INTRODUCTION: A MAD EMPEROR?
Caligula as a monster: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 22.1; extravagance: ibid., 37; sex life: ibid., 24.36, 41.1; cruelty: ibid., 27; the consuls: ibid., 26.3; veneration as a god: ibid., 22.2–4; his horse: ibid., 55.3; Alexandria: ibid., 49.2. Caligula’s insanity:Seneca,On Anger (De Ira), 1.20.9, 3.19.3, 3.21.5; Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 76, 93; Pliny, Natural History, 36.113; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.277, 19.1, 19.193; Tacitus, Annals, 13.3.2; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 50.2, 51.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.26.5; modern scholarship: Quidde, “Caligula,” 67; Ferrill, Caligula, 165; Yavetz, “Caligula,” 105. Tacitus on Agrippina: Annals, 14.2; cf. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.204. Suetonius on the conspiracy of A.D. 39: Claudius, 9, and Vespasian, 2.3; Celsus, De Medicina, 3.18–22; Siegel, Galen on Psychology, 163; Flashar, Melancholie, 130–31. Insanity in the law: on homicide: Justinian, Digest, 1.18.13.1, 1.18.14, 29.5.3.11, 48.8.12. Violations of the lex maiestatis: Justinian, Digest, 48.4.7.3; Codex Justinianus, 9.7.1. Libel:Justinian, Digest, 9.2.5.2, 47.10.3.1. Mad rulers of later times: Middlefort, Mad Princes.
CHAPTER 1. CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH
The Legacy of Augustus
Dates of Caligula’s life and reign: Kienast, Kaisertabelle, 85–86. Contemporaries’ opinion of Augustus: Tacitus, Annals, 1.9–10. Introduction of the monarchy through the restoration of the Republic: Meier, “C. Caesar Divi filius.”
The Political Family
Mommsen, Staatsrecht 2.1143. The Julio-Claudian dynasty: Cf. Kienast, Kaisertabelle, 61–100; Meise, Julisch-claudische Dynastie.
A Childhood as “Little Boots”
Popularity of Germanicus: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 3–6. The nickname and situation in the legionaries’ camp: Seneca, On the Firmness of the Wise Man (De Constantia Sapientis), 18.4; Tacitus, Annals, 1.41–44, 1.69.4; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 9; Dio,Roman History, 57.5.6–7; cf. the Life of Commodus (10.2) in the Historia Augusta. The journeys to Greece and the East: Tacitus, Annals, 2.53–61, 2.69–72; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 10.1, and Tiberius, 52.2–3. The city of Assos: Smallwood,Documents, no. 33, p. 29, ll. 15–17. Germanicus’s funeral procession: Tacitus, Annals, 2.75.1, 3.1–5.
Conditions in Ancient Rome under Tiberius
Cf. Levick, Tiberius. Salutatio at the houses of Augustus and Tiberius: Winterling, Aula Caesaris, 122–23. Trials for maiestas: Tacitus, Annals, 3.37.1, 3.38.1–2, 3.65–70; Suetonius, Tiberius, 58; Dio, Roman History, 57.23. On Titius Sabinus: Tacitus,Annals, 4.184, 4.68–70; Dio, Roman History, 58.1.1b. Capri: Tacitus, Annals, 4.67; Suetonius, Tiberius, 40; Dio, Roman History, 58.1.1. Sejanus’s salutatio: Dio, Roman History, 57.21.4, 58.5.2. Consulship through Sejanus: Tacitus, Annals, 4.68.2. Sejanus’s power, honors, and downfall: Tacitus, Annals, 4.74; Suetonius, Tiberius, 65; Dio, Roman History, 58.4–11. Tiberius’s fearfulness: Suetonius, Tiberius, 63, 65–66.
A Perilous Youth
The poisoning of Drusus (II): Tacitus, Annals, 4.7, 4.8.1. Nero and Drusus (III): Tacitus, Annals, 4.8.3–4, 4.17.1–2; Suetonius, Tiberius, 54. Enmity toward Agrippina and her sons: Tacitus, Annals, 4.12, 4.17.3; Suetonius, Tiberius, 54. Intrigue against Agrippina at Tiberius’s dinner: Tacitus, Annals, 4.54; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53.1. Intrigues against Nero: Tacitus, Annals, 4.60. Arrest of Agrippina and Nero: Tacitus, Annals, 4.67.3–4. Caligula in the house of Livia and Antonia: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 10.1. Caligula’s funeral oration for Livia: Tacitus, Annals, 5.1.4. Death of Nero: Suetonius, Tiberius, 54.2, 61.1; Dio, Roman History, 58.8.4. Treatment of Drusus (III): Tacitus, Annals, 6.23.2, 6.24, 6.40.3; Dio, Roman History, 58.3.8. Intrigues and charges against Caligula: Tacitus, Annals, 6.3.4, 6.5.1, 6.9.2.
Capri and the Path to the Throne
Caligula moves to Capri: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 10.1. Supposed chances for the throne: Dio, Roman History, 58.8.1–2. Dynastic prestige of Germanicus’s family: Tacitus, Annals, 5.4.2; Suetonius, Tiberius, 65.2. Avillius Flaccus: Philo, Against Flaccus, 9–11. Death of Drusus: Tacitus, Annals, 6.23–24; Suetonius, Tiberius, 54. Death of Agrippina: Tacitus, Annals, 6.25; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53.1. Julius Agrippa and Caligula: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.161–69, 183–92. The grammarian Seleucus:Suetonius, Tiberius, 56. Caligula’s education: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.206. Tiberius’s scholarly interests: Suetonius, Tiberius, 70–71. Caligula’s quaestorship: Dio, Roman History, 58.23.1. Wedding in Antium: Tacitus, Annals, 6.20; cf. Dio, Roman History (58.25.1), who places the event in the year 35. M. Junius Silanus: Tacitus, Annals, 3.57.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.5–6. Marriages of Caligula’s sisters: Tacitus, Annals, 6.15; Dio, Roman History, 58.20.1. Tiberius’s will: Suetonius,Tiberius, 76.Macro’s support, the affair with Ennia: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 32–33, 39–40, cf. 61; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 12.2; Tacitus, Annals, 6.45.3; Dio, Roman History, 58.28.4. Tiberius’s last plans for the succession and risk for Caligula:Philo, Against Flaccus, 11–12, and The Embassy to Gaius, 24–25, 41, 58; Suetonius, Tiberius, 62.3; Dio, Roman History, 57.22.4b, 58.23.2; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.211–15; Tacitus, Annals, 6.46.3. Death of Tiberius: Tacitus, Annals, 6.50; Suetonius,Tiberius, 72–73, and Gaius Caligula, 12.2; Dio, Roman History, 58.28.3.
CHAPTER 2. TWO YEARS AS PRINCEPS
A Young Augustus
The journey to Rome: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 13–14. Caligula’s first speech in the Senate: Dio, Roman History, 59.6.1–3. The first denunciation for conspiracy: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 15.4. Tiberius’s funeral: Dio, Roman History, 59.3.7–8; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 15.1. Tiberius’s bequests: Dio, Roman History, 59.2; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 16.3. On the drills of the Praetorian Guard: Dio, Roman History, 59.2.1. Burial of Caligula’s mother and brothers: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 15.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.3.5. Honors for his family: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 15.2–3; Dio, Roman History, 59.3.3–4. Adoption of Gemellus: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 26–27; Dio, Roman History, 59.1.3. Renunciation of honors: Dio, Roman History, 59.3.1, 59.4.4, 59.6.5. Greeting ritual: Dio, Roman History, 59.7.6.
Illness and Consolidation
Drusilla and Lepidus: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 24.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.22.6–7. Caligula’s illness: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 14; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 14.2; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.1. The murder of Gemellus: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 23, 29–31; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 23.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.1 and 3. The fall of Macro: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 58–61; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 26.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.10.6–7 (Dio’s chronology is confused). M. Arrecinus Clemens:Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, A 1073. Execution of further supporters of Gemellus: Dio, Roman History, 59.8.1, 59.10.7–9. Avillius Flaccus: Philo, Against Flaccus, 9–10. Silanus: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 23.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.4–6. Reasons for aristocrats’ suicides: Tacitus, Annals, 6.29. The chronological order for the downfall of Macro and Silanus follows Philo’s account. Marriage: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 25.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.7–8 (where the bride’s name is given as Cornelia Orestina). New Year’s oaths, rationes imperii, works on history, the courts, the equestrian order: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 16.1–2; Dio, Roman History, 59.9.1–2 and 4–5. Reintroduction of popular elections: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 16.2; Dio, Roman History, 59.9.6, 59.20.3–6. Collegia: Dio, Roman History, 60.6.6. Games in the year 38: Dio, Roman History, 59.10.1–5; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 18.1; cf. 21. Honors for Caligula: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 16.4. Agrippa’s close friendship with Caligula:Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 268. Deaths of flatterers: Dio, Roman History, 59.8.3–4; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 27.2.
Holding Power
Aristocratic households: Rilinger, “Domus und res publica.” Ceremony at the salutatio: Seneca, On Favors (De Beneficiis), 6.33–34. Bequests in Tiberius’s will: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 37.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.2.6. Caligula’s buildings on the Palatine: Winterling, Aula Caesaris, 57–59. Presence of Agrippina and others at the salutatio: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 261–62, 267. Macro’s admonition at banquet: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 42–44. Order of seating at table: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 24.1, and Claudius, 8. Guests at Caligula’s banquets: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 55.2, 32.3, 36.1–2, and Vespasian, 2.3. Foods served: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 37.1. Expenditure by aristocrats: Pliny, Natural History, 9.117. Cleopatra:Pliny,Natural History, 9.119–20. Macro’s admonitions about behavior in public: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 45–46. Gaianum: Dio, Roman History, 59.14.6. Vitellius: Suetonius, Vitellius, 4, 17.2. Caligula as a gladiator: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 32.2, 54.1; Dio,Roman History, 59.5.5. Apelles and Mnester: Dio, Roman History, 59.5.2; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 36.1, 55.1. Augustus at games: Suetonius, Augustus, 43.2–3. Caligula’s behavior at games: Dio, Roman History, 59.5.4, 59.13.5.
The Death of Drusilla
Caligula in mourning: Seneca, On Consolation (Ad Polybium de Consolatione), 17.4–5; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 24.2. Posthumous honors for Drusilla: Dio, Roman History, 59.11; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 24.2. Drusilla’s ascension to heaven:Seneca,Apocolocyntosis, 1.2; Dio, Roman History, 59.11.4. Caligula’s marriage to Lollia Paulina: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 25.2; Dio, Roman History, 59.12.1, 59.23.7; Tacitus, Annals, 12.2.2.
The Empire
Caligula’s journey to Sicily: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.205–6; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 20, 21.1, 51.1. Fire in Rome: Dio, Roman History, 59.9.4. Aqueducts: Frontinus, On Aqueducts (De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae), 13; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 21. Campaign in Germania: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 43, and Galba, 6.2–3. Agrippa and Antiochus enthroned: Philo, Against Flaccus, 25, see also 40; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.237; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 16.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.8.2.Royal coronations in the year 38: Dio, Roman History, 59.12.2. The palace of Polycrates and the Isthmus of Corinth: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 21. Quotation from Homer: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 22.1.
CHAPTER 3. THE CONFLICTS ESCALATE
The Consulars’ Conspiracy
Domitian’s remark: Suetonius, Domitian, 21. Chants at the theater: Dio, Roman History, 59.13.7. Corruption in the management of roads: Dio, Roman History, 59.15.3–5. Caligula’s victims in the Senate: Dio, Roman History, 59.18.4–5, 59.19. C. Calvisius Sabinus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, C 354; Tacitus, Histories, 1.48.2; cf. Plutarch, Galba, 12. Titius Rufus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, T 201. Junius Priscus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, I 801. Cn. Domitius Afer:Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, D 126. Seneca: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 53.2.
The Moment of Truth
Speech in the Senate: Dio, Roman History, 59.16.2–7; cf. Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 30.2. Testamentary bequests to Augustus: Suetonius, Augustus, 101.3; cf. 66.4; Tacitus, Annals, 1.8.1. Bequests to Tiberius: Dio, Roman History, 58.16.2. Bequests to Caligula made compulsory: Dio, Roman History, 59.15.1 and 6. Contributions to daughter’s education: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 42. Coerced gifts and invitations: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 343–44. Caligula’s pleasure over aristocrats’ lack of power:Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 344. Auction of gladiators: Dio, Roman History, 59.14.1–4. Incitatus: Dio, Roman History, 59.14.7; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 55.3. Marriage to Caesonia: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 25.3–4; cf. Dio, Roman History, 59.23.7. Date of the wedding: Meise, Julisch-claudische Dynastie, 106–7; Barrett, Caligula, 94–95. Name for Agrippina’s son: Suetonius, Nero, 6.2. Gaetulicus in the reign of Tiberius: Tacitus, Annals, 6.30.2–4. Incursions by Germanic tribes: Suetonius,Tiberius, 41.
The Great Conspiracy and the Expedition to the North
Consuls removed from office: Dio, Roman History, 59.20.2–3. New consuls: Cn. Domitius Afer: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, D 126; A. Didius Gallus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, D 70. The African legion: Dio, Roman History, 59.20.7; cf. Tacitus,Histories, 4.48. Departure for Germania: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 43. Suetonius’s misunderstanding: cf. Willrich, “Caligula,” 307, note 1; Dio, Roman History, 59.21. Documentation on the presence of Lepidus and Caligula’s sisters in the retinue:Seneca, Moral Epistles (Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales), 1.4.7; Dio, Roman History, 59.22.8. Lack of suspicion against sisters documented by later auction in Gaul of their servants, household goods, and jewelry: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 39.1.Explicit references to the great conspiracy in mid-39: Suetonius, Claudius, 9.1, and Vespasian, 2.3, cf. Gaius Caligula, 24.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.22.5–9, 59.23.1; cf. also Balsdon, Emperor Gaius, 66–95; Meise, Julisch-claudische Dynastie, 91–122.Suetonius on the reasons for the expedition: Gaius Caligula, 43; cf. Dio, Roman History, 59.21.1–2, 59.22.1. The conspiracy is foiled: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 24.3; Dio, Roman History, 59.22.5–9, 59.23.1. Acta Fratrum Arvalium: Smallwood,Documents, no. 9, p. 14, ll. 18–21. Conspirators on trial in Rome: Dio, Roman History, 59.23.8. Vespasian as a praetor: Suetonius, Vespasian, 2.3. First delegation from the Senate: Dio, Roman History, 59.23.2 and 5 (Dio locates the event in Gaul); Suetonius, Claudius, 9.1. Incursions by Germanic tribes: Suetonius, Tiberius, 41, cf. Galba, 6.3. Military actions on the upper Rhine: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 44.1. On Galba: Suetonius, Galba, 6.2–3, and Vespasian, 2.3. Acclamations as imperator:Dio, Roman History, 59.22.2. Military farce:Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 45.1. Tacitus on the military actions: Germania, 37.5; Histories, 4.15.3; Agricola, 13.4. Cassius Dio on wealthy Gauls: Roman History, 59.22.3. Auctions in Gaul: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 39; Dio, Roman History, 59.21.5–6.Wealthy Gaul at the emperor’s table: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 39.2. Theatrical performances in Gaul: Dio, Roman History, 59.22.1. Oratorical competition: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 20. Town of Vienna:Cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 212, col. 2, ll. 15–17. Events in Rome at the beginning of the year 40: Dio, Roman History, 59.24; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 17.1. Prince Adminius: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 44.2. Events at the English Channel:Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 46; Dio, Roman History, 59.25.1–3 (Xiphilinus). Interpretation of the events: Balsdon, Emperor Gaius, 88–95; more recently Barrett, Caligula, 125–39. Mutiny in the year 43: Dio, Roman History, 60.19.1–3. Legions punished:Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 48. On the situation in Britain: Barrett, Caligula, 127–29. Tacitus on the military campaigns: Germania, 37.5; Histories, 4.15.3; Agricola, 13.2. Triumph and honors prohibited: Cf. Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 48.2, 49.2.
Reshaping the Emperor’s Role
Powerful freedmen under Augustus: Juvenal 1.109, 14.305–8; Suetonius, Augustus, 67.1; Dio, Roman History, 54.21.3–8. Under Tiberius: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.167; Tacitus, Annals, 6.38.2. Caligula’s aristocratic retinue in public: Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 19.102. Nymphidia: Plutarch, Galba, 9. Callistus and Domitius Afer: Dio, Roman History, 59.19.6, 59.20.1. Callistus’s position: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.64–65; cf. Dio, Roman History, 59.25.7–8 (Zonaras). Helicon: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 166–83, 203, 205. Role of Caesonia and the Praetorian prefects: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 25.3 f.; Dio, Roman History, 59.25.7 (Zonaras and the Excerpta Vaticana); Persius 6.43–47. Imperial procurators, officers of the Praetorian Guard: Suetonius,Gaius Caligula, 47; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.28–29; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 40.
Triumphantly Crossing the Sea
Presence near Rome in May 40: Acta Fratrum Arvalium: Smallwood, Documents, no. 10, p. 14, l. 15. Delegation from the Senate: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 181. Journey to Campania: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 185. Bridge of ships from Puteoli:Seneca, On the Shortness of Life (De Brevitate Vitae), 18.5; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.5–6.; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 19.32.1 (and, on Alexander’s breastplate, 52); Dio, Roman History, 59.17. (Dating according to the indications given by Seneca and Josephus; Cassius Dio places the event in the year 39 without providing a context.)
CHAPTER 4. FIVE MONTHS OF MONARCHY
Subjugating the Aristocracy
Entrance into Rome: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 49.2. Instances of torture under Tiberius: Suetonius, Tiberius, 58; Dio, Roman History, 57.19.2. Plans to eliminate the entire Senate: Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 3.19.2; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 49.2; cf. Dio,Roman History, 59.25.5. Regular executions: Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 3.19.1; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 32.1; cf. 27.3. Julius Canus: Seneca, On Tranquility of Mind (De Tranquillitate Animi), 14.4–10; Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy (Consolatio Philosophiae), 1.4.90–94; cf. Plutarch, frg. 211. Ten-day interval between sentencing and execution in trials for maiestas: Tacitus, Annals, 3.51.2. Julius Graecinus (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, I 344): Seneca, On Favors (De Beneficiis), 2.21.5; cf. Seneca, Moral Epistles (Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales), 29.6; Tacitus, Agricola, 4.1. Agricola’s birth (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, I 126): Tacitus, Agricola, 44.1. Pomponius and Quintilia: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.32–36 (Pompedius); Suetonius,Gaius Caligula, 16.4 (without mention of the name); Dio, Roman History, 59.26.4 (Pomponius). Sextus Papinius (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, P 101), Betilienus Bassus (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, B 114): Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 3.18.3–19.5; Dio, Roman History, 59.25.5b–7. C. Anicius Cerialis (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, A 594): Tacitus, Annals, 15.74.3, 16.17.5. Protogenes in the Senate: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 28; Dio, Roman History, 59.26.1–2. The emperor’s guard in the Senate:Suetonius, Augustus, 35.1 (Augustus); Dio, Roman History, 58.17.3–4. (Tiberius). Testimony by slaves against their masters: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.12–14; under Tiberius: Dio, Roman History, 57.19.2; under Claudius: Dio, Roman History, 60.15.5.Claudius on trial: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.12–14; Suetonius, Claudius, 9.1. Aristocratic hostages on the Palatine Hill: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 41.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.28.9. Living in Augustus’s palace: Dio, Roman History, 53.27.5; in Galba’s palace: Suetonius, Galba, 14.2. Aristocrats’ criticism of Seneca: Tacitus, Annals, 13.42; Dio, Roman History, 61.10.1–3.
Dishonoring the Aristocracy
Reserved seating at the theater abolished: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.86; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 26.4. Claudius in the Senate: Suetonius, Claudius, 9.2. Dishonoring the noble families: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 34.1, 35.1. Pompeius Magnus(Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, P 630): Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 9339; Syme, Roman Revolution, 468. Pompeius’s end: Seneca, Apocolocyntosis, 11.2; Suetonius, Claudius, 29.1–2; Dio, Roman History, 61(60).29.6a. Flattery continues: Philo,The Embassy to Gaius, 116. Senators at banquets: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 26.2. Submissiveness of aristocrats under Augustus and Tiberius: Tacitus, Annals, 1.2.1, 1.7.1, 1.74.2. Kissing Caligula’s foot: Dio, Roman History, 59.27.1; Seneca, On Favors(De Beneficiis), 2.12.1–2 (Pompeius Poenus). Kissing actors: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 55.1. Gratitude for a kiss from the emperor mentioned in the Senate: Dio, Roman History, 59.27.1. Caligula’s rhetorical abilities: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.208; Tacitus, Annals, 13.3.2; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 53.1.
The Emperor as “God”
L. Vitellius: Dio, Roman History, 59.27.5. Dating of his recall from Syria: Malalas 10.244 (with confusion about the name); cf. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.261, and Dio, Roman History, as above. Senate decree to build a temple to Caligula: Dio,Roman History, 59.28.2; priesthood for his cult: Dio, Roman History, 59.28.5. Divine honors for Caesar: Dio, Roman History, 44.6.4. The sacrae occupationes of Tiberius: Suetonius, Tiberius, 27. Offerings to images of Tiberius and Sejanus: Dio, Roman History, 58.4.4. A senator prostrates himself: Tacitus, Annals, 1.13.6. Octavian’s “banquet of the twelve gods”: Suetonius, Augustus, 70. Antonius: Plutarch, Antonius, 4.1–2, 24.3, 26.3, 60.2–3. Augustus’s refusal of divine honors: Suetonius, Augustus, 52; cf. Dio,Roman History, 51.20.6–7. Tiberius’s rejection of honors and criticism by the Senate: Tacitus, Annals, 4.37–38. Cult for Tiberius, Livia, and the Senate: Tacitus, Annals, 4.15.3; cf. 4.37–38. Divinity of the Senate: Talbert, Senate, 96–97. Caligula’s appearances costumed as a god: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 78–80, 93–97; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 52; Dio, Roman History, 59.26.10; cf. 59.26.5–7. On “religious policy”: Willrich, “Caligula,” 107–16. Suetonius on the emperor’s clothing: Gaius Caligula, 52. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence: Barrett, Caligula, 148–49. “Conversation” with the moon goddess: Dio, Roman History, 59.27.6. Apelles: Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 33. Fee charged to enter the college of the emperor’s priests:Dio,Roman History, 59.28.5. Claudius’s prohibition of veneration as a god: Dio, Roman History, 60.5.4. Scribonius Largus: Compositiones (praefatio), 60, 163. Temple for Nero: Tacitus, Annals, 15.74.3. Seneca on Claudius’s “divine hand”: Seneca, On Consolation (Ad Polybium de Consolatione), 13.2; cf. Tacitus, Annals, 13.42; Dio, Roman History, 60.8.5. Pliny the Elder: Pliny, Natural History, praef. 11. Philo on Caligula’s deification: The Embassy to Gaius, 76 (the emperor’s paraplēxia). Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 18.256, 19.4 and 11. Cult of the emperor in Judaea: cf. Barrett, Caligula, 182–91. Intervention by Agrippa: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.289–301; Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 276–329. Jewish delegation’s first audience: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 180–83; second audience: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 349–72. Josephus’s descriptions of Caligula before his murder: Jewish Antiquities, 19.87–104. Suetonius on the deification of Caligula: Gaius Caligula, 22.2–4; cf. 33, 52. Threat to Jupiter:Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 1.20.8–9. The shoemaker who laughed: Dio, Roman History, 59.26.8–9.
Stability of Rule
For the Praetorian Guard, Germanic bodyguards, and the people of Rome, compare the reports on the reaction to Caligula’s assassination: Dio, Roman History, 59.30.2, 59.30.1b; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.115, 19.121–22, 19.158–59. On conflicts with the plebs: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.24–26; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 26.5. L. Vitellius: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, V 500; Dio, Roman History, 59.27.5–6. A. Vitellius: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, V 499; Suetonius,Vitellius, 4, 17.2. Q. Pomponius Secundus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, P 757; Dio, Roman History, 59.29.5. Cn. Sentius Saturninus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, S 296; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.185. C. Sallustius Crispus Passienus:Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, P 146; Suetonius, Vita Passieni Crispi. Valerius Asiaticus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, V 25; Seneca, On the Firmness of the Wise Man (De Constantia Sapientis), 18.2. Marcus Vinicius: Prosopographia Imperii Romani1, V 445; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.102. Annius Vinicianus: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, A 701; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.96–98. Paullus Arruntius: Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, A 1135; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.102.On mutual mistrust: Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 19.51–52. On Caligula’s inner circle: Dio, Roman History, 59.25.7.
Alexandria an Alternative?
On Caligula’s plans regarding Alexandria: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 173, 250, 338; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.81; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 49.2; cf. 8.5. On Julius Caesar: Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 79.3. Marcus Antonius: Dio, Roman History, 50.4.1. Nero: Plutarch, Galba, 2.1; Dio, Roman History, 63.27.2. On Caligula’s conflict with members of his inner circle: Cassius Dio’s quotation, Roman History 59.25.8, is a combination of excerpts from Zonaras and the Excerpta Vaticana. Date of planned departure for Alexandria: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.81; cf. Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 58.1.
CHAPTER 5. MURDER ON THE PALATINE
On secret treachery: Tacitus, Histories, 3.68.1. Core members of the conspiracy: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.46–48; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 56.1, 58.2; Dio, Roman History, 59.29.1, 59.29.5–6. Aemilius Regulus, Annius Vinicianus: Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 19.17–18. Valerius Asiaticus: Tacitus, Annals, 11.1.2; cf. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.159; Dio, Roman History, 59.30.2. On the emperor’s retinue shortly before the assassination: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.101–2. Callistus and Claudius: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.64–69. The new Praetorian prefect Rufrius Pollio (Prosopographia Imperii Romani2, R 173): Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.267. The death of the assassins: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.268–73; Suetonius,Claudius, 11.1; Dio, Roman History, 60.3.4–5. The execution of Protogenes and Helicon: Dio, Roman History, 60.4.5; Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 206. Consultation about the new empress in the year 48: Tacitus, Annals, 12.1–2. On the assassination itself:Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 56.2, 58; Dio, Roman History, 59.29.6–7; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.99–114; Seneca, On the Firmness of the Wise Man (De Constantia Sapientis), 18.3. The deaths of Caesonia and Drusilla: Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 19.198–200 (where their deaths are not shown as immediately following the assassination); Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 59; Dio, Roman History, 59.29.7. On the situation in the theater after the murder: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.127–57; Dio, Roman History, 59.30.1b. On the session in the Senate: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.166–89, 19.248–62; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 60, and Claudius, 10.3, 11.1; Dio, Roman History, 59.30.3, 60.1–2. Aspirants to the throne: Josephus,Jewish Antiquities, 19.251–52; Dio,Roman History, 60.15.1. The people in the Forum: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.158–59. Claudius’s elevation to the throne: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.162–65, 19.212–26, 19.247; Suetonius, Claudius, 10; Dio,Roman History, 60.1.3–3a. Caligula’s burial: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.237; Suetonius, Gaius Caligula, 59.
CONCLUSION: INVENTING
THE MAD EMPEROR
On Caligula’s “madness”: Seneca, On Anger (De Ira), 1.20.9, 3.21.5, 3.19.3; Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 76, 93; Pliny, Natural History, 36.113; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 18.277, 19.1, 19.4–5, 19.11, 19.193. Positive assessments: Philo, The Embassy to Gaius, 263; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.208. Tacitus on Caligula: Agricola, 13.2; Annals, 6.20.1, 6.45.3, 11.3.2, 15.72.2; Histories, 4.42.5, 4.48.1. The “madness” of other emperors: Dio, Roman History, 59.1.2; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.259; Tacitus,Annals, 6.46.1; Dio, Roman History, 63.27.2. Suetonius on Caligula’s mental illness: Gaius Caligula, 50.2–3, 51.1; cf. Dio, Roman History, 59.26.5. Suetonius’s Life of Gaius Caligula in the reign of Commodus: Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Commodus, On imperial rule in late antiquity: Kolb, Herrscherideologie. On measures taken by Claudius: Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19.246; Suetonius, Claudius, 11; Dio, Roman History, 60.3.5, 60.4.1 and 5, 60.5.1 and 4, 60.22.3. The conspiracy of Vinicianus and Camillus: Dio, Roman History, 60.15–16; Suetonius, Claudius, 13.2. Security measures: Dio, Roman History, 60.3.3. Poisoning of Claudius: Tacitus, Annals, 12.66–67; Dio, Roman History, 61(60).34. On Seneca: Seneca, On Consolation (Ad Polybium de Consolatione), 13.2; cf. Apocolocyntosis, passim.