Although varying somewhat in the details from tribe to tribe, Native American legends have an overall consistency in the types of mythological monsters they explore. The variety of monsters is impressive: nature spirits, woodland monsters, ghosts, little people (New World leprechauns), giants, serpents and sea monsters, Bigfoot-type creatures, shape-shifters, mermaids/mermen, and ice giant cannibals.
The environment in which each tribe lived affected which of these mythological creatures were most developed in their folklore. For tribes that lived near large bodies of water, like the Passamaquoddy, the sea monster and mermaid legends are abundant and greatly detailed. For tribes inhabiting large forested areas, like the Apache, the tales of woodland monsters are well developed. However, Native American monsters seem to share many similar qualities that transcend their tribal locales. Some of these monsters have even made their way into the modern American cultural fabric, for example Bigfoot or Sasquatch; Sasquatch is originally a Native American monster myth associated with the Coast Salish Indian tribe’s Bigfoot legend. Other famed Native American monsters are the sea serpent Apotamkin (Passamaquoddy), the Chenoo Ice Cannibals (Wabanaki), Big Owl Man (Apache), and the Stiff Legged Bear (Iroquois and Alabama/Creek).
The details of Bigfoot legends are among the most consistent across tribal mythologies. From coastal to inland tribes, the Bigfoot is a creature that possesses a variety of unusual traits. Many tribal legends associate the Bigfoot with supernatural powers like invisibility, which contribute to the Bigfoot’s ability to evade both sighting and capture. Additionally, Bigfoots are unable to speak human languages and can only communicate through animalistic grunts and noises. Bigfoot legends variously describe the monster as either protective or malevolent. In some legends, the Bigfoot comes to the aid of individuals in distress and saves them from either death or injury only to disappear back into the forest. These Bigfoots have reputations as protectors of particular tribes akin to a guardian angel. In contrasting legends, the Bigfoot is a malevolent monster who lurks in the woods to attack, and usually kill, any individual that stumbles upon it. These particular legends refer to the Bigfoot as a Stick Indian, or Bush Indian. However, the single most popular manifestation of the Bigfoot or Sasquatch comes from the Coast Salish Indian tribe of the Olympic Peninsula and Puget Sound regions.
Apotamkin, a famous Native American sea serpent, is said to live in the Passamaquoddy Bay. Made famous in popular culture by its appearance in the film Twilight, Apotamkin is a fanged sea monster. Passamaquoddy legend used Apotamkin as a warning to children of the dangers of swimming in Passamaquoddy Bay. Those who swam in the bay without being cautious of their surroundings were dragged underwater and eaten by the sea serpent. According to one particular legend, Apotamkin was once a human woman transformed into the sea monster as punishment for a horrible misdeed by a witch. While the legend does not mention exactly what the misdeed was, many of these transformative monster myths begin with some act of extreme violence (cannibalism, murder, transgressions against a family member). Apotamkin’s association with a human woman explains the monster’s desire for child victims.
Another prominent Native American monster is the ice cannibal from Wabanaki mythology, the Chenoo. Many other tribes have ice cannibal tales, but the Wabanaki legend is one of the most detailed. Chenoos always begin as humans who committed some terrible crime or were unfortunate enough to be possessed by an evil spirit. As a result, the heart of the human has turned into ice. These monsters are immortal and cursed to eat any other human they encounter for the rest of their lives. Ice cannibals can only die if they are attacked by a human. In several legends, the ice cannibals are depicted as regaining their humanity. Though this is rare in Native American mythology, there are some tales of ice cannibals transforming from a monster back into human form.
On the darker end of the spectrum, Big Owl Man is one of the central Native American “bogeymen” that is used to instill fear, especially in children. Big Owl Man has a couple of different variants among different Native American cultures. Some tribes refer to it as Big Man. These tribes also have a bogeyman figure in humanoid (human-like) form. Some other legends have the Big Owl Man, an owl-shaped monster who hunts children and other victims as prey. Additionally, there are other legends that assign Big Owl Man to the monster category of shape-shifter because it can change form between a man and an owl. In any of these cases, Big Owl Man is always a malicious and violent monster that wants to cause harm.
One of the more peculiar Native American monsters is the Stiff Legged Bear. Stiff Legged Bear is a huge, furry monster that walks on all fours and hunts prey with its massive teeth. Scholars of Native American legends attribute the Stiff Legged Bear to one of two possible sources. First, the Stiff Legged Bear is a remnant of early Native American memories of living alongside mammoths or mastodons. Because of the size, physical appearance, and stiff walking gait, legends for Stiff Legged Bear could have originated from Native American perceptions of those massive, prehistoric beasts. Second, it is possible that Native Americans invented the story of the Stiff Legged Bear monster after discovering fossil bones of mammoths or mastodons after their extinction. Like Europeans inventing dragon legends from dinosaur fossils, Native Americans would have seen the massive skull bones of these animals and created legends to explain their existence. These legends do not attribute any particular personality to Stiff Legged Bears; they are neither good nor evil.
Some other popular Native American monsters are Skinwalkers and Two-Faces. Skinwalkers are shape-shifters who are often associated with werewolves. However, Skinwalkers are cursed humans who have the ability to adopt the characteristics of any animal they choose. Skinwalkers are often dangerous and can, according to legend, kill enemies with a deep look into their eyes. Similarly, the Two-Faces are human-like monsters who have two faces: one on the front of their head and one on the back. These monsters are also dangerous and often violent. Like the Skinwalkers, they can kill victims with one look into their eyes.
Native American ghost stories are abundant and often involve the spirits of loved ones or natural entities. Though ghosts are often associated with hauntings in European legends, Native American ghosts can be good, bad, or amoral. Good ghosts can return to aid members of tribes through knowledge. In Cree legend, tribal elders were the ghosts of the dead returned to share wisdom with their loved ones. Bad ghosts haunt the living and can interfere in the lives of the living, similar to poltergeists. A particularly frightening legend is the “Big Eater’s Wife,” a Pequot legend about a ghost-witch who kills her husband. However, some ghosts show themselves to humans because their purpose is to test the living and discern their character. This particular type of ghost is found in the stories of the Mashpee Wampanoag where the ghost of a dead sailor tests a woman.
Native American monster myths, while originating in individual tribes, exhibit some universal themes. Monsters are used as a way to deter people from violence, crime, and other misdeeds. These monsters are not always evil. In many cases, “good” monsters are nature-dwelling creatures who embody the goodness of natural spirits. Similarly, the “evil” monsters are physical manifestations of deviance or unnatural violence against nature or fellow humans.
Ashley Szanter
See also Apotamkin; Bigfoot or Sasquatch; Skinwalker
Further Reading
Blackman, W. Haden. 1998. The Field Guide to North American Monsters: Everything You Need to Know about Encountering Over 100 Terrifying Creatures in the Wild. New York: Three Rivers Press.
Storm, Rory. 2008. Monster Hunt: The Guide to Cryptozoology. New York: Sterling.
Thorne, Ian. 1980. Monster Tales of Native Americans. New York: Crestwood House.