shown to Vercingetorix by Caesar see Dio 40. 41. 1, 3.

¹⁶ Antony did not leave Rome until after Milo’s trial, see Asconius 41 C; on Lucius Caesar as Legate in Transalpine Gaul see Caesar, BG 7. 65.

¹⁷ Caesar, BG 7. 81.

¹⁸ Caesar, BG 8. 2; for an account of these operations see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.343–353.

¹⁹ Caesar, BG 8. 24, 38.

²⁰ Caesar, BG 8. 46–48;cf.8. 23 for the murder attempt against him.

IX ‘THE NEW SIBLING-LOVING GODS’

¹ Caesar, BC 1. 4.

² Caesar, BC 3. 110, Valerius Maximus 4. 1. 15, Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 34.

³ Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 20, 34; Plutarch, Pompey 78. For Italians/Romans serving with the armies of client kings, examples include Rufus and Gratus commanding parts of Herod the Great’sarmy in 4 BC, see Josephus, BJ 2. 52, 58, 63, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.362–364.

⁴ Caesar, BC 3. 110; on legionary pay see Suetonius, Caesar 26, with discussion in G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), pp.89–91; see also M. Siani-Davies, ‘Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans’, Historia 46 (1997), pp.306–340, esp. 338–339.

⁵ Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 4–7, 19–29.

⁶ Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 38–42; on the royal bureaucracy in general see D. Rathbone, ‘Ptolemaic to Roman Egypt: The Death of the Dirigiste State?’, in E. Lo Cascio & D. Rathbone (eds.), Production and Public Powers in Classical Antiquity (2000), pp.44–54, M. Chauveau, Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra (trans. D. Lorton) (2000), pp.72–95, and J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.157–205.

⁷ P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.156–158, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), p. 81; on the Pharos see P. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, Vol. 1 (1972), pp.17–20.

⁸ Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 9–10, Chauveau (2000), pp.61–62.

⁹ Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 8, J. Ray,’ Alexandria’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.32–37, and G. Grimm, ‘Alexandria in the Time of Cleopatra’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.45–49; on the Museum and Greek culture see also H. Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and Cultural Identity’, in A. Hirst & M. Silk (eds.), Alexandria, Real and Imagined (2004), pp.1–14.

¹⁰ Green (1990), pp.317–318.

¹¹ For Alexandria in general see Fraser (1972), passim, A. Bernard, Alexandrie la Grande (1998), and Alexandrie des Ptolémees (1995), G. Grimm, Alexandria: Die erste Königsstadt der hellenistischen Welt (1998), N. Finneran, Alexandria: A City and Myth(2005), pp.9–88, J-Y. Empereur, Alexandria Rediscovered (1998), F. Goddio, L’Egypte Engloutie: Alexandrie (2002), F. Goddio, with A. Bernard, E. Bernard, 1. Darwish, Z. Kiss & J. Yoyotte, Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters (1998), and Chauveau (2000), pp.100–134.

¹² In general see D. Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies (1988), esp. pp.3–31, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.271–293.

¹³ M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 20, citing CIG 4926, Hölbl (2001), pp.222–223, Green (1990), pp.649–650.

¹⁴ Caesar, BC 3. 108.

¹⁵ Hölbl (2001), p. 230, and Bingen (2007), p. 66; the expression occurs in the inscription OGIS 2. 741 dated to 31 May 52 BC.

¹⁶ Bingen (2007), pp.67–68.

¹⁷ Bingen (2007), pp.66–67.

¹⁸ On her appearance see Grant (1972), pp.65–67, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp.95–102, Walker & Higgs (2001), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra’s Images: Reflections of Reality’, pp.142–147, and G. Goudchaux, ‘Was Cleopatra Beautiful? The Conflicting Answers of Numismatics’, pp.210–214, and also in Walker & Ashton (2003), esp. S. Walker, ‘Cleopatra VII at the Louvre’, pp.71–74, and F. Johansen, ‘Portraits of Cleopatra — Do They Exist?’, pp.75–77.

¹⁹ Dio 42. 34. 3–5 (Loeb translation by E. Cary (1916), p. 169); Plutarch, Antony 27 (Oxford translation by R. Waterfield).

²⁰ Lucan, Pharsalia 10. 127–143; Candida Sidonio perlucent pectora filo, quod Nilotis acus impressum pectine serum, solvit et extenso laxavit stamina velo, 10. 140–142.

²¹ These were Cleopatra: Portrait of a Killer (Lion TV) shown on BBC television in the UK, and an episode on Cleopatra from the series Egypt Unwrapped (Atlantic TV) shown on Channel 5 in the UK.

²² See J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), p. 87, and Walker & Higgs (2001), pp.314–315, n. 325.

X TRIBUNE

¹ Caesar, BG 8. 50.

² Cicero, De Divinatione 1. 30–33, 2. 70–83.

³ E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), pp.484–485 on this election; in generalsee A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic(1999), pp.182– 190.

⁴ See Lintott (1999), pp.121–128.

⁵ Broughton, MRR 2, pp.258–259; Caesar, BG 8. 50.

⁶ On the fears surrounding the return of Pompey in 62 BC see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.74–79; on the wider story of the years building up to the civil war in 49 BC see M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.169–194, C. Meier, Caesar(trans. D. Mc Lintock) (1996), pp.330–348, and A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), p. 358–379 for fuller accounts with references.

⁷ On the virtues of Cornelia see Plutarch, Pompey 55.

⁸ Suetonius, Caesar 30. 3.

⁹ On Crassus and the reluctance of anyone to prosecute him see the discussion in A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), p. 78, cf. Plutarch, Crassus 7.

¹⁰ Caelius’ quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 9.

¹¹ Suetonius, Caesar 29. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 29, Pompey 58, Dio 40. 60. 2–3, Appian, BC 2. 26, Valerius Maximus 9. 1. 6, Velleius Paterculus 2. 48. 4; on revolving theatres see Pliny, NH 36. 177; on Caelius’ belief in Curio’s planned opposition to Caesar see Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 8. 10, moderated at 8. 10. 4.

¹² Quotation from Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 11. 3; for the earlier debate see Velleius 2. 48. 2–3, Plutarch, Pompey 57, Caesar 30, Cato the Younger 51, and Dio 40. 62. 3; for discussion see Seager (2002), p. 144, and Gelzer (1968), pp.178–181.

¹³ Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 11. 1.

¹⁴ Appian, BC 2. 28, with a slightly different version in Plutarch, Pompey 58, cf. Dio 60. 64. 1–4.

¹⁵ Caesar, BC 1. 1–4.

¹⁶ Cicero, ad Fam. 16. 11. 2, ad Att. 8. 11d.

¹⁷ On Antony’s appearance and style of oratory see Plutarch, Antony 2, 4; on Pompey’s comments and Cicero’s reaction see Cicero, ad Att. 7. 8, where he specifically refers to Antony as a quaestor and not as tribune, and also ad Fam. 16. 11. 3; on Antony vomiting his words see Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 2.

¹⁸ Caesar, BC 1. 5, Dio 41. 1. 1–3. 4, Appian, BC 2. 32–33.

¹⁹ For a more detailed discussion of the crossing of the Rubicon see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.377–379, and for the ancient sources see Suetonius, Caesar 31–32, Plutarch, Caesar 32, and Appian, BC 2. 35; Suetonius, Caesar 30. 4 for the quotation.

²⁰ Caesar, BC 1. 8, Appian, BC 2. 33.

²¹ Cicero, Philippics 2. 22, cf. Plutarch, Antony 6, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.130–131.

²² Caesar, BC 1. 11; for a more detailed account of the Italian campaign see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.385–391.

²³ Cicero, ad Att. 9. 7C.

²⁴ Caesar, BC 1. 8.

²⁵ Quote from Cicero, ad Att. 9. 10. 2.

²⁶ Caesar, BC 1. 32–33, Dio 41. 15. 1–16. 4 for the meeting of the Senate; Caesar, BC 1. 32–33, Dio 41. 17. 1–3, Appian, BC 2. 41, Plutarch, Caesar 35, Pliny, NH 33. 56 and Orosius 6. 15. 5 for the confrontation with the tribune; for a more detailed account see Goldsworthy (2006), pp.391–397.

²⁷ Cicero, ad Att. 10. 4.

²⁸ Cicero, ad Att. 10. 8A, Philippics 2. 56–58, and Broughton MRR 2, p. 260 for full references.

XI QUEEN

¹ M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 54, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.231–232.

² J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.66–68, and J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.39–46.

³ See W. Tarn, ‘The Bucheum Stelae: A Note’, JRS 26 (1936), pp.187–189 for the quotation, and the beliefthat Cleopatra was present; Tyldesley (2009), p. 41–42, expresses a measure of doubt over Cleopatra’s actual participation, while Grant (1972), pp.46–47, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.88–91, accept her actual involvement in the ceremonies.

⁴ See G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy,’ in S. Walker & P. Higgs, Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.132–133.

⁵ ‘She was indeed queen of Egypt’ quote from D. Thompson in CAH² IX, p. 321, who also accepts Cleopatra’s presence at the enthronement of the Buchis bull.

⁶ Cicero, pro Rabirio Postumo 8. 20.

⁷ Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20. 2; for discussion of this see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.164–175.

⁸ Valerius Maximus 4. 1. 15 (Loeb translation by D. Shackleton Bailey), and cf. Caesar, BC 3. 110. Central control of the Roman army in this period was often weak. When Cicero took over in Cilicia he discovered that three cohorts out of his two legions were missing, and it was some time before they were located and brought back under control, see Cicero, ad Fam. 3. 6. 5.

⁹ Translation from Select Papyri: Volume II Official documents (Loeb translation by A. Hunt & C. Edgar, 1974), pp.57–58.

¹⁰ Bingen (2007), pp.69–70, Grant (1972), pp.49–51, Hölbl (2001), p. 231, and D. Thompson, ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34, esp. 32.

¹¹ Caesar, BC 3. 4–5; the Egyptian ships seem to have remained under Cnaeus Pompey’s command, Caesar, BC 3. 40.

¹² Plutarch, Antony 25, and Lucan, Pharsalia 5. 58–64, with Grant (1972), pp.51–52, and Hölbl (2001), p. 232.

¹³ Malalas 9. 279, Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 11, Appian, BC 2. 84.

¹⁴ See Walker & Higgs (2001), p. 234.

¹⁵ Caesar, BC 3. 110.

¹⁶ Caesar, BC 3. 103–104, Plutarch, Pompey 77, Appian, BC 84.

XII CIVIL WAR

¹ Plutarch, Pompey 63–4.

² For the campaign in Sicily and Africa, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 53. 1–3, Caesar, BC 2. 23–44.

³ For Caesar’s followers a ‘rabble’see Cicero, ad Att. 9. 18; for Cicero’s accusation that Antony did nothing to aid Caius Antonius’ recall from exile see Cicero, Philippics 2. 56.

⁴ On the allegiance of consulars see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.61–62; Suetonius, Caesar 72, on rewarding even bandits if they were faithful to him.

⁵ Cicero, Philippics 2. 58.

⁶ Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10; see also Plutarch, Antony 6.

⁷ Plutarch, Antony 6, 9.

⁸ Plutarch, Antony 9; in general see Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 26, ad Att. 10. 10, Serv. on E10 De vir. Ill. 82. 2. Cicero’s distastė only became public in the Philippics 2. 58, 69, 77;in general see P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (1986), pp.222–237.

⁹ Cicero, ad Att. 10. 13, Plutarch, Antony 9, and Pliny, NH 8. 55.

¹⁰ For Cicero’s attitude in these months see D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.251–265, and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.232–261.

¹¹ Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10 on writing frequently to Antony; the quote is from ad Att. 10. 8a.

¹² Cicero, ad Att. 10. 10.

¹³ On the mutiny see Appian, BC 2. 47, Dio 41. 26. 1–35. 5, and Suetonius, Caesar 69.

¹⁴ See Cicero, ad Att. 9. 9. 3; for Servilius see CAH² IX, p. 431, Dio 41. 36. 1–38. 3, Caesar, BC 3. 1–2, Plutarch, Caesar 37, Appian, BC 2. 48, with M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.220–223.

¹⁵ Caesar, BC 3. 2–8, Dio 41. 39. 1–40. 2, 44. 1–4, Appian, BC 2. 49–54, Plutarch, Caesar 37.

¹⁶ Caesar, BC 3. 8, 14–18.

¹⁷ Appian, BC 2. 50–59, Plutarch, Caesar 65, Antony 7, Dio 41. 46. 1–4; Caesar, BC 3. 25 admits to a belief that his subordinates were slow and had not taken advantage of every opportunity.

¹⁸ Caesar, BC 3. 24.

¹⁹ Caesar, BC 3. 39–44, Dio 41. 47. 1–50. 4, Appian, BC 2. 58–60; for ‘veterans of exceptional courage’ see Caesar, BG 8. 8.

²⁰ Caesar, BC 3. 45–46.

²¹ Caesar, BC 3. 45–53, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 60–61, Suetonius, Caesar 68. 3–4.

²² Caesar, BC 3. 61–70, Plutarch, Caesar 39, Appian, BC 2. 62.

²³ Caesar, BC 3. 71–75, Appian, BC 2. 63–64, Dio 41. 51. 1.

²⁴ Caesar BC 3. 77–81, Plutarch, Caesar 41, Appian, BC 2. 63, Dio 41. 51. 4–5.

²⁵ Caesar, BC 3. 72, 82–83, Cicero, ad Fam. 7. 3. 2; Plutarch, Cato the Younger 55, Pompey 40–41, Appian, BC 2. 65–67, Dio 41. 52. 1; in general for Pompey’s strategy and attitude see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp.157–163 and 166–167.

²⁶ Caesar, BC 3. 86–99, Appian, BC 2. 78–82, Plutarch, Caesar 42–47, and also Dio 41. 58. 1–63. 6; on Antony’s role see Plutarch, Antony 8, Cicero, Philippics 2. 71.

²⁷ Caesar, BC 3. 94, 102–103, Plutarch, Pompey 76.

XIII CAESAR

¹ Caesar, BC 3. 103–104, Plutarch, Pompey 77–80, Appian, BC 2. 84–86, Dio 42. 3. 1– 4. 5, and R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), p. 168.

² Plutarch, Pompey 80, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 8. 1–3; for a much more cynical view see Lucan, Pharsalia 9. 1010–1108.

³ Caesar, BC 3. 106, Alexandrian War 69, Dio 42. 7. 1–8. 3; Caesar’s cavalry bodyguard, BC 1. 41.

⁴ Caesar, BC 3. 110, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.61–63, P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.664–665, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), p. 233.

⁵ Quote from Caesar, BC 3. 107; for the money see Plutarch, Caesar 48.

⁶ Plutarch, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 34. 1–2.

⁷ Plutarch, Caesar 48, Dio 42. 34. 3.

⁸ Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 34. 4–35. 1, and on the claim that Cleopatra bribed Ptolemy’s guards see Lucan, Pharsalia 10. 5–8; for some of the modern discussions see Grant (1972), pp.63–64, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.53–58, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp.33–35, J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.100–112, and E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Facts and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp.257–274, esp. 264–266.

⁹ Quotes from Dio 52. 34. 3 & 5 (Loeb translation by E. Cary).

¹⁰ On Caesar’s womanising see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.84–89.

¹¹ For Caesar’s receding hairline see Suetonius, Caesar 45. 2.

¹² Caesar, BC 3. 108, Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 35. 1–6.

¹³ For the mistreatment of the city of Salamis on Cyprus by Roman businessmen representing Brutus, see T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.223–224, with references to the relevant letters of Cicero.

¹⁴ Caesar, BC 3. 109, Dio 42. 37. 1–3.

¹⁵ Caesar, BC 3. 111–112, Alexandrian War 1–3, Dio 42. 12. 1–4, 38. 1–4.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 39. 2, Appian, BC 2. 90.

¹⁷ Caesar, Alexandrian War 4, Dio 42. 39. 1.

¹⁸ Caesar, Alexandrian War 13.

¹⁹ Caesar, Alexandrian War 5–22, Plutarch, Caesar 49, Dio 42. 40. 1–6, Suetonius, Caesar 64, Appian, BC 2. 90.

²⁰ Caesar, Alexandrian War 24.

²¹ Caesar, Alexandrian War 26–32, Dio 42. 41. 1–43. 4, Josephus, AJ 14. 8. 12, BJ 1. 187–192.

²² Caesar, Alexandrian War 33, Dio 42. 35. 4–6, 44. 1–45. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1, Appian, BC 90; for the bemused attitude of scholars to this cruise see Grant (1972), pp.79–82, Tyldesley (2009), pp.98–100, Fletcher (2008), pp.125–153, M. Gelzer,Caesar(trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.255–259, and also C. Meier, Caesar (1995), pp.408–410 and 412.

XIV M ASTER OF HORSE

¹ Dio 42. 17. 1–20. 5.

² Dio 42. 21. 1–2 with Broughton, MRR 2, p. 272; Cicero, Philippics 2. 25 claims that Caesar did not know of Antony’s appointment, but this seems unlikely.

³ Cicero, Philippics 2. 61–63, Plutarch, Antony 9; for On his Drinking see Pliny, NH 14. 148.

⁴ Dio 42. 27. 3–28. 4.

⁵ See D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.263–268, and T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.262–266 with references.

⁶ Dio 42. 27. 3.

⁷ Caesar, BC 3. 20–22, Dio 42. 22. 1–25. 3; Caelius’ last letter to Cicero is Cicero, ad Fam. 8. 17.

⁸ Dio 42. 29. 1 –4, Plutarch, Antony 9, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.136–140, Appian, BC 2. 92.

⁹ Dio 42. 50. 1–55. 3, Appian BC 2. 92–94, Plutarch, Caesar 51, Suetonius, Caesar 70, Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 9. 4.

¹⁰ R. Weigel, Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir (1992), pp.30–34.

¹¹ Dio 48. 38. 2–3.

¹² Cicero, Philippics 2. 64–69, 72–74, 78, Plutarch, Antony 10, Dio 45. 28. 1–4.

¹³ Suetonius, Caesar 50. 2.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Antony 10, Cicero, Philippics 2. 69, 99.

¹⁵ Plutarch, Antony 10, claims that there was a breach between Caesar and Antony. M. Gelzer, Caesar (trans. P. Needham) (1968), pp.261–262, is inclined to see this as serious. R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 104, doubts this.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Antony 10–11, Cicero, Philippics 2. 75–78.

XV NOT KING, BUT CAESAR

¹ Cicero, ad Att. 14. 20. 2.

² Tacitus, Histories 4. 55, Dio 66. 3. 1, 16. 1.

³ Suetonius, Caesar 52. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 49; however, note also Plutarch, Antony 52, which suggests that the boy was not born until after Caesar’s death; for discussions see M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.83–85.

⁴ Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1, and for discussion see E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Fact and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp.257–274, esp. 258–260 and 267– 270.

⁵ Dio 53. 19. 1–20. 4, Appian, BC 2. 101, and Grant (1972), pp.85–86, 260, n. 13, including the much later source claiming that Ganymede was one of the captives.

⁶ Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.

⁷ Suetonius, Caesar 76. 3.

⁸ Suetonius, Caesar 52. 1.

⁹ Suetonius, Caesar 44. 1–2, Pliny, NH 18. 211, Plutarch, Caesar 59, Macrobius, Saturnalia 1. 14. 2–3, T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 3 (1923), pp.285–287, M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 289, and Z. Yazetz, Julius Caesar and his Public Image(1983), pp.111– 114.

¹⁰ Dio 43. 42. 3, 44. 1–3.

¹¹ Dio 43. 14. 7, 44. 1–46. 4, Cicero, ad Att. 12. 47. 3, 45. 3, ad Fam. 6. 8. 1, 6. 18. 1, Suetonius, Caesar 41. 2, 76. 1; see also R. Carson, ‘Caesar and the Monarchy’, Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp.46–53, E. Rawson, ‘Caesar’s Heritage: Hellenistic Kings and their Roman Equals’, JRS 65 (1975), pp.148–159, and S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), esp. pp.200–206.

¹² Dio 43. 50. 3–4, Suetonius, Caesar 42. 1, 81, Tiberius 4. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 57–58, Strabo, Geog. 8. 6. 23, 17. 3. 15, Appian, Punic History 136, Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 17. 2, 13. 4, 13. 5, 13. 8; also Yazetz (1983), pp.137–149, E. Rawson, CAH² IX, pp.445–480, and Rice Holmes (1923), pp.320–324. For Cicero receiving unwarranted thanks from provincials see Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 15. 4.

¹³ Suetonius, Caesar 77, 79. 2, Dio 44. 10. 1, Appian, BC 2. 108.

¹⁴ Dio 44. 11. 1–3, Appian, BC 2. 109, Plutarch, Caesar 61, Antony 12, Cicero, Philippics 2. 84–87, De Divinatione 1. 52, 119, Suetonius, Caesar 79. 2; see also Weinstock (1971), pp.318–341.

¹⁵ Dio 43. 51. 1–2, 44. 1. 1, Appian, BC 2. 110, 3. 77, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 44. 3.

¹⁶ Cicero, Philippics 2. 79–82, Plutarch, Antony 11.

¹⁷ Cicero, ad Att. 13. 40. 1.

¹⁸ Suetonius, Caesar 77.

¹⁹ See R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.56–59; Caesar’s comment is in Cicero, ad Att. 14. 1. 2; for the Salamis episode see, for example, ad Att. 6. 2.

²⁰ Dio 43. 10. 1–13. 4, Appian, BC 2. 98–99, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 56. 4, 59. 1–73. 1.

²¹ Cicero, ad Att. 12. 21. 1, 13. 40. 1, 46, 51. 1, Orator 10, 35, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 11. 1–4, 25. 1–5, 73. 4, Cicero 39. 2, Caesar 3. 2, Suetonius, Caesar 56. 5, with Gelzer (1968), pp.301–304, Rice Holmes (1923), p. 311, and D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), p. 138.

²² Syme (1960), p. 69; on Cassius see Cicero, ad Att. 5. 21.

²³ Dio 44. 14. 3–4, Plutarch, Brutus 18; Appian, BC 3. 98; on Trebonius and Antony see Plutarch, Antony 13.

²⁴ For discussion see A. Goldsworthy, Caesar: The Life of a Colossus (2006), pp.500–510.

²⁵ Suetonius, Caesar 52. 3, 83. 2.

²⁶ Appian, BC 2. 102, Dio 51. 22.3, with Gruen (2003), pp.259 and 270–272.

²⁷ Cicero, ad Att. 15. 15. 2.

²⁸ Plutarch, Caesar 66, Brutus 17, Antony 13, Dio 44. 19. 1–5, Appian, BC 2. 117, Suetonius, Caesar 82. 1–3.

XVI CONSUL

¹ Appian, BC 2. 118, Plutarch, Antony 14–15, Dio 44. 20. 1–22. 3.

² J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), p. 29.

³ Cicero, Philippics 2. 28; R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.97–103.

⁴ Appian, BC 2. 120–123.

⁵ Appian, BC 2. 123–136, Dio 44. 22. 3–34. 7; Osgood (2006), pp.12–14, Syme (1960), pp.102–103 and 107, D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.280–282, T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.289–291, and E. Rawson inCAH²IX, pp.468–470.

⁶ For Lepidus’ legion see Appian, BC 2. 118, 126, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 477.

⁷ Consul and Antonius, see Cicero, Philippics 2. 70; on Antony see Syme (1960), pp.105– 106.

⁸ Plutarch, Antony 14, Brutus 20, Dio 44. 35. 1–52. 3, Appian, BC 2. 137–148, Suetonius, Caesar 84. 2, with Osgood (2006), pp.12–13, and Syme (1960), pp.98–99.

⁹ Rawson in CAH² IX, p. 470, Osgood (2006), pp.14–16 and 30.

¹⁰ Appian, BC 3. 2–3, 36, Cicero, ad Att. 14. 15, Syme (1960), pp.99.

¹¹ Appian, BC 3. 2–8, Dio 44. 53. 1–7, 45, with Syme (1960), pp.109–111 and 115–116, Rawson in CAH² IX, pp.470–471, and Osgood (2006), p. 30.

¹² Cicero, Philippics 2. 92–100, ad Att. 14. 12.

¹³ Cicero, ad Att. 14. 13, 13a and 13b.

¹⁴ Cicero, Philippics 1. 20.

¹⁵ Dio 44. 53. 6–7, with Syme (1960), p. 109, Mitchell (1991), pp.292–293, and Osgood (2006), pp.35 and 40.

¹⁶ Cicero, ad Att. 14. 8, 20, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.95–96, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), p. 108, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.213–214.

¹⁷ Suetonius, Caesar 83. 1–2, Augustus 8. 1–2, Appian, BC 2. 143, Pliny, NH 35. 21, Dio 45. 1. 1–6. 3, with Syme (1960), pp.112–115.

¹⁸ Suetonius, Caesar 83, Cicero, ad Att. 14. 11 and 12, with Osgood (2006), pp.31–32; for the quote, Cicero, Philippics 13. 24.

¹⁹ Syme (1960), pp.115–122.

²⁰ Plutarch, Brutus 21, Suetonius, Caesar 88, and Augustus 10, Pliny, NH 2. 93–94, Dio 45. 6. 4–8. 4, with Osgood (2006), pp.21 –22 and 40–41.

²¹ Syme (1960), pp.115–116, and Brunt (1971), pp.477–483.

²² Stockton (1971), pp.286–287 and 319–320, and Osgood (2006), pp.32–33.

XVII ‘ONE OF THREE’

¹ R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.123–124, D. Stockton, Cicero: A Political Biography (1971), pp.292–294, T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Senior Statesman (1991), pp.295– 306, and J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.41–42.

² Cicero, ad Fam. 12. 3 (SB 345).

³ Appian, BC 3. 31, 40–45, Dio 45. 12. 1–13. 5, Cicero, Philippics 3. 4, 6, 38–39, 4. 5– 6, with Osgood (2006), pp.47–50; for a discussion of Legio Martia and a possible tombstone of one of its centurions see L. Keppie, ‘A Centurion of Legio Martia at Padova?’,Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 2 (1991), pp.115–121 = L. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971–2000 (2000), pp.68–74.

⁴ On the raising of legions see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 481.

⁵ Appian, BC 3. 46, Dio 45. 13. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.126–127; on Antony’s popularity see Plutarch, Antony 4.

⁶ Quote from Cicero, ad Fam. 11. 4 (Loeb translation by Shackleton Bailey, SB 342); Sallust, Bell. Cat. 56. 1–3, describes the creation of the officers and organisation for two legions, which were then filled up with recruits as men and equipment became available.

⁷ Osgood (2006), p. 50.

⁸ Syme (1960), pp.127–150 and 162–171, Stockton (1971), pp.295–316, Mitchell (1991), pp.301–315.

⁹ Cicero, Philippics 11. 5–10, Appian, BC 3. 26, Dio 47. 29. 1–6.

¹⁰ Cicero, Philippics 5. 3, 4, 25, 31, 8. 27, Appian, BC 3. 63, with E. Rawson in CAH² IX, pp.478–479.

¹¹ Appian, BC 3. 50–51, Cicero, Philippics 8. 1, 25–28, 33, with Syme (1960), pp.167–173, Stockton (1971), p. 308, and Mitchell (1961), pp.312–316.

¹² Cicero, ad Fam. 11. 21. 1; on the legions see Brunt (1971), p. 481.

¹³ Dio 46. 36. 3–5, Pliny, NH 10. 110.

¹⁴ For accounts of Forum Gallorum see Cicero, ad Fam. 10. 30; for Servius Sulpicius Galba’s account see Appian, BC 66–70, Dio 46. 37. 1–7, with Osgood (2006), pp.51–55, and L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp.115–118.

¹⁵ Appian, BC 3. 71–76, Dio 46. 38. 1–41. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.173–177, Stockton (1971), pp.318–323, and Mitchell (1991), pp.316–319; see Suetonius, Augustus 10. 4 for an heroic story of Octavian carrying a legion’s eagle to rally the men at the battle outside Mutina.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Antony 18, Appian, BC 3. 80–84, Dio 46. 38. 6–7, with Syme (1960), pp.178–179, and Brunt (1971), pp.481–484; for Caesar not shaving until he had avenged his men see Suetonius, Caesar 67. 2.

¹⁷ Appian, BC 3. 85–95, Dio 46. 39. 1–49. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.181–188, Stockton (1971), pp.329–331, and Mitchell (1991), pp.319–322.

¹⁸ Plutarch, Antony 19–21, Appian, BC 3. 96–4. 46. 50. 1–56. 4, with Syme (1960), pp.188–191, Osgood (2006), pp.57–61, and Rawson in CAH² IX, pp.485–486.

¹⁹ Plutarch, Antony 19–20, Appian, BC4. 5–30, 37, Dio 57. 1. 1–14. 5, with Syme (1960), pp.190–196, and Osgood (2006), pp.62 –82; Plutarch, Antony 20 (Oxford translation, modified) for quote.

XVIII GODDESS

¹ Cicero, ad Att. 14. 8, and quotes from ad Att. 15. 15.

² For instance, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.95–97, on Cicero’s troubled relationships with women and most Greeks.

³ Josephus, AJ 15. 39, Against Apion 2. 58, Porphyry, Fragments of Greek Historians 260, and for a papyrus mentioning Ptolemy XIV in late July see B. Grenfell, A. Hunt et al. (eds.), The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (1898—), 14. 1629, with Grant (1972), pp.97–98, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.109–110, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.214–215.

⁴ Strabo, Geog. 14. 6. 6, with P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 669. Strabo says that Antony gave the rule of Cyprus to Cleopatra and Arsinoe, but that this arrangement was abandoned when he lost power. Since Arsinoe was dead long before Antony lost the civil war with Octavian, his loss of power can only refer to the period from late 44–43 BC.

⁵ Appian, BC 3. 78, 4. 59, 5. 8, Dio 47. 28. 3, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 (1971), p. 480.

⁶ Appian, BC 4. 60–62, Dio 47.26. 3–30. 7.

⁷ Appian, BC 4. 63.

⁸ Appian, BC 4. 8–9, 61, 63, 74, 82, Dio 47. 31. 5, with Grant (1972), pp.100–105, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.143–144.

⁹ J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.72–74.

¹⁰ Appian, BC 4. 61, Pliny, NH 5. 58, Seneca, Naturales Quaestiones 4. 2, with D. Thompson, ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34, esp. 33; for Alexandria’s Jews see Josephus, Against Apion. 2. 60.

¹¹ CIL Suppl. No. 6583 = OGIS 129, with Thompson (2003), p. 33.

¹² P. van Minnen, ‘A Royal Ordinance of Cleopatra and Related Documents’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.35–44, and Grant (1972), p. 100, citing OGIS 194, and Tyldesley (2009), p. 141 for Callimachus.

¹³ See J. Tait, ‘Cleopatra by Name’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.3–7, esp. p. 4, and J. Ray, ‘Cleopatra in the Temples of Upper Egypt: The Evidence of Dendera and Armant’, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.9–11, G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.128–141, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.271–285 and 289–293, Grant (1972), pp.99–100, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.121–122 and 125 –126.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Of Isis and Osiris, with discussion in Tyldesley (2009), pp.113–118, Grant (1972), pp.117–120, Goudchaux (2001), pp.130–131 and 133–137, and Hölbl (2001), pp.289–293.

¹⁵ Grant (1972), pp.103–105, and Tyldesley (2009), pp.144–145; S. Burnstein, The Reign of Cleopatra (2004), p. 21, rather overstates Octavian’s suspicion of Caesarion at this stage.

XIX VENGEANCE

¹ Dio 47. 8. 3–4.

² Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 9. 3–7.

³ Plutarch, Cicero 48–49, Antony 20, Appian, BC 4. 19.

⁴ Cornelius Nepos, Atticus 10. 4. 4 for the quote (Loeb translation by J. Rolfe).

⁵ See Appian, BC 4. 40, Dio 47. 7. 4–5, 8. 5.

⁶ For an interesting discussion of the impact of the proscriptions, their presentation and the role of Octavian see A. Powell, Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.55–62, 68–69. For an extreme version of the exoneration of Octavian at the expense of Antony and Lepidus see Velleius Paterculus 2. 66. 67. 4; on Sextus Pompey’s rescue of refugees see Appian, BC 4. 36; on large number of books devoted to the theme of the proscriptions see Appian, BC 4. 16.

⁷ Appian, BC 4. 31, Dio 47. 17. 2–4, with J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.82–83.

⁸ Appian, BC 4. 31–34, with Osgood (2006), pp.84–88.

⁹ Dio 47. 16. 1–5.

¹⁰ Appian, BC 4. 63–82, Dio 47. 32. 1–35. 6, Josephus, AJ 14. 271–276, BJ 1. 218–222, with Osgood (2006), pp.88–94.

¹¹ Dio 47. 25. 3, and for examples M. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage (1974), pp.498 –508.

¹² R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.149–161, Powell (2008), pp.51–75; for criticism of Octavian’s refusal to honour the pietas of others see Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1–2.

¹³ For example, Appian, BC 4. 100–101; BC 5. 17 provides a detailed discussion of soldiers’ attitudes, cf. Cornelius Nepos, Eumenes 8. 2.

¹⁴ Appian, BC 4. 88, 108; for discussion, but generally accepting a high estimate, see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.485–488.

¹⁵ Dio 47. 39. 1, contrasting with Appian, BC 4. 137; for Tiberius see Velleius Paterculus 2. 113.

¹⁶ For this scale of reward see Appian, BC 4. 100.

¹⁷ Appian, BC 4. 3.

¹⁸ Appian, BC 4. 82, 86–87.

¹⁹ Appian, BC 4. 101–106, Plutarch, Brutus 37–38.

²⁰ Appian, BC 4. 107–108, Plutarch, Brutus 39–40.

²¹ As an example of legionaries being dismayed by the loss of their baggage, see Caesar, BG 5. 33, contrasted with better discipline at BG 5. 43 by a different legion.

²² For the various versions of Octavian’s behaviour see Plutarch, Brutus 41, Antony 22, Dio 47. 41. 3–4, 46. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 70. 1, Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Pliny, NH 7. 147, with brief discussion in Syme (1960), pp.204–205, Osgood (2006), pp.95–96, and Powell (2008), p. 106.

²³ For the first battle see Appian, BC 4. 109–114, Plutarch, Brutus 40–45, Dio 47. 42. 1–47. 1.

²⁴ Appian, BC 4. 115–124, Plutarch, Brutus 45–48, Dio 47. 47. 2–48. 3.

²⁵ Appian, BC 4. 125–131, Plutarch, Brutus 49–52, Dio 47. 48. 1–49. 4.

²⁶ On Brutus’ head see Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Dio 47. 49. 2; in general Suetonius, Augustus 13. 1, Plutarch, Antony 22, Appian, BC 4. 135, Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 2. A useful survey of the different versions of Antony’s and Octavian’s behaviour can be found in K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44–30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp.7–49, esp. 21–23.

²⁷ Gellius, NA 3. 9. 1–6.

XX DIONYSUS AND APHRODITE

¹ Plutarch, Antony 23, Suetonius, Augustus 13. 3, Appian, BC 5. 3, Dio 48. 3. 1.

² See R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.206–207.

³ Appian, BC 5. 3, with P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.488–495.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 23, Brutus 24.

⁵ Plutarch, Antony 24, Appian, BC 5. 4–6.

⁶ Plutarch, Brutus 30, Antony 24.

⁷ Appian, BC 5. 7, Dio 49. 32. 3; for Octavian’s verse see Martial, Epigrams 11. 20.

⁸ Josephus, AJ 14. 314–316, and 14. 301–31 (quotes from Loeb translation); see also J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.105– 106.

⁹ E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.277–279.

¹⁰ ‘No mean city’, from Acts 21. 39.

¹¹ M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 111, referring to Strabo, Geog. 14. 1. 23; confirming the rights of the temple at Ephesus see R. Sherk, Roman Documents from the Greek East (1969), no. 57.

¹² Plutarch, Antony 25; on Dellius see Syme (1960), p. 214;p. 265 cites Strabo, Geog. 11. 13. 3, where it is noted that Dellius wrote an account of Antony’s expedition to Media.

¹³ Plutarch, Antony 26 (Oxford translation by R. Waterfield).

¹⁴ P. Green, Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), p. 663 for quote.

¹⁵ Plutarch, Antony 26–27, Appian, BC 5. 1, 8–9, Dio 48. 24. 2, with Grant (1972), pp.111–118, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.240–241, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.149–152, and J. Fletcher,Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.235–241.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Antony 25.

¹⁷ Josephus, AJ 15. 89, Appian, BC 5. 9, Dio 48. 24. 2. 1 am very grateful to Dr Dorothy King for pointing out to me the problems of associating the tomb at Ephesus with Arsinoe, or indeed the Ptolemies at all, on the basis of a supposed similarity to the Pharos, and also for providing me with a copy of her unpublished Ph D. thesis, D. King, ‘The Sculptural Decoration of the Doric Order, ca. 375–31 BC’ (King’s College London, 2000).

¹⁸ Plutarch, Antony 28–29, Appian, BC 5. II; for Arsinoe III helping to lead the Ptolemaic army at Raphia see Polybius 5. 83. 3; the importance of horses and hunting to the Greek and Roman aristocracies is well brought out in R. Lane Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian (2006), passim.

¹⁹ Plutarch, Antony 29.

²⁰ For the importance of dice (alea), and the associations with decadence and poor character for Romans in this era see N. Purcell, ‘Literate Games: Roman Urban Society and the Game of Alea’, Past & Present 147 (1995), pp.3–37; for the self-dubbed ‘Parasite’ see OGIS 195, discussed in P. Fraser, ‘Mark Antony in Alexandria — A Note’, JRS 47 (1957), pp.71–74.

²¹ Plutarch, Antony 28.

²² Athenaeus, Epitome 4. 147 ff., citing Socrates of Rhodes for the feasts at Tarsus; on golden chamber pots see Pliny, NH 33. 49.

²³ Plutarch, Antony 29.

XXI CRISIS

¹ J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.108 –151.

² On the Perusine War see Appian, BC 5. 12 –51, Dio 48. 5. 1 –14. 6, Plutarch, Antony 30, Velleius Paterculus 2. 74–76, with discussions in E. Gabba, ‘The Perusine War and Triumviral Italy, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 75 (1971), pp.139–160, R. Syme,The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.207–212, Osgood (2006), pp.152–172, and C. Pelling in CAH² X, pp.14–17.

³ Appian, BC 5. 52 –53, Dio 48. 52. –3, 16. 3.

⁴ Appian, BC 5. 52.

⁵ Plutarch, Antony 30, Appian, BC 5. 51, 54–55, 59.

⁶ Appian, BC 5. 55, Velleius Paterculus 2. 76.

⁷ Appian, BC 5. 56–66, Dio 48. 28. 1–30. 2, with Syme (1960), pp.129, 216–217, 242 and 253 – 255, and Pelling in CAH² X, pp.17–20.

⁸ See Osgood (2006), pp.188–201, Syme (1960), pp.217–220; for Antony’s guilt over his treatment of Fulvia see Appian, BC 5. 59.

⁹ Appian, BC 5. 67–68, Dio 48. 31. 1–6.

¹⁰ Appian, BC 5. 69–74, Dio 48. 36. 1–38. 3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 77, Plutarch, Antony 32, with Syme (1960), pp.21–22, Osgood (2006), pp.205–207, and A. Powell, Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.190–191.

¹¹ Plutarch, Antony 33, Appian, BC 5. 76, Dio 48. 39. 2, Seneca, Suasoriae 1. 6, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.129–130.

¹² Osgood (2006), pp.225–231, quote from p. 229, and F. Millar, ‘Triumvirate and Principate’, JRS 63 (1973), pp.50–67.

XXII INVASION

¹ Dio 49. 32. 4, Plutarch, Antony 36.

² See in general E. Huzar, ‘Mark Antony: Marriages vs. Careers’, The Classical Journal 81.2 (1986), pp.97–111, esp. p. 98 for Fadia and the children, referring to Cicero, ad Att. 16. 11. 1 for the implication that the latter had died.

³ On Labienus’ father see R. Syme, ‘The Allegiance of Labienus’, JRS 28 (1938), pp.113–125, and W Tyrell, ‘Labienus’ Departure from Caesar in January 49 BC’, Historia 21 (1972), pp.424–440; on the son see Dio 48. 24. 4– 25. 1.

⁴ Dio 48. 26. 5, with R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), p. 223, and discussion of the campaign and its context in D. Kennedy, ‘Parthia and Rome: Eastern Perspectives’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, JRA Supplement 18 (1996), pp.67– 90, esp. 77–81.

⁵ For discussion of Roman and Parthian armies see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC—AD 200 (1996), pp.60–68, Kennedy (1996), pp.83–84; on the execution of the victorious commander at Carrhae see Plutarch, Crassus 32.

⁶ Kennedy (1996), pp.79–81, J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.185, 225–228; for Hybreas see Strabo, Geog. 14. 2. 23–24.

⁷ Josephus, AJ 14. 330–369, BJ 1. 248–273, with Osgood (2006), pp.185–186, E. Schürer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.278–286.

⁸ Josephus, AJ 14. 370–376, BJ 1. 274–279.

⁹ Appian, BC 5. 92, Dio 48. 41. 7, 49. 2–3, with Syme (1960), pp.222—223 and 230–231, and Osgood (2006), pp.245 and251.

¹⁰ Dio 48. 39. 2–41. 6, 49. 19. 1–20. 5, Plutarch, Antony 34, Gellius, NA 15. 4, Frontinus, Strategems 1. 1. 6, 2. 2. 5, 2. 5. 36–37, and on Crassus, Plutarch, Crassus 31–33, with Kennedy (1996), pp.80–81, and Osgood (2006), pp.255 and 280–281; on Ventidius’ career see J. Seaver, ‘Publius Ventidius: Neglected Roman Military Hero’, The Classical Journal 47 (195), pp.275 – 280 and 300.

¹¹ On the failure of Octavian to meet Antony at Tarentum see Appian, BC 4. 78–80; on Sextus Pompey see Osgood (2006), pp.20 –205 and 242 – 243, C. Pelling in CAH² X, pp.24– 5, K. Welch & A. Powell (eds.), Sextus Pompeius (2002), passim, and A. Powell,Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-integration of Classics (2008), pp.16–19, 97–100.

¹² Plutarch, Antony 34.

¹³ See F. Millar, ‘Triumvirate and Principate’, JRS 63 (1973), pp.50–67, esp. 51 and 53, and Pelling in CAH² X, pp.67–68.

¹⁴ Appian, BC 5. 93–95, Plutarch, Antony 35, with Pelling in CAH² X, pp.24–27, and P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), p. 502.

¹⁵ Syme (1960), pp.129 and 231, Osgood (2006), pp.298–300.

¹⁶ Josephus, BJ 1. 282–357, AJ 14. 377–491, Dio 49. 22. 6.

¹⁷ Dio 49. 23. 2–5, Plutarch, Antony 37, with Kennedy (1996), p. 81.

¹⁸ Suetonius, Augustus 62. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 75, with Syme (1960), pp.228–229, Osgood (2006), pp.231–232, and for more detail on her family and the marriage see A. Barrett, Livia: First Lady of Imperial Rome (2002), pp.3–27.

¹⁹ Suetonius, Caius 23.

²⁰ Suetonius, Augustus 70, with comments in K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44– 30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp.7–49, esp. 30–32, and Powell (2008), p. 74.

XXIII ‘L OVER OF HER FATHERLAND’

¹ Plutarch, Antony 36.

² Josephus, AJ 15. 23–31.

³ Dio 49. 3–5, with C. Pelling in CAH² X, pp.28–30, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.259–261.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 36, Dio 49. 32. 5, Strabo, Geog. 14. 669, 671, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.135–141, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), p. 24, and J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.162–164.

⁵ Josephus, AJ 15. 88–, 91–96, with Hölbl (2001), p. 242 and p. 254, n. 103.

⁶ On the titles and their implications see J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.57–62 and 74–79, contrasting with D. Thompson in CAH² IX, p. 3 1, and ‘Cleopatra VII: The Queen in Egypt, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.),Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.31–34.

⁷ Thompson (2003), pp.31–34, argues that the ‘homeland was primarily, but not exclusively, Egypt, but Bingen (2007), pp.57–6 and 74–79, is more convincing. Thompson’s examples of the queen taking a personal interest in the welfare of a range of groups within Egypt does not seem more than the practical measures of a monarch wishing to remain in power.

⁸ G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra the Seafarer Queen: Strabo and India, in Walker & Ashton (2003), pp.109–III; introduction of a type of cabbage from Rhodes, Athenaeus 9. 369; for failure to innovate see D. Rathbone, ‘Ptolemaic to Roman Egypt: The Death of the Dirigiste State?, in E. Lo Cascio & D. Rathbone (eds.), Production and Public Powers in Classical Antiquity (2000), pp.44–54, esp. 46–51.

⁹ S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), p. 234, ns. 218—222.

¹⁰ Josephus, AJ 15. 31–67, with E. Sch¨rer, G. Vermes & F. Millar, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, Vol. 1 (1973), pp.296– 297.

¹¹ Josephus, AJ 15. 96–103. Josephus dates this encounter to 34 BC, but it may equally have occurred before Antony’s first Parthian expedition at the start of 36 BC.

¹² Josephus, BJ 1. 397.

¹³ Rathbone (2000), pp.44–54.

XXIV ‘INDIA AND ASIA TREMBLE’: THE GRAND EXPEDITION

¹ For example, Plutarch, Antony 34, Dio 49. 21. 2, and Tacitus, Germania 38, with C. Pelling in CAH² X, p. 31, fn. 142.

² J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.303–305.

****

³ For Caesar’s planned expedition see Dio 43. 51. 1–2, 44. 1. 1, Appian, BC 2. 110, 3. 77, Plutarch, Caesar 58, Velleius Paterculus 2. 59. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 44. 3, and T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, Vol. 3 (19 3), pp.3 6–3 7; on the operations against the Albani and Iberi see A. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 BC—AD 1 (1984), pp.307–308. Publius Canidius Crassus was no relation of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Caesar’s ally.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 37.

⁵ Appian, BC. 110, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82 1 –2; for discussion see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.503–504, Sherwin-White (1984), p. 311, fn. 37, and L. Keppie, ‘Mark Antony’s Legions, in L. Keppie, Legions and Veterans: Roman Army Papers 1971–2000 (2000), pp.75–96.

⁶ Josephus, AJ 14. 449, BJ 1. 32 4 for legions ‘recently levied in Syria.

⁷ Plutarch, Antony 38; for supply in general see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (264 BC—AD 235) (1999), passim.

⁸ For Roman military intelligence in general see N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople (1995), passim, but esp. p. 73.

⁹ Plutarch, Antony 37–38, Livy, Pers. 130 for criticism of Antony.

¹⁰ For discussions of Parthian armies see the sources cited in chapter 22, n. 6.

¹¹ Dio 49. 25. 1, Plutarch, Antony 38, with Pelling in CAH² X, p. 32.

¹² Plutarch, Antony 38, Strabo, Geog. 11. 13. 3–4, and Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 1. 6 on the route through Zeugma, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.308–311.

¹³ Plutarch, Antony 38, Dio 49. 25. 3.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Antony 38, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.311–315, and for the paces of draught and pack animals see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC—AD 200 (1996), pp.287– 296.

¹⁵ Dio 49. 25. 2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 2.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Antony 38, Dio 49. 25. 3–26. 1.

¹⁷ Plutarch, Antony 39. This incident is the basis for the assumption that he must have had more than the thirteen legions claimed by Velleius. The logic is that with two destroyed in the convoy, and ten led out in this operation, the remaining one legion would have been inadequate to guard the siege lines at Phraata. This is conjecture, and in any case ignores the possibility that elements of the ten legions also remained behind. In the end we simply do not know.

¹⁸ Plutarch, Antony 39, Dio 49. 26. 1–27. 1, with Sherwin-White (1984), p. 318.

¹⁹ Plutarch, Antony 40, Dio 49. 27. 2–28. 1.

²⁰ Plutarch, Antony 41–42, Crassus 25.

²¹ For a discussion of missile weapons and effectiveness see Goldsworthy (1996), pp.183–190, 228–229 and 232–235.

²² Plutarch, Antony 42 –43, Dio 49. 29. 1.

²³ Plutarch, Antony 44–45, Dio 49. 29. 2–4.

²⁴ Plutarch, Antony 45.

²⁵ Velleius Paterculus2. 82. 2.

²⁶ Plutarch, Antony 46–48.

²⁷ Plutarch, Antony 49–51, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 3. Dio 49. 31. 1–3, with Sherwin-White (1984), pp.320–321. Livy, Pers. 130, also claims that 8,000 men died ‘in storms’ during the march through Armenia, but does not give a figure for overall casualties. He also accuses Antony of ordering the march so that he could winter with Cleopatra.

²⁸ See N. Dixon, On the Psychology of Military Incompetence (1994), for an interesting discussion of Raglan and other unsuccessful leaders.

XXV QUEEN OF KINGS

¹ Plutarch, Antony 51, Dio 49. 31. 4. M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), p. 149, suggests that Leuce Come was chosen in case the Parthians had invaded Syria.

² Appian, BC 5. 96–122; for summaries and more detailed references see C. Pelling in CAH² X, pp.34–35, J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.98–303, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.30– 31.

³ Appian, BC 5. 122–126, 131, Dio 49. 11. 2–12. 5, 15. 3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 80. 1– 4, with Syme (1960), pp.232 – 233.

⁴ Appian, BC 5. 131; on the use of slaves in Octavian’s fleet see Suetonius, Augustus 16. 1, Dio 47. 17. 4, 48. 49. 1, 49. 1. 5, the last passage implying that they were given freedom on discharge.

⁵ Dio 49. 32. 1–2, Velleius Paterculus2. 82. 3.

⁶ Plutarch, Antony 53–54, Appian, BC 5. 95, 138, Dio 49. 33. 3–4, with Grant (1972), pp.150–153, Osgood (2006), p. 336, and Syme (1960), p. 265.

⁷ Plutarch, Antony 52, 54, Dio 49. 33. 1–2.

⁸ Dio 49. 17. 1–18. 7, 50. 1. 4, Appian, BC 5. 127, 133–144, Velleius Paterculus 2. 79.

5.

⁹ Plutarch, Antony 53. The passage tends to be summarily dismissed by modern biographers of Cleopatra, for example, Grant (1972), p. 152, J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.165–166, and J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.272 – 273. However, just because there were strong political reasons for Antony to rebuff Octavia does not necessarily mean that there was not also genuine — perhaps even extreme — emotion involved as well.

¹⁰ Plutarch, Antony 54.

¹¹ Appian, Illyrian Wars 16–28, Dio 49. 34. 1–38. 4, and the useful summary by E. Gruen in CAH² X, pp.171–174; for the punishments see Dio 49. 38. 4, Suetonius, Augustus 24. 2.

¹² Suetonius, Augustus 28. 3, Pliny, NH 36. 121, and for discussion see N. Purcell in CAH² X, pp.782 –789.

¹³ Plutarch, Antony 36, 52–53, Dio 49. 33. 1–3, 39. 1–40. 2, Syme (1960), p. 262, citing PIR¹, P 835.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Antony 54, Dio 49. 40. 3–4, Velleius Paterculus 2. 82. 3–4, with comments in Grant (1972), pp.161–162, and Pelling in CAH² X, p. 40.

¹⁵ Dio 49. 40. 4.

¹⁶ Plutarch, Antony 54, Dio 49. 41. 1–6, with Pelling in CAH² X, pp.40–41, Osgood (2006), pp.338–339, Grant (1972), pp.162–175, J. Bingen, Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture (2007), pp.78– 79, G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire(trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.244–245, Tyldesley (2009), pp.168–169, Fletcher (2008), pp.274– 276, and M. Chauveau, Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra (trans. D. Lorton) (2000), p.27.

XXVI IS SHE MY WIFE?

¹ Dio 49. 39. 1.

² Dio 47. 15. 2–3, 48. 43. 2, 49. 43. 6–7; runaway slaves as magistrates, 48. 34. 5.

³ Dio 50. 5. 1; on coins of Antyllus, see M. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage (1974), p. 543.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 8, and cf.; for the story told of Antony’s father see Plutarch, Antony 1.

⁵ Plutarch, Antony 4.

⁶ Pliny, NH 9. 119–121; for another alleged wager see Plutarch, Antony 58, although in 59 he was sceptical of the truth of some of the stories he lists, and see also Pliny, NH 21.122.

⁷ Horace, Satires 2. 3.239–42, Valerius Maximus 9. 1.2, Pliny, NH 9. 122; Suetonius, Caligula 37. 1, and cf. his wife who wore emeralds and pearls to the value of 10 million denarii and carried the receipts around to prove it, Pliny, NH 9. 117; for Servilia see Suetonius, Caesar 50. 2, and for Britain, Suetonius, Caesar 47.

⁸ The fullest discussion is to be found in B. Ullman, ‘Cleopatra’s Pearls, The Classical Journal 52. 5 (Feb. 1957), pp.193–201.

⁹ Velleius Paterculus 2. 83. 1–2, with J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.276– 280; on dancing, see Cicero, Pro Murena 13.

¹⁰ Horace, Odes 1. 37. 14, Propertius 3. II, Plutarch, Roman Questions 112, Moralia 291 A, with M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.178–179.

¹¹ Seneca, Moralia 87. 16, with Grant (1972), p. 179; for the ‘Parasite’see ch. 20, fn. 19.

¹² P. van Minnen, ‘An Official Act of Cleopatra with a Subscription in her Own Hand’, Ancient Society 30 (2000), pp.29–34, with P. van Minnen, ‘A Royal Ordinance of Cleopatra and Related Documents’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed(2003), pp.35–44, esp. 40–41.

¹³ For discussion of the mood of the times see Osgood (2006), pp.298–349.

¹⁴ Dio 49. 15. 5–6, 38. 1.

¹⁵ For discussions of the propaganda war, see K. Scott, ‘The Political Propaganda of 44–30 BC’, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 11 (1933), pp.7–49, esp. 33–49, Osgood (2006), pp.335–349, C. Pelling in CAH² X, pp.40–48, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.276– 278; Suetonius, Caesar 52.2 on the pamphlet written by Caius Oppius denying that Caesarion was Caesar’s son.

¹⁶ Pliny, NH 14. 148; Caesar and the public oath, Dio 43. 20. 4.

¹⁷ Suetonius, Augustus 69. 2; praise for Octavia’s beauty led J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), p. 256, to suggest that this was in direct contrast to Cleopatra’s carefully presented looks and hairstyles.

¹⁸ Suetonius, Augustus 69. 1.

¹⁹ Plutarch, Comparison between Antony and Demetrius 4, with Grant (1972), p. 188, and Pelling in CAH² X, p. 43; on Hercules and Omphale see P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (trans. A. Shapiro) (1988), pp.57–65, and esp. 58–60.

²⁰ Plutarch, Antony 55–56, Dio 49. 44. 3, 50. 1. 1–2. 2.

²¹ Dio 50. 2. 4, with Pelling in CAH² X, pp.67–68.

²² Dio 49. 41. 4, 50. 2. 2–4.

²³ Dio 50. 2. 5–7; on magic potions see Dio 49. 34. 1, and Josephus, AJ 15. 93.

²⁴ Velleius Paterculus 2. 83. 3.

²⁵ Plutarch, Antony 58, Suetonius, Augustus 17. 1, Dio 50. 3. 1–4. 1, with J. Johnson, ‘The Authenticity and Validity of Antony’s Will’, L’Antiquité Classique 47 (1978), pp.494–503. The latter suggests that Antony may have employed a form of the military will, which in later periods permitted soldiers to name non-citizens as heirs. Caesar introduced an early form of this, but its details are unknown, making this no more than a possibility.

²⁶ Suetonius, Caesar 79. 3, Dio 50. 5. 4.

²⁷ Plutarch, Antony 58–59, Horace, Epodes 9. I1–16, on the shame of Romans serving a foreign queen and her eunuchs, and Propertius 3. 11 on the threat Cleopatra posed.

²⁸ Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 3 for Asinius Pollio; on the oath see The Res Gestae of the Divine Augustus 25. 2–3, Suetonius, Augustus 17.2, with discussion in Osgood (2006), pp.357–368; Syme (1960), p.278, fn. 3, claims that more than 300 senators went to Antony, and his authority is one of the main reasons this figure is so often repeated as fact rather than inference.

²⁹ Suetonius, Augustus 63. 2.

XXVII WAR

¹ Plutarch, Antony 56–57, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.193–197.

² In general, Plutarch, Antony 56, with J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.370–371; Valerius Maximus 1. 1. 19, Dio 51. 8. 3 for Turullius.

³ Plutarch, Caesar, 48, Antony 56, 61–6, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.266–267 and 270–271.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 58, who says that most of the stories were not believed.

⁵ Seneca, Suasoriae 1. 6, cf. Plutarch, Antony 57, with Pelling (1988), pp.258–259.

⁶ Plutarch, Comparison between Demetrius and Antony 1 and 4 seem to imply a marriage, not suggested at Antony 31, 53; for discussion of the question see Pelling (1988), pp.219– 220, R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.261, 274, 277 and 280, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), p. 244. Livy, Pers. 131 claims that after the Donations of Alexandria in 34 BC Antony began to treat Cleopatra like a wife, but does not actually say a formal marriage occurred. Late sources claiming a marriage include Eutropius 7. 6. 2, Orosius 6. 19. 4, and Athenaeus, Deipnosophists 4. 147; Virgil, Aeneid 8. 688 — sequiturque nefas Aegyptia coniunx; for a range of views see J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), pp.169–170, J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend (2008), pp.264–265, who argues for a marriage as early as 37 BC, and Grant (1972), p. 186.

⁷ Josephus, AJ 15. 108–120, Plutarch, Antony 61, with Pelling (1988), pp.267–268, and Grant (1972), pp.196 and 27, n. 51.

⁸ Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2.

⁹ Plutarch, Antony 56, 59, with Pelling (1988), p.263.

¹⁰ Plutarch, Antony 56, with Pelling (1988), pp.255–256, and CAH² X, pp.50–51, Grant (1972), pp.195–196, Tyldesley (2009), pp.173–174, and on resentment of Rome in the east see Osgood (2006), pp.340–344.

¹¹ Plutarch, Antony 56–57, 59.

¹² Dio 50. 4. 1–6. 1, Livy 1. 32 for a detailed account of the ceremony written after Octavian had revived it; see also J. Rich, Declaring War in the Roman Republic in the Period of Transmarine Expansion (1976), pp.56–58 and 104–107.

XXVIII ACTIUM

¹ Plutarch, Antony 58, Dio 50. 9. 1–22 argues that Antony planned a quick offensive, but lost heart when he mistook some enemy patrol ships for the whole fleet; Livy, Pers. 132 claims Antony planned and prepared an invasion of Italy, but does not say why it did not occur, merely stating that Octavian crossed to Epirus; on the impact of taxation and the mood of Italy see J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.368–370.

² On the forces see Plutarch, Antony 61, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.266–269, Dio 50. 6. 2–6 gives no numbers, for discussion see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD 14 (1971), pp.500–507, and J. Carter, The Battle of Actium: The Rise and Triumph of Augustus Caesar (1970), pp.188–189 and 202–203.

³ On the crew of a quinquereme see Polybius 1.26. 7, and see also J. Morrison & J. Coates, Greek and Roman Oared Warships (1996), pp.259–260, 270–272 and 312–317, with the review by W. Murray, ‘The Development and Design of Greek and Roman Warships (399–30 BC)’, JRA 12 (1999), pp.520–525, esp. 523–524, where it is argued that ramming was an important, perhaps the main, tactic of the largest galleys; see also M. Pitassi, The Navies of Rome (2009), esp. pp.191–197.

⁴ Dio 50. 9. 3, Plutarch, Antony 56.

⁵ Pelling (1988), pp.259–260, and CAH² X, pp.52 and 55, M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.197–198, and R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.294– 295.

⁶ Dio 50. 9. 3 noted that both strategy and supply encouraged Antony to disperse his forces; on the preparations at Actium see Dio 50. 12. 7–8.

⁷ Dio 50. 9. 5 –6; Plutarch, Antony 62 has a variation of this story, claiming that Octavian offered to withdraw from the coast of Italy and let Antony land unmolested.

⁸ Dio 50. 10. 1.

⁹ Dio 50. 11. 3; for insights into problems of long-range operations in the Roman period, see B. Rankov, ‘The Second Punic War at Sea', in T. Cornell, B. Rankov & P. Sabin (eds.), The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal (1996), pp.49–56, esp. 49–52.

¹⁰ Plutarch, Antony 62, with Pelling (1988), pp.271–272, for the double meaning of ‘ladle'; Dio 50. 11. 4–12. 3, and 50. 17. for the quote, taken from the Loeb translation by E. Cary.

¹¹ Plutarch, Antony 63, Dio 50. 12. 4–13. 4, with Pelling in CAH² X, pp.55–56, Osgood (2006), pp.372–373, and Carter (1970), pp.203–213. A well-illustrated account of the campaign is provided in S. Sheppard, Actium: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra,Osprey Campaign Series 211 (2009).

¹² Dio 50. 13. 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2, Plutarch, Antony 68.

¹³ Plutarch, Antony 63, Dio 50. 13. 5–14. 4.

¹⁴ Plutarch, Antony 59, 63, Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2, Dio 50. 13. 6, 14. 3, with Osgood (2006), pp.372 –373, and Syme (1960), p. 296, on the defections; see Osgood (2006), pp.263–264 for the career of Sarmentus, who also appears in Horace, Satires 1.

¹⁵ Dio 50. 13. 7–8.

¹⁶ On numbers see Pelling (1988), pp.276–277, W. Murray & P. Petsas, Octavian ‘s Campsite Memorial for the Actian War, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 79. 4 (1989), pp.34–57, 95–114 and 133–134.

¹⁷ See Carter (1970), pp.213–227.

¹⁸ Pliny, NH 32. 2 tells a bizarre story of Antony’s flagship being halted in the water by a small fish gripping onto its hull.

¹⁹ For the battle see Plutarch, Antony 64–66, 68, Dio 50. 14. 4–35. 6, with Osgood (2006), pp.374–375 and 380–382, Grant (1972), pp.206–215, and Pelling (1988), pp.278–289, and D. Harrington, ‘The Battle of Actium – a Study in Historiography’, Ancient World9. 1–2 (1984), pp.59–64.

²⁰ Plutarch, Antony 68, Dio 51. 1. 4–3. 1, Velleius Paterculus 2. 85. 5–6, with L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984), pp.134–136.

²¹ Plutarch, Antony 66; Josephus, Against Apion 2. 59 is the earliest author to accuse Cleopatra of treachery, and is followed by Dio 50. 33. 1–5.

XXIX ‘AFINE DEED’

¹ Dio 51. 1, 5, and Plutarch, Antony 67, 69 with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), pp.285– 287, 289, including discussions of the similarities to his account of Pompey’s escape from Pharsalus; on forces see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC—AD14(1971), pp.500–507, where it is argued that even if Octavian did not have many more legions than Antony, these were significantly larger in size; on Pinarius see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.128 and 66.

² Dio 51. 5. 2–5, Josephus, Against Apion 2. 58; on the music and garlands when her ships entered the harbour see the comment in G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth(2001), pp.128–141, esp. 140; J. Tyldesley, Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt (2009), p. 181, doubts the executions on the implausible basis that Cleopatra needed the support of the Alexandrians; J. Fletcher, Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend(2008), p. 297, suggests the temples willingly gave the queen their treasures; M. Grant, Cleopatra (1972), pp.217–218 and p. 275, n.7, on the priests of Upper Egypt. The source is Pseudo-Acro’s commentary on Horace, Odes 1. 37, 23.

³ Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 9, Plutarch, Antony 69–70, with Pelling (1988), pp.91– 93, and G. Grimm, ‘Alexandria in the Time of Cleopatra’, in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.), Cleopatra Reassessed (2003), pp.45 –49, esp. 49.

⁴ Plutarch, Antony 68.

⁵ Plutarch, Antony 71, Dio 51. 2. 1–6, 4. 1, 5. 1, Josephus, AJ 15. 183–198; in general see J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.375–378 and 385–390.

⁶ Dio 51. 3. 1–4. 8.

⁷ See Pelling (1988), pp.289– 291, and Osgood (2006), pp.387–388, citing ILS 2672 for fortifications on the Spanish coast.

⁸ Dio 51. 6. 3–7. 1, Plutarch, Antony 69, who says that Antony was fifty-three and Cleopatra thirty-nine when they died. Since the ancients did not have a zero, this would imply that each was in fact a year younger. However, their probable dates of birth make this unlikely. Plutarch, Antony 71, with Pelling (1988), pp.295–296.

⁹ Plutarch, Antony 71.

¹⁰ Plutarch, Antony 71, Dio 51. 6. 1–2.

¹¹ Dio 51. 6. 4–8. 7, Plutarch, Antony 72–73, with Pelling (1988), pp.297–300.

¹² Dio 51. 7. 2–7, Josephus, AJ 15. 195.

¹³ Plutarch, Antony 74.

¹⁴ For Gallus, see Syme (1960), pp.75 and 252–253.

¹⁵ Dio 51. 9. 1–6, Plutarch, Antony 74, with Pelling (1988), p. 300.

¹⁶ Dio 51. 10. 1–4, Plutarch, Antony 74.

¹⁷ Plutarch, Antony 75, with Pelling (1988), pp.302–304.

¹⁸ Dio 51. 10. 4–5, Plutarch, Antony 76; see Grant (1972), pp.222–223, who doubts treachery and sees the defections as due to the hopelessness of the situation.

¹⁹ Plutarch, Antony 76, Dio 51. 10. 5–7, with Grimm (2003), pp.48–49, on the mausoleum’s location and design.

²⁰ Dio 51. 10. 6–9, Plutarch, Antony 76–77, with Pelling (1988), pp.305–308; see also Grant (1972), pp.222–223, and Tyldesley (2009), p. 186; Fletcher (2008), pp.309–310 suggests that Cleopatra believed Antony was dead before going to the tomb.

²¹ Plutarch, Antony 80, Dio 51. 16. 4, with Suetonius, Augustus 89. 1, which refers to his association with Areius and other scholars, but also his limited fluency in Greek.

²² Dio 51. 11. 1 –4, and 14. 3 for the eunuch, Plutarch, Antony 78–79.

²³ On Antony’s funeral see Tyldesley (2009), pp.195–196, and Fletcher (2008), p. 312.

²⁴ Dio 51. 11. 3, 5–13., Plutarch, Antony 82–83, with Pelling (1988), pp.313–316, Florus 2. 21. 9–10.

²⁵ Plutarch, Antony 84.

²⁶ Grant (1972), pp.225–226, argues that it was better for Octavian to let the queen die.

²⁷ Strabo, Geog. 17. 1. 10.

²⁸ Dio 51. 13. 4–14. 6, Plutarch, Antony 84–86, with Pelling (1988), pp.316–322, Velleius Paterculus 2. 87. 1; see also Grant (1972), pp.224–228, Tyldesley (2009), pp.189–195, Fletcher (2008), pp.314–319, E. Rice, Cleopatra (1999), pp.86–91, P. Green,Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1990), pp.679–682, and G. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.248–249.

CONCLUSION: HISTORY AND THE GREAT ROMANCE

¹ Dio 51. 14. 3–4, 15. 1, 16. 3–5, Suetonius, Augustus 17. 3–5.

² Dio 51. 16. 5 –17. 1, 6–8, Plutarch, Antony 86, with C. Pelling (ed.), Plutarch: Life of Antony (1988), p. 323, and G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra’s Subtle Religious Strategy’, in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.), Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth (2001), pp.128–141, esp. p. 140; Pliny, NH 9. 121 on the pearl, with E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Fact and Fantasies’, in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.), Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman (2003), pp.257–274, esp. 59.

³ Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 1–3, 87. 2–3, R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1960), pp.296– 297 and 299–300, and J. Osgood, Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire (2006), pp.276– 280.

⁴ Dio 51. 15. 5, Plutarch, Antony 81.

⁵ Plutarch, Antony 81, Dio 51. 15. 5 –6; quote from Homer, Iliad 2. 203–207 (Latimore translation, University of Chicago, 1951).

⁶ Dio 51. 1. 5–9, Horace, Odes 1. 37, the famous nunc est bibendum; see also Osgood (2006), p. 385.

⁷ Dio 51. 15. 6–7, Plutarch, Antony 87.

⁸ For example, Appian, BC 4. 130, Plutarch, Antony 22.

⁹ For studies of Cleopatra in later culture see L. Hughes-Hallett, Cleopatra: Queen, Lover, Legend (1990, reprinted with new afterword 2006), and M. Hamer, Signs of Cleopatra: History, Politics, Representation (1993). For a more specific study of Cleopatra in Roman culture see D. Kleiner, Cleopatra and Rome (2005).