abortion: The intentional termination of a pregnancy resulting in the death of the fetus.
absolute pacifism: The belief that all violence is wrong including violence that is done in self-defense.
active euthanasia: Taking direct action to bring about a patient’s death.
addiction: A behavioral pattern of drug use characterized by the compulsive use of a drug, the securing of its supply, and a high tendency to relapse after withdrawal.
addiction, disease model of: The theory that addicts are ill, and thus are biologically different from nonaddicts.
addiction, moral model of: The view that addiction is a vice in which individuals freely choose to engage, and that overcoming addiction depends on willpower.
affirmative action: Programs designed to encourage increased representation of minorities and women in employment and college admissions.
ahimsa: The Buddhist principle of nonhurting.
androgyny: The theory that men and women share the same nature and that the expression of this sameness is a desirable goal.
anthropocentrism: The belief that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the universe.
applied ethics: The application of normative ethics to real-life cases.
assassination: The deliberate killing or murder of a public figure for political purposes.
autonomy: Self-determination or the freedom to make one’s own decisions.
beneficence, duty of: The duty to do good acts and to promote happiness.
binge drinking: The consumption of five or more drinks of alcohol in a short period of time.
capital punishment: See death penalty.
care ethics: The metaethical theory that caring relationships are more important than impartial moral principles such as justice.
categorical imperative: A term introduced by Immanuel Kant to describe moral injunctions that are unconditionally binding on us.
censorship: The controlling or silencing of speech that is deemed offensive, dangerous, or inappropriate by a government or group.
civil disobedience: The refusal, on moral grounds, to obey certain laws, for the purpose of trying to bring about a change in legislation or government policy.
colonialism: The subjection of people in one country to the authority of another country.
color-blind principle: The belief that public policy should not be based on racial considerations.
competent: In medical ethics, a patient who is rational and capable of making decisions about his or her own care.
conscientious objection: Opposition to war, in any form, based on moral or religious beliefs.
conscription: Compulsory, state-mandated military service.
conservatism: The position that the traditional state of affairs is the best and that there is no need for change.
cultural relativism: A type of ethical relativism that maintains that morality is created collectively by groups of humans and that it differs from culture to culture.
death penalty: Infliction of death by the state as punishment for a crime.
deep ecology: A movement begun in the mid-1970s that cultivates a sense of identification with nature.
deontological theories: Metaethical theories in which duty is the basis of morality.
deterrence: In the death penalty debate, the argument that theG-1more severe the punishment for a crime, the more other people are going to be discouraged or deterred from committing that crime.
discrimination: The treatment of others based on their group membership. Unjust discrimination is based on prejudice rather than relevant differences.
disease model of addiction: Drug addiction is an individual medical problem.
distributive justice: The duty to distribute the benefits and burdens of society in a fair manner.
divine command theory: The metaethical theory that something is moral merely because God approves of it.
doctrine of the mean: The doctrine, put forth by both Aristotle and Confucius, that moral virtues, in general, entail moderation or seeking the middle path between excess and deficit.
double effect, principle of: Principle that where a course of action is likely to have different effects, one morally desirable and the other not, it may be permissible to take that course as long as the desirable effect is intended but not the other.
doublethink: Simultaneously holding two contradictory views and believing both to be true.
drug abuse: Taking a drug for purposes other than those for which the drug was intended, and/or the illicit use of a drug that can cause physical and/or mental harm to oneself and/or others.
drugs: Chemicals that enter the bloodstream and predictably alter the way individuals feel.
ecocentrism: The view that humans are members, rather than conquerors, of the biotic community.
ecofeminism: A movement that links environmental ethics to feminism and animal rights, arguing that oppression of women, nonhuman animals, and nature are all grounded in the same logic of dominance.
environmental ethics: An ethic concerned with the moral basis of environmental responsibility, including the moral value of nonhuman nature, pollution, population control, food production, and preservation of wilderness and species diversity.
equality, principle of: The principle that it is unjust to treat beings differently unless we can show that there is a difference between them that is relevant to the differential treatment.
erotica: Literature and art dealing with sexual love.
ethical egoism: The ethical theory that we ought to act in a way that is in our own best self-interest.
ethical relativism: The theory that morality is created by people and that moral systems can be different for different people.
ethical subjectivism: A type of ethical relativism that claims that morality is relative to each individual person.
ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s ethnic or cultural group is morally superior.
euthanasia: The act of painlessly bringing about the death of a person who is suffering from a terminal or incurable disease or condition. See also active euthanasia, passive euthanasia, and physician-assisted suicide.
extraordinary treatment: Medical treatment that provides no reasonable hope of benefiting a patient.
feminism: A broad movement that is committed to improving women’s position in society.
fidelity, duty of: A moral duty that stems from a commitment or promise made in the past.
fighting words: Words that are inherently likely to provoke a violent reaction.
freedom of speech: The individual right to express opinions without interference from the government or other people.
gender essentialism: The belief that men and women have essentially different natures.
global warming: The increasing temperature of the earth over the past century due, at least in part, to the increase in air pollution.
globalization: The worldwide transmission of Western-style democracy and capitalism.
good will: A will that always acts from a sense of duty and reverence for moral law, without regard for consequences or for immediate inclinations.
gratitude, duty of: A duty based on past favors and unearned services.
habituation: A term used by Aristotle to describe the regular practice of virtuous behavior, much as one practices any other skill, until it becomes second nature.
hate crime: Criminal behavior that is motivated by hatred or bigotry against a particular group or community of individuals.
hate speech: Speech that is likely to provoke anger, alarm, or resentment in others on the basis of race, color, creed, religion, or gender.
hedonist paradox: If happiness is our only goal, ethical egoism becomes self-defeating.
hospice: A setting for terminally ill patients that provides palliative care and companionship so theyG-2can live the last days of their lives as fully and pain-free as possible.
in vitro fertilization: Fertilization of an ovum by a sperm outside of the woman’s body in a laboratory.
incapacitation: A punishment, such as the death penalty or life imprisonment without parole, which ensures that criminals will never repeat their crimes.
institutional racism: Racism stemming from laws and social systems that are set up to provide advantages to one group of people at the expense of another group.
jihad: An Islamic term often taken to mean “holy war,” but more broadly defined as an “effort.”
just-war tradition: A framework of theories, guidelines, and beliefs regarding the question of what makes a war just.
justice, duty of: The duty to give each person equal consideration.
juvenile: In U.S. law, a person under the age of eighteen.
legitimate interests: In rights ethics, interests that do not prevent others from pursuing similar and equally important interests.
liberal feminism: The belief that men and women share a common nature and, consequently, that women can achieve liberation through equal access to opportunities and privileges enjoyed by men.
libertarian: A person who is opposed to social or political restraints on individual freedom.
liberty right: The right to be left alone to pursue one’s legitimate interests without interference from the government or from others.
Manifest Destiny, doctrine of: The nineteenth-century doctrine that the United States had a divine right to expand its borders from coast to coast.
marginalization: The act of relegating beings or groups to the fringes or margins of the moral community.
Marxist feminism: The belief that the capitalist system is the cause of oppression of women.
McCarthyism: An atmosphere of distrust produced by Senator Joseph McCarthy when he used the free speech of individuals as evidence of their Communist allegiances. His followers believed that Communist ideas should be repressed in order to protect democratic values.
mercy, principle of: The principle based on the duty of nonmaleficence that we have an obligation not to cause further pain and suffering and also to relieve pain and suffering.
metaethics: See theoretical ethics.
moral community: The community of all beings who have moral worth in themselves and, as such, deserve the protection and respect of the community.
moral development, stage theory of: Theory that humans move through distinct stages of moral development from egoist to acceptance of universal moral values.
moral dilemma: A situation in which there is a conflict between moral values such that no matter what solution is chosen, it will involve doing something that is wrong in order to do what is right.
moral model of addiction: Addiction is a freely chosen vice and can be overcome through will-power.
morning-after pill: A high dose of birth control pills taken over the three days following intercourse to prevent ovulation, prevent fertilization, or prevent the blastocyst from implanting in the uterine wall.
multiculturalists: Individuals who believe that racism is based primarily on individual ignorance and that education can eliminate racism.
natural law ethics: The metaethical theory that morality is grounded in rational human nature.
natural rights ethics: The ethical theory that people’s entitlements as members of society are the basis of ethics.
naturalist fallacy: A type of faulty reasoning in which it is argued that something is moral because it is natural.
noncombatant: An individual who does not serve as an agent of aggression in war.
nonmaleficence, duty of: The duty to do no harm and to prevent harm.
normative ethics: The study of the values and guidelines by which we live.
objectivist theory: The metaethical theory that morality is discovered by humans and that universal moral truths exist that are true for all humans.
opinion: A statement that is based on feeling rather than on fact.
pacifism: An opposition to war or violence based on principle.
palliative care: Pain relief, comfort, and compassion.
“partial-birth” abortion: Late-term form of abortion that involves partial delivery of a live fetus baby.
passive euthanasia: Withholding or withdrawing medical treatment, resulting in a patient’s death.
paternalism: Relationship in which an authority, such as the government or a physician, overrides a person’s own decision and decides what is best for that person in order to protect him or her.
patriarchy: Social organization in which men hold the positions of authority.
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persons: Beings who are worthy of respect as valuable in themselves rather than because of their usefulness or value to others; members of the moral community.
physician-assisted suicide: A type of active euthanasia in which a physician assists a patient in bringing about his or her death.
political correctness: In academia, subscribing to particular views based on their popularity, rather than their truth, and the suppression of opposing views.
pornography: Material featuring actual or unmistakably simulated or unmistakably threatened violence presented in a sexually explicit fashion with a predominant focus on the sexually explicit violence.
prejudice: Personal judgment that is based on negative feelings and stereotypes rather than reason.
prima facie duty: A duty that is morally binding unless it conflicts with a more pressing moral duty.
pro-choice: In the abortion debate, the position that a woman should have the right to make her own choice about whether or not to have an abortion at any time during the pregnancy.
pro-life: In the abortion debate, the position that abortion is immoral except when it is used to save the life of the mother.
proportionality: A principle of retributive justice in which the severity of the punishment must be proportionate to the crime.
psychological egoism: The theory that humans by nature are selfish and out for themselves.
race: A loose classification of groups of people based on physical characteristics; a social construct that forms an important component of personal identity.
racial profiling: The routine, and often unconscious, practice by police or other law enforcement agents of targeting suspects on the basis of their race or ethnicity.
racism: An ideology or worldview based on the belief that people can be classified according to race and that some races are morally inferior to others.
radical feminism: The theory that men are socialized to be both protectors and sexual predators, and that women are objectified by men as objects of sexual violence.
reciprocity, principle of: The moral principle in Confucian ethics that states that we have a moral duty to treat others as we would wish to be treated ourselves.
reparation, duty of: A duty that stems from past harms to others.
restitution: Reparation made by giving a person or group compensation for past harms.
retributive justice: The principle that punishment for wrongdoing should be in proportion to the crime.
retributive justice: In the death penalty debate, the idea that those who violate other people’s right to life by murdering them in turn forfeit their own right to life.
satyagraha: In the philosophy of Mohandas “Mahatma” Gandhi, satyagraha is the skill of nonviolent resistance.
selective abortion: Abortion performed because a particular fetus, rather than the pregnancy itself, is unwanted, usually because the fetus has a genetic defect or is the “wrong gender.”
self-improvement, duty of: The duty to improve our knowledge and virtue.
sentient being: A being with the capacity to experience pain and pleasure.
sexism: The worldview or belief that women are morally inferior to men.
sexual harassment: Unwanted sexual attention that makes a person feel uncomfortable at work, at school, or in social situations.
social contract: Agreement among individuals to freely give up some of their liberties in exchange for living in a well-ordered and just society.
sociobiology: The branch of biology that applies evolutionary theory to the social sciences.
sociological relativism: The observation that there is disagreement among cultures regarding moral values. Unlike cultural relativism, sociological relativism is neither an argument nor a moral theory. It is merely a descriptive statement about societies.
sociopath: A person without a conscience.
speciesism: A term coined by utilitarian Peter Singer to describe a prejudice or bias in favor of the interests of members of one’s own species and against those of members of another species.
speech codes: Codes that place restrictions on some forms of speech, such as hate speech, fighting words, or speech that violates civility codes.
state of nature: In Hobbes’s philosophy, the hypothetical condition in which people lived before the formation of civil states.
stewardship: Religious doctrine that God has given humans dominion or stewardship over the lives of other animals and the planet.
supererogatory duty: A duty that exceeds the normal expectations of moral behavior.
surrogate motherhood: Arrangement whereby a woman agrees to gestate a child for another woman.
terrorism: The use of politically motivated violence that targets noncombatants and creates intimidation.
theoretical ethics: The subdivision of ethics concerned with appraisingG-4the logical foundations and internal consistencies of ethics systems.
theory: A conceptual framework for explaining a set of facts or concepts.
Third World: A term referring to nonindustrial or developing nations.
universalist theories: Metaethical theories that claim there are objective, universal moral principles and values that are true for all human beings.
utilitarianism: The metaethical theory that actions producing the most pleasure are good and those that produce pain are bad.
utility, principle of: Also known as the greatest happiness principle, it states that we have a duty to maximize pleasure or happiness and to minimize pain or unhappiness for the greatest number.
vegan: A person who abstains from all animal products, including eggs and milk.
vegetarian: A person who refrains from eating meat, poultry, and seafood.
veil of ignorance: A conceptual device used by John Rawls to establish a social contract that is unbiased and based on impartiality.
viability: In the abortion debate, the capacity of the fetus to survive disconnection from the placenta.
virtue: An admirable character trait or disposition to habitually act in a manner that benefits oneself and others.
virtue ethics: The metaethical theory concerned primarily with character and the type of people we should be rather than with our actions.
vivisection: Cutting or operating on a live animal for the sake of scientific research.
voluntary euthanasia: Intentionally bringing about the death of a competent patient at his or her request.
war: The use of armed violence between nations or between competing political factions within a nation to achieve a political purpose.
the Way (Tao): In Eastern philosophy, the path of equilibrium and harmony.
weapons of mass destruction (WMD): Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that, unlike conventional weapons, indiscriminately target both combatants and noncombatants.
welfare rights: The right to receive primary social goods such as adequate nutrition, housing, education, and police and fire protection.
xenotransplantation: Cross-species tissue transplantation.