22

The Rose of Rouen

Despite their defeat at Ludford Bridge and being stripped of their lands and titles at the Parliament of Devils, not all was lost for the Yorkists. They still had strong support from the Commons and the people of London, and they were starting to gain international support for their cause.¹ In Dublin, the Irish parliament passed a law making it a treasonable offense to attempt to kill lieutenant of Ireland, giving Richard some measure of protection from King Henry’s faction. In Calais, Warwick’s navy had rallied around him, despite the fact that he wasn’t the captain of Calais any longer. That title had been given to the younger duke of Somerset, Henry Beaufort, but the citizens had refused to acknowledge him. On 15 January 1460, Warwick further harassed the Somerset and the Lancastrians by destroying a fleet of ships being specially built to aid Somerset against Warwick in Calais.

Slowly but surely, support was building again for the Yorkists and their cause. In the spring of 1460, the people of Kent, who were the instigators of Cade’s Rebellion ten years earlier, sent a letter to Warwick pledging their support and their men to fight in his army. That was the little support the Yorkists needed. With momentum seemingly on their side, Warwick and York held a secret war council in March 1460 where they laid plans for an invasion of England. Those plans were put into action just three months later when Warwick, Salisbury, and York’s 16-year-old son Edward sailed from Calais and landed their invasion fleet at Sandwich on 26 June 1460 with about 2,000 soldiers.² Their march to London was carefully planned so that it passed through the county of Kent where they expected to pick up several thousands of men to join their army.

The king and queen’s army was in Coventry and only a small royal force was left behind in London, commanded by Lord Scales. The king ordered Londoners to resist the Yorkists but they defied King Henry and allowed Warwick’s army to enter the city on 2 July 1460.³ The fact that Londoners allowed Warwick to enter unopposed suggests that they were ready for an able leader to take control of the kingdom, for they knew that King Henry was unable to govern them. Warwick himself was reported to say ‘our king is a dolt and a fool who is ruled instead of ruling’.⁴ Warwick was also a sort of a celebrity at that time, having been renowned for his exploits in Calais but mostly for leading the Yorkists to victory at the First Battle of St Albans. London citizens clearly liked and respected Warwick better than Richard of York, whom they had turned away from London in 1452 when he tried to take the city by force.

It didn’t take long for the news of Warwick’s London takeover to reach the king and queen who had remained at Coventry in the Lancastrian Midlands, counting on Londoners to repel Warwick’s rebel army. It was only when the Yorkist army departed London headed for Coventry that the king finally acted. Around July 6, King Henry departed Coventry at the head of the royal army and headed southeast towards London to confront the approaching Yorkist army. The Yorkists and the Lancastrians were on an unavoidable collision course.

On 10 July 1460, the two armies faced off against each other at the decisive Battle of Northampton after days of failed negotiations. The Yorkist army, led by Edward of March, Warwick, and Lord Fauconberg, initiated the battle and quickly overwhelmed the royal army with their superior numbers.⁵ Paving the way for the Yorkist victory was the desertion of Edmund Grey, one of the leading Lancastrian commanders. He ordered all his men to lay down their weapons and allow Warwick to penetrate the royal army’s defensive line unmolested. The king’s soldiers tried to flee the slaughter but once again they found themselves trapped on the battlefield by a river. With no other escape route, many royal soldiers drowned while trying to flee across the river. King Henry’s most ardent supporters, including the dukes of Buckingham, Shrewsbury, and Beaumont were hunted down and slaughtered on the battlefield. Mercifully, the battle only lasted a half an hour.⁶

The Battle of Northampton was a huge victory for the Yorkists, even more so since they were able to take back possession of King Henry VI. The king was found in the royal tent and willingly gave himself over to the Yorkists. Warwick, Edward, and Fauconberg immediately pledged fealty to the king and transported him back to London. He was once again their puppet king.

With King Henry in the hands of the Yorkists, Queen Margaret felt increasingly threatened, not only for herself but for the safety of her son, Prince Edward. She had not gone to Northampton with the king and his army but instead stayed back in Coventry with Edward. When she received news of the Lancastrian defeat and the capture of her husband, she fled with her son to Jasper Tudor’s Harlech Castle in Wales but then was moved to Denbigh Castle which was thought to be safer than Harlech. She remained in Wales for the next five months trying to rally more supporters to her cause.⁷

Meanwhile, back in London Warwick was still leading the Yorkist takeover. His next step was to have King Henry summon a meeting of parliament for 7 October 1460. There were two main items on the agenda: reward Yorkist supporters and reverse the Act of Attainder from the Parliament of Devils that took away all of the Yorkist nobles’ lands and titles. It wasn’t until after the summons for parliament went out that the duke of York finally sailed from Ireland to join his allies in England, a whole two months after the Yorkists’ colossal victory over the Lancastrians at Northampton. After arriving in England, York took his time slowly making his way across England, showing himself to the people in a rather kingly way as if he were on a royal progress.⁸

When York, finally arrived in London on 10 October 1460, it was apparent to everyone that he had a new motive. York had a different demeanor this time and carried himself majestically, even decked himself out in a special blue and white uniform embroidered with Plantagenet symbols. He made a great show as he and his 500-man Yorkist army made their official entry into London with trumpeters announcing his arrival along with a great display of royal banners.⁹ He then proceeded to Westminster where parliament was in session and made his intent known. After barging into the Star Chamber, York walked straight up to the king’s throne and placed his hand upon it. This was a symbolic gesture that he was officially staking his claim to the throne of England. Members of parliament were shocked and horrified. York was in turn equally shocked when no one rose to support his claim, instead there was only a stunned silence.¹⁰ He withdrew from the chamber but then six days later he formally asserted his right to the throne based on his supreme lineage over Henry VI to which he provided a genealogical roll. He claimed that Henry IV had unlawfully seized the crown from Richard II, thus cutting out the Mortimer line from royal succession.¹¹

In a closed session, leading nobles wrestled over how to respond to York’s claim without angering him but also how to honour the rights of the sitting monarch, King Henry VI. After two weeks of debates, a compromise called the Act of Accord was reached on 24 October 1460. In the agreement, King Henry VI was declared the rightful king of England until his death or voluntary resignation. Richard, Duke of York, followed by the heirs of his body were declared next in line to the throne, essentially disinheriting the king’s son, Prince Edward.¹² The Parliament Rolls record King Henry’s reaction when he was told of their verdict: ‘to avoid the shedding of Christian blood, by good and serious deliberation and the advice of all his lords spiritual and temporal, agreed to the settlement’.¹³

Why would Henry agree to remove his son from succession? Some say it’s because he didn’t believe Edward was really his son. Rumours about Edward’s parentage had been circulating for years and perhaps Henry believed them. It was well known that the king and queen required coaching in the bedroom and Henry was notoriously pious, abhorring the sight of naked skin.¹⁴ Perhaps he knew for sure that Edward was not his son because he and his wife were in a sexless marriage. The most likely explanation of Henry’s acquiescence could be that he really had no other choice. One London chronicler wrote that ‘the king for fear of death granted York the crown because he was kept at Westminster by force and strength’.¹⁵

One person who was surprisingly unpleased with the Act of Accord was Warwick. He was distressed at York’s bold attempt to take the throne upon his recent arrival in London. He may have also been shaken by the lack of support in parliament for the Yorkist cause. He was also offended that York swooped in to steal the glory after Warwick had orchestrated the invasion that led to the victory at Northampton and had been holding the city of London waiting for York’s late arrival.

Obviously, Queen Margaret was supremely unhappy about the Act of Accord since it cut her son out of the line of royal succession. Unlike her husband, she was not ready to give in to the Yorkists, it simply made her more determined to fight for her son’s cause. In December 1460, she took the reins of the Lancastrian party by sailing to Scotland with the purpose of soliciting financial and military support from Mary of Guelders, the dowager queen of Scotland. Soon with Scotland’s help, as well as Lancastrian supporters in northern England, Queen Margaret had raised an army of nearly 15,000 men and they began a campaign of raids on the England-Scotland border.¹⁶

With Lancastrian uprisings springing up across the kingdom, the duke of York had no choice but to split up his forces. He sent his son Edward to Wales to put down Jasper Tudor’s uprising. Warwick would stay in London to protect the capital. York took his second eldest son, Edmund, north with him along with 6,000 soldiers to confront the Lancastrians.¹⁷ On the way north York learned that the queen’s army was much larger than he had anticipated so he decided to stop at his own Sandal Castle, just south of the town of Wakefield, on 21 December 1460 to await reinforcements from his son Edward. At some point thereafter, the two sides called a temporary truce to last over the Christmas holiday.¹⁸

As the traditional story goes, on 30 December 1460 a small Yorkist foraging party was sent from the castle to look for any food they could harvest or supplies they could gather. Although it was still the Christmas season and the truce still active, the Lancastrian army appeared before the foragers and a fight erupted. The duke of York left the castle to join in the melee, but it quickly turned into a full-scale battle for which he was not prepared.¹⁹ The Lancastrian army encircled and outnumbered York’s men. York was pulled off his horse and unceremoniously hacked to death. His son Edmund was captured by Lord Clifford, whose own father had been killed by Yorkists at the Battle of St Albans. Lord Clifford cut Edmund down after declaring ‘By God’s blood thy father slew mine and so will I do thee and all thy kin.’²⁰ Salisbury was captured and publicly beheaded. The heads of York, Salisbury, and Edmund were placed on spikes at Micklegate Bar so all those entering York on the main road from London would see what the king did with traitors. A paper crown was placed on York’s head to mock his lost battle to be crowned king of England. The Battle of Wakefield was a severe blow to the Yorkist cause and it opened the door for the queen’s army to march south into London.

It was mid-January 1461 when Edward of March received the disastrous news that his father and younger brother Edmund had been killed by the Lancastrians at the Battle of Wakefield. Now Edward would step up to become the de facto leader of the Yorkist rebellion as he was next in line to the throne according to the Act of Accord. In Edward there became a Yorkist revival of sorts because this new young candidate, unlike his ambitious and haughty father Richard, fit the ideals of a medieval ruler. He was the complete opposite of the pathetic King Henry VI. Edward was tall, handsome, young (only 19 years old), and had a reputation as a fierce warrior and capable military leader. He had inherited his father’s leadership skills and he also had a few vital qualities that York was lacking: he was charming, charismatic, and chivalrous.²¹ He was exactly what the people of England wanted in a king. He was a breath of fresh air after the disastrous reign of Henry VI. The people may have been hesitant to back his father’s claim to the throne, but would they be more eager to support this new prince of York?

After the disaster at Wakefield and the death of his father and brother, Edward mustered his army of mostly Welshmen and prepared to leave Gloucester for London to help Warwick defend the city against Queen Margaret’s army who was barreling their way south. Shortly after departing Gloucester, Edward received news that a Lancastrian army led by Jasper and Owen Tudor was nearby and making their way towards London to join up with the queen’s main royal army. Edward decided that the best course of action would be to intercept the Tudors’ army before they could reach the royal army and bring an even bigger threat to the Yorkists. Edward reversed course and led his army north to a town called Mortimer’s Cross to confront the Tudor forces.

On the way to Mortimer’s Cross, Edward’s forces witnessed a rare meteorological phenomenon where it appeared as if there were three suns in the sky (a sundog or parhelion). At first Edward’s men were afraid it was a bad omen, but Edward twisted it to his own benefit and calmed his men’s fears by telling them it was a sign from God that Edward should be king of England.²² This special sign from God rallied the Yorkist troops as they lined up at Mortimer’s Cross to block the Tudors’ path to London.

The Lancastrian and Yorkists armies drew up into battle position on 2 February 1461. Walter Devereaux, Edward, and Sir William Herbert each commanded the left, right, and centre flanks of the Yorkist army. The Lancastrian army was led by Jasper Tudor, Owen Tudor, and Sir James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire. The Lancastrians were first to attack, assaulting Devereux’s flank with such a force that it began to collapse and the Yorkist soldiers began fleeing the battlefield. Seeing Devereux’s flank in such deep distress, Edward swung his centre flank in Devereux’s direction to help push back the Lancastrian army. Edward’s forces were successful and the Lancastrian army was forced into full retreat.

The Yorkists chased the fleeing Lancastrians until they caught the officers, one such officer being Owen Tudor, father to Jasper Tudor and stepfather to King Henry VI. Owen was taken to the marketplace at Hereford and publicly beheaded. Before placing his head in the block, he reportedly said ‘That head shall lie in the stock that was wont to lie on Queen Catherine’s lap.’²³ Afterwards, it was said that a mad lady washed the blood off his face, combed his hair, and placed 100 candles around his head.

The Battle of Mortimer’s Cross was a complete disaster for the Lancastrians but especially for Jasper Tudor. Not only was his father killed but as many as 4,000 of his Welsh soldiers were massacred.²⁴ He was now being hunted by the Yorkists and he had no choice but to go into exile. Now the last hope for the Lancastrians would be Queen Margaret. With momentum on their side, the Yorkists wasted no time in forcing another confrontation, this time with the queen.

On 12 February 1461, just ten days after the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick left London with a huge army numbering some 9,000 men. They were marching north to face Queen Margaret’s army which was presently marching south from York. Margaret’s force was larger, estimated to be around 12,000, but they were mostly contained undisciplined northern soldiers, Welshmen, and Scottish mercenaries.²⁵ It was reported that her army wreaked havoc everywhere they went. They were said to have pillaged, raped, and destroyed any town unlucky enough to be in their path. Realistically, an army that large required a huge amount of resources to sustain itself so it’s no wonder they had to go out through the villages and countryside to find food and other resources. It was also said that Queen Margaret had no money to pay her soldiers, so they took their compensation in other ways.²⁶ The truth is probably a little bit of both but nonetheless it gave Queen Margaret’s army a very bad reputation which would end up damaging their cause.

As Margaret’s army barreled south towards London, Warwick’s army slowly marched north on their inevitable confrontation with the Lancastrian army. On 13 February 1461, Warwick’s troops arrived at St Albans, the site of the Yorkist victory at the very first battle of the Wars of the Roses six years prior. Believing the queen’s army was further away than it actually was, Warwick decided to set up camp there for the night. Little did he know that the queen’s army had just sacked the Yorkist outpost at Dunstable fifteen kilometres away and were now on their way to St Albans.²⁷ Margaret had managed to get her army there so quickly because she marched them all through the night. The move paid off and they took the Yorkists by complete surprise when they lined up for battle once again at the town of St Albans.

This time it would be a complete reversal of fortunes compared to the first Battle of St Albans where the Yorkists easily beat an unprepared royal army. During the Second Battle of St Albans, the royal army overtook the unprepared Yorkists in the market square, pushing them back, breaking their lines of defence, and forcing them into a full retreat. It could not have been a greater victory for Queen Margaret, especially because she was able to take back possession of King Henry who had been ‘under the protection’ of the Yorkists for the past seven months. This was a devastating loss for the Yorkists and especially for their commander Warwick since this was his first loss in battle. Overall, the Yorkist army lost around 4,000 men and the Lancastrians lost about 2,000 men.²⁸ Warwick and Edward retreated west to Cotswolds in southern England to regroup and refresh their troops.

After Queen Margaret’s victory, her army lingered at St Albans as they made plans to march south and enter London. There was just one problem: it seems Londoners were not eager to welcome the queen and her reputedly destructive army without reassurances of good behaviour. The city council sent an envoy of three noble women to negotiate with Queen Margaret: Cecily Neville, Richard of York’s widow, Jacquetta Woodville, Edward’s future mother-in-law, and Lady Scales, widow of loyal Lancastrian and commander of the Tower Thomas Scales. By sending women to treat with Queen Margaret, it demonstrates how much everyone knew that she was the one in charge of the Lancastrians now, not her husband, King Henry. Margaret was a tough negotiator and would only agree to part of their demands so in response the city refused them entry. Desperate for provisions and too weakened to face Edward’s oncoming army, the queen departed St Albans and marched her army north to the safety of the Lancastrian heartland so she could prepare her army to take London by force.

In the meantime, Warwick’s and Edward’s combined Yorkist army swiftly made their way to London to attempt entry even though they had been on the losing side of the latest battle. When they arrived in the city on 26 February 1461, they were very pleasantly surprised when Londoners opened the city gates for Edward and cheered his arrival. It was quite a bold move for citizens to openly turn their backs on the anointed king and invite in his main rival to take his place. Technically what they did was treason, but they probably didn’t believe King Henry was capable of enforcing law and order at this point. In their eyes, Henry was an incompetent ruler and it was time for the next man in line to take his place on the throne.

Although the Yorkists had control of London, they did not have control of King Henry, therefore they could not rule through him as Richard and Warwick had done. Instead, they needed to come up with a legal reason why Edward should be the rightful ruler. To that end, Edward accused King Henry of breaking the Act of Accord by defecting from the Yorkists and rejoining with the Lancastrians after the Second Battle of St Albans. According to Edward, the consequence of breaking the Act of Accord was forfeiture of the crown. To reinforce Edward’s case, Warwick staged two public exhibitions where he asked Londoners if Henry deserved to rule or if they would have Edward. Reportedly they all shouted nay for Henry and yea for Edward.²⁹

On 4 March 1461, in Westminster Palace, Edward was formally declared King of England in a rushed, quasi-coronation. There was no time for the usual celebrations and festivities that surrounded a typical royal coronation because they had just received news that Queen Margaret was preparing another attack. Edward turned his attention to readying his own army for battle once again. Part of his preparations included the issuance of his first two royal proclamations. In the first proclamation he asked the people to accept him as their king and to refrain from assisting the dethroned King Henry VI. Secondly, he offered a pardon to any Lancastrian who surrendered in the next ten days, except for the leaders which he listed specifically, including the exiled Jasper Tudor.