Yokai are nonhuman Japanese demons, sometimes called monsters, spirits, or apparitions. The original definition of yokai included anything that could be described as mysterious, weird, or bizarre, such as strange weather phenomena or unexplained lights in the sky.
There is no direct English translation for yokai; instead, the word combines the sense of something beyond the ordinary with a sense of horror or the fantastic. Yokai were anything that caused a sense of foreboding, and it was not until the Edo (Tokugawa) Period (1603–1867) that yokai was used in the more limited sense to mean monsters, demons, or strange beasts.
In ancient Japan, people believed that there was an unseen energy that infused the natural world. This energy, called mononoke, was a shapeless, fearsome force that could kill without warning and included natural phenomena such as lightning strikes, avalanches, and earthquakes. Mononoke could also be shaped by strong human emotions, which could act like a focus to bring a yokai into existence.
The yokai come from a variety of ethnic sources, and it was not until Japan was united during the third century that the Japanese culture became more unified. During the Edo Period, folklorists began to seek regional yokai stories and compile them into published collections. The introduction of printing allowed these yokai legends to reach a wide audience, but it also solidified the definition of particular creatures.
From the end of the Edo Period through the Meiji Era (1868–1912), yokai tales enjoyed great popularity and were the subjects of many books and stories, but by the late nineteenth century interest in them began to wane as Japan became modernized and belief in yokai became associated with ignorance.
Professor Enryo Inoue (1858–1919), a Japanese Buddhist philosopher, was a proponent of modern rational thought who tried to discourage the continuing belief in the supernatural. Enryo established a systematic study named yokaigaku (or yokai-ology) in which he categorized the many types of yokai. Known as “Dr. Yokai,” Enryo used scientific methods to investigate and debunk monster sightings, and gradually belief in yokai waned.
There was a resurgence of interest in yokai legends during the early twentieth century after several compendiums of folktales were published, but it was the appearance of yokai in manga that made them popular. Today many yokai creatures are featured in multiplayer computer games, including the tengu, kappa, and naga. In this way, yokai-related images and themes have made their way into American popular culture in the modern era.
According to Murai Shigeru (1922–2015), a Japanese manga master who specialized in yokai stories and wrote under the pen name Mizuki Shigeru, yokai can be organized into four main groups: choshizen, henge, kaiju, and yurei. The choshizen include mysterious phenomena and the supernatural. The henge are shape-shifters, and the kaiju are magical creatures or monsters. Yurei are ghosts. Yokai are diverse and inhabit a variety of places, including forests, mountains, rivers, and even homes, but they are most often found in areas that represent boundaries between the human world and the magical realm.
Folklorists estimate that there may be a thousand types of yokai in existence. In addition to traditional yokai, new ones are constantly invented and sometimes become modern Japanese and Japanese American urban legends. Creatures from cultures outside Japan are also sometimes included in the category of yokai.
The henge, or shape-shifters, include the kitsune and the tanuki. The kitsune are highly intelligent magical foxes with the ability to shape-shift into human form, and they may be good or evil. The good kitsune mediate between the human world and the celestial world, and bring good luck or act as protectors to humans. Evil kitsune are pranksters who play tricks on humans, including masquerading as beautiful women. Tanuki, or raccoon dogs, are generally benevolent and are well known for their mischief-making. Other henge include bakeneko (magical cats) and the tsuchigomo, a fearsome ground spider that eats humans.
The kaiju class of yokai includes the kappa, or “river child.” These amphibious creatures resemble a cross between humans and turtles and have a preference for eating human entrails. Other kaiju include the forest-dwelling waira that devour bad people and the lobster-like amikiri that cut fishing nets with their sharp claws. Kaiju made popular by movies include Gojira (Godzilla) and Mosura (Mothra).
The furaribi is an example of choshizen. The furaribi is the restless remains of a soul that has not passed on to the afterlife. This small, harmless creature appears at night along riverbanks, where it aimlessly flies about encircled in flames. Yurei include the hidarugami, hairy, human-like drought spirits that lives in the mountains, and the gashadokuro, the skeletal ghosts of soldiers who did not receive a proper burial.
The ogres or demons called oni are also considered yokai. Oni usually are drawn with red or blue skin, copious hair, and horns. Oni are sent from hell to punish and torture wicked people and bring destruction and disease to humanity.
Karen S. Garvin
See also Chinatown Ghost Stories; Chinese American Mythological and Legendary Deities; Fearsome Critters; Monsters in Native American Legends; Tricksters, Native American
Further Reading
Davisson, Zack. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai: Translated Japanese Ghost Stories and Tales of the Weird and the Strange Blog. http://hyakumonogatari.com. Accessed July 25, 2014.
Foster, Michael Dylan. 2009. Pandemonium and Parade: Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yōkai. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Reider, Noriko. 2010. Japanese Demon Lore: Oni from Ancient Times to the Present. Logan: Utah State University Press.
Yoda, Hiroko, and Matt Alt. 2012. Yokai Attack! The Japanese Monster Survival Guide. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle.