Superstition has been defined as a belief in supernatural causality, an event that causes another such happening without any natural process that links the two events, for example, astrology, religion, omens, witchcraft, and prophecies, which contradict natural science. Other definitions include:
• A belief or a notion that attempts to fathom the unfathomable based on neither reason nor fact; sometimes it disregards evidence.
• A way to get through a tough situation; a set of rules to follow in a game without rules.
• A mechanism that eliminates the fear of the unknown.
• A practice that is believed to change one’s luck.
• A blindly accepted belief, which may date to thousands of years in the past, and which has outlived its original meaning and use.
Superstitions regarding the black cat and Friday the 13th derive from long-standing traditions that encouraged belief in good fortune or bad luck. These traditions accepted a link between common, ordinary events, like breaking a mirror, and the unknowable forces that shape human destiny. (Prikhnenko Tatiana/Dreamstime.com)
In common terms, the word “superstition” is rooted in the pagan traditions of earlier, more primitive stages of human culture. It has been conceived by modern rationalists as the irrational beliefs of the naive, uneducated, and ignorant. In the popular mind, superstitions are loaded with negative connotations, while prominent scholars have taken seriously and wrestled with popular notions handed down by Western traditions.
With the development of folklore studies in the late eighteenth century, superstitions took on negative connotations and were frequently referred to by a more neutral term, “folk belief,” which was an attempt for more sensitivity toward cultural biases. Both terms still remain in use, but according to folklore specialists in the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, the term “superstition” is no longer used in contemporary folklore research because of the judgmental quality of the word. The preferred terms nowadays are “beliefs” or “folk beliefs.” However, many of the older references in the literature continue to use the term “superstition.”
A superstition exists on two levels. On the first level, an individual can adapt to an ancient custom or belief, confer a totally personal meaning on it, and create a magical universe. On the second level, superstition wedges intellect into a regional, cultural, familial, or communal knowledge that often includes an original language and particular mythological references. Superstitions encompass all areas of the human experience: minerals, plants, animals, the weather, the calendar, the human body, the great stages of life, the house, clothing, and ordinary objects. Some very common examples in American folklore include the following:
• Finding a four-leaf clover is good luck.
• Friday the thirteenth brings bad luck.
• To walk under a ladder brings bad luck.
• It is bad luck to ride brooms.
• Never invite thirteen to a dinner party.
• Throw salt over your left shoulder after spilling something on a table.
• Saying “gesundheit!” when someone sneezes prevents bad luck.
• Black cats signal a “turn” in one’s fortunes.
• Crossing your fingers helps to secure good luck.
• Daily horoscopes help to avoid bad choices.
Superstitions are often used in religious practices, for example, voodoo, that are different from ones already prevailing in a given society, such as Christian observances in Western culture. As early as the first century, certain religions or spiritual rituals were outlawed as cults, such as those of the Druids, although during this time excessive religious belief manifested itself in new superstitions, such as worship of saints and of holy relics that integrated spiritual divinity into the home.
For Christians, there was a hint of superstition in performing a religious activity a certain number of times or in a certain way to obtain a favor, such as blessing oneself in passing a church or tipping the hat. This can also be true of sacramental objects, such as a statue on a dashboard that still is considered by many Catholics as protection against accidents while driving. An old Yiddish superstition, quite popular in film and in television portrayals of Jewish families, usually stereotypical, involves the use of phrases such as “Mazel Tov” or “You should live and be well.”
Close to religious superstitions are those that have become a part of holiday rituals, especially those of New Year’s Day, Halloween, and Christmas. In many cultures, whatever happens on New Year’s Day can foretell what is to come for the rest of the year. The sources for many of these holiday superstitions are quite obscure but a few can be traced to specific countries. People strive to be on their best behavior by avoiding quarrels and disputes and guarding against any mishaps. This is one of the most universal superstitions throughout the world. In the United States, regional practices involve certain foods, such as black-eyed peas in the dish known as “Hoppin’ John” popular in the southern United States. Tradition holds that good luck will come each day of the upcoming year for every one of the peas that a person can eat in one sitting on New Year’s Day.
Ensuring that the New Year begins with good luck and prosperity has led to numerous superstitions in virtually every culture of the world. In cosmopolitan societies, such superstitions remain of interest as a source of entertainment. For example, in a number of Asian cultures, it is customary for people to open the New Year by seeking the advice of an astrologer, who will determine their fortune based on zodiacal signs and other information, such as the specific time of their birth.
Halloween is associated with many superstitions, such as black cats and spiders, but these have become more a representation of modern perceptions of ancient All Hallows Eve traditions from medieval times than actual practices. Christmas is associated with numerous superstitions derived from pagan European folklore, which has blended with Christian beliefs. One particular tradition holds that it is bad luck to display Christmas wreaths past the New Year.
Superstition is an important and effective tool in psychological warfare, as intimate knowledge of a people and their customs may enable the propagandists to play effectively on the superstitious beliefs of a target people. Such ploys have been used since the beginning of recorded time to outmaneuver the enemy and to influence the thoughts and actions of actual and potential allies. During World War II, for example, such an operation was planned in Burma when an officer with excellent knowledge of the country’s folklore proposed that the death of the popular British commander, General Wingate, be represented as a suicide rather than as the result of Japanese military action, since Burmese tradition held that leaders in times of crises frequently took their own lives to free their spirits from their bodies to oversee the welfare of the country. There is no indication, however, that this action was a successful exploitation of superstitions in a psychological warfare operation.
The likeliest people to lean on superstition are those who have the greatest degree of chance and uncertainty in their lives and careers, such as gamblers, athletes, actors, and fishermen, all of whom tend to be very superstitious, guarding a lucky sweater, wearing the same underwear throughout a winning streak, whistling in the dressing room, throwing a hat on the bed, or keeping shoes on a shelf that’s higher than one’s head. Yet many seemingly new superstitions are simply recycled versions of old beliefs. The idea that space aliens have kidnapped people, for example, is an updated ghost story. Reports of satanic rituals sweeping the nation are the modern equivalent of accusations made at Salem, Massachusetts, more than three hundred years ago, which famously culminated with the execution of innocent women as witches. Centuries after the Salem witch trials, meanwhile, people continue to look for causes of frightening and seemingly inexplicable events outside of their control. In 1993, to cite one famous example, a Florida man alleged that cell phones had caused his wife’s fatal brain tumor, allegations that were believed by more than 50 percent of those who were polled, even though cancer researchers claimed that the cell phone–cancer connection was unlikely, at best.
Dowsers or “Water Witches”
“Dowsers,” also known as “Water Witches,” or “Diviners,” generally employ a forked stick to locate sources of water, mineral deposits, or lost objects. The divining rods may be made of hazel, willow, or other wood; alternatively, some modern Dowsers use wire, metal rods, coat-hangers, keys, or even electrical devices. Dowsing came to England during the Renaissance and spread to America with early English and German settlers. In traditional American practice, the Dowser holds an end of the fork of a twig in each hand, with the palms and the free end of the stick pointing upward. The Dowser searches by walking back and forth until the stick end points downward toward an underground water source. Although scientifically discredited, successful Dowsers are still in some demand in rural areas of the United States, often due to the expense of drilling water wells.
C. Fee
Superstition and belief in the supernatural are still powerful forces in the national psyche and in pop culture, as seen in the number of television shows that cater to this spooky sensibility, such as Unsolved Mysteries, The X Files, and The Other Side. The supernatural has also been a popular theme in films, as early as The Evil Eye (1917) and Superstition (1922). Later ones include The Black Cat (1966) and Encounter with the Unknown (1972). Even less dramatic superstitions can be grist for the mill of popular culture; in the popular film My Big Fat Greek Wedding, for example, there is a very funny scene when the guests at the wedding spit as the bride walks down the aisle. This was an old Greek custom for good luck. In an earlier scene, the grandmother did it on her grandsons. These images suggest that despite the importance of science and rationalism in the modern era, the place of superstition and folk belief in American culture is secure.
Martin J. Manning
See also Conspiracy Theories; Evil Eye; Good Luck Charms; Supernaturalism in Legends and Folklore; Voodoo
Further Reading
Burnham, John C. 1987. How Superstition Won and Science Lost: Popularizing Science and Health in the United States. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Collis, Harry. 1998. 101 American Superstitions: Understanding Language and Culture through Superstitions. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books.
Daugherty, William E. 1958. “The Exploitation of Superstitions in Psychological Warfare.” In Psychological Warfare Casebook, edited by William E. Daugherty. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Potter, Carole. 1983. Knock on Wood: An Encyclopedia of Talismans, Charms, Superstitions and Symbols. New York: Beaufort Books.
Smith, S. A., and Alan Knight, eds. 2008. The Religion of Fools? Superstition Past and Present. New York: Oxford University Press.
Vyse, Stuart A. 2000. Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition. New York: Oxford University Press.