Notes

Foreword

1. Francis E. Peters, “The Early Muslim Empires: Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids,” in Islam: The Religious and Political Life of a World Community, ed. Marjorie Kelly (New York: Praeger, 1984), p. 79.

General Introduction

1. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), p. 21.

2. Alain Rey, ed., Dictionnaire historique de la langue française (Paris: Le Robert, 1992 and 1998), s.v. “Islam,” “musulman”; The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, 2 vols. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1971 and 1985), s.v. “Islam,” “Moslim, Muslim.”

3. Richard Bulliet, Case forIslamo- Christian Civilization (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).

Part I: Saracens and Ifranj: Rivalries, Emulation, and Convergences Chapter 1: The Geographer’s World: From Arabia Felix

to the Baladal- Ifranj (Land of the Franks)

1. Isidore of Seville, Chronica maiora, ed. Theodor Mommson, Monumenta germaniae historica, Auctores antiquissimi (MGH AA) (Munich: Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 1981), vol. 11, part 2: 391–506, § 417. For a comparison of these periods to those of other chroniclers in the early Middle Ages, see Bernard Guenée, Histoire et culture historique dans l’Occident médiéval (Paris: Aubier, 1980), pp. 150–52. On the six ages of the world in medieval Christian historiography, see Guenée, Histoire et culture historique, pp. 148–54; R. Schmidt, “Aetates mundi: Die Weltalter als Gliederungsprinzip der Geschichte,” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 67 (1955–1956): 288–317, esp. 306–8.

2. For the following passage, I draw in part from the first chapter of my Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), where I cite all the references.

3. Isidore of Seville, Etymologies 9.2.6, in The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, trans. Stephen A. Barney et al. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 192. [Translation slightly modified— trans.]

4. Irfad Shahîd, Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984), pp. 100–101: the first- century authors were Josephus and Polyhistor.

5. Jerome, Commentarii in Ezechielem (Corpus Christianorum scriptorum latinorum 75.25). [Except where an English- language edition is cited, quoted passages are my translation from the French— trans.]

6. Modern etymologists do not agree on the origin of the word “Saracens”; see Shahîd, Rome and the Arabs, pp. 123–41. For an overview of the early medieval Latin texts that discuss the term “Saracens,” see Ekkehart Rotter, Abendland und Sarazenen: Das okzidentale Araberbild unde seine Entstehung im Frühmittelalter (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1986), pp. 68–77.

7. Isidore of Seville, Etymologies 9.2.6; Isidore of Seville, Chronica maiora, § 13. For the other authors, see Tolan, Saracens.

8. The Koran, trans. N. J. Dawood (New York: Penguin, 1995).

9. See, for example, Qur’an 2:136–40; 3:84; 4:163; and 6:84–86.

10. André Miquel, géographie humaine dans le monde musulman jusqu’au XIe siècle, 4 vols. (Paris: Mouton, 1967–1988), vol. 2: 60–61, 142, 232–33.

11. Ibid., p. 369.

12. See François Clément, “La cité des Femmes,” in Les mille et une nuits, contes sans frontière, ed. Edgard Weber (Toulouse: AMAM, 1997), pp. 171–93, esp. 184–85. 13. Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 35, 60; cf. p. 311 for Mas‘ūdī. 14. Ibid., p. 258.

15. Ibid., pp. 56–60. Miquel notes that Mas‘ūdī introduced an innovation by placing the fourth climate (that of Baghdad) at the center of the earth, surrounded by the other seven. See Mas‘ūdī, Kitāb al- tanbīh wa al- ishrāf, translated by B. Carra de Vaux as Le livre de l’avertissement et de la révision (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1896), pp. 50– 55. 16. Quoted in Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 37.

17. Mas‘ūdī, livre de l’avertissement, p. 39; see Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 321. 18. Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 348.

19. Ibn Fadlān, Kitāb ilā Mulk al- Saqāliba, translated by Richard N. Frye as Ibn Fadlan’s Journey to Russia: A Tenth- century Traveler from Baghdad to the Volga River (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2005), p. 43. On this text, see Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 1: 132–39; vol. 2: 227–41, 267–79, 336–42.

20. Ibn Fadlan’s Journey to Russia, p. 64.

21. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (London: Phoenix, 1992). 22. Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 2004).

23. Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 381–481; Cheikh, Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs, pp. 142–57.

24. Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 371–72.

25. Ibid., vol. 2: 372–77.

26. Idrīsī, première géographie de l’Occident, trans. Chevalier Joubert, revised and corrected by Annliese Nef (Paris: Flammarion, 1999); these are excerpts in French from the Book of Roger, primarily the parts on the West.

27. Henri Bresc and Annliese Nef, introduction to Idrīsī, La première géographie de l’Occident, pp. 13– 53, esp. 44–45.

28. Idrīsī, première géographie de l’Occident, pp. 424 and 426.

29. Hugh of Saint Victor, Descriptio mappe mundi, ed. Patrick Gautier- Dalché (Paris: Études Augustiniennes, 1988), introduction, pp. 55– 58. On Hugh of Saint Victor’s geography, see also Danielle Lecoq, “La ‘mappemonde’ du De arca Noe mystica de Hugh of Saint Victor (1128–1129),” in Géographie du monde au Moyen Âge et à la Renaissance, ed. Monique Pelletier (Paris: Éditions du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, 1989), pp. 9–31. 30. It is in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich, ms. CLM 10058, folio 154v, reproduced in Patrick Gautier- Dalché’s introduction to Hugh of Saint Victor, Descriptio, pl. 1 and p. 83.

31. Hugh of Saint Victor, Descriptio, p. 138.

32. Ibid., p. 133.

33. Ibid., p. 141.

34. Jacques Le Goff, Time, Work, and Culture in the Middle Ages, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 189–200, esp. 195. 35. Curiously, Hugh makes no mention of Eden in the Descriptio, but it is clear in other texts that he places earthly paradise at the eastern limit of the earth. See his De Archa Noe, in Migne, Patrologia latina (PL) (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1844–1891), 176.677B–678B, excerpt translated into French by Patrice Sicard, Hugues de Saint- Victor et son école (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1991), pp. 140–42.

36. Hugh of Saint Victor, De archa Noe, PL 176.677, Sicard trans. in Hugues de Saint Victor, p. 141.

Chapter 2: Conquest and Its Justifications: Jihad, Crusade, Reconquista

1. Andrew Palmer, Sebastian Brock, and Robert Hoyland, eds. and trans., The Seventh Century in theWest- SyrianChronicles (Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1993), p. xxi.

2. See Tolan, Saracens, p. 43.

3. On the concept of jihad, see Alfred Morabia, Le Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval (Paris: Albin Michel, 1993); Reuven Firestone, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999); and Rudolph Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1996).

4. Morabia, Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, pp. 140–41.

5. Qur’an 25:52; see Morabia, Le Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, p. 124.

6. Morabia, Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, p. 126.

7. See Firestone, Jihad, esp. chap. 4, pp. 67– 91.

8. Morabia, Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, pp. 159–75, 200–204.

9. Firestone, Jihad.

10. Quoted in Morabia, Le Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, p. 106.

11. See ibid., p. 164.

12. Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd. ed. (henceforth abbreviated EI2), 12 vols. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1960–2009), s.v. “ribat” (J. Chabbi); the term ribat sometimes designates a Sufi monastery, with no military dimension.

13. Muhammad Talbi, L’émirat Aghlabide 184–296, 800–909: Histoire politique (Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient, 1966), pp. 380–536; Morabia, Le Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, p. 109.

14. Armand Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World before the Crusades,” Speculum 42 (1967): 299–312, esp. p. 305; on Amalfi, see chapter 4. 15. See Roger Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1989), pp. 23–36.

16. Philippe Sénac, “Les Carolingiens et le califat abbasside (VIIIe– IXe siècles),” in Chrétiens et musulmans en Méditerranée médiévale (VIIIe–XIIIe siècle) (Poitiers: Centre d’Études Supérieures de Civilisation Médiévale, 2003), pp. 3–19.

17. See Philippe Sénac, Les Carolingiens et al- Andalus (VIIe– IXe siècles) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2002); Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe, pp. 10–12; and Mohammad Arkoun, ed., Histoire de l’Islam et des musulmans en France du Moyen Âge à nos jours (Paris: Albin Michel, 2006), pp. 6–15.

18. See John Tolan, Sons of Ishmael, chap. 10, “A Dreadful Racket: The Clanging of Bells and the Yowling of Muezzins in Iberian Interconfessional Polemics.” Already in 953, the generals of Abd al- Rahmān III tore the bells out of the churches in the raided zones and sent them to Cordova. See Évariste Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, 2 vols. (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1950 and 1999), vol. 2: 68.

19. Fredegar, The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with Its Continuations, ed. J. M. Wallace- Hadrill (Westport, CN: Greenwood, 1981).

20. On Bede and his view of the Saracens, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 72–78.

21. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ed. Bertram Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1969), 23.2, p. 157. [Translation slightly modified— trans.]

22. Bede, principium Genesis usque ad natiuitatem Isaac 4.16, in Bedae Venerabilis Opera, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina (henceforth abbreviated CCSL), 118A (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1955–1980).

23. Theophanes, Chronographia, ed. Carolus de Boor, 2 vols. (Leipzig: B. G. Teubnneri, 1883–1885), pp. 333–34; The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, A.D. 284–813, ed. and trans. Cyril A. Mango, Roger Scott, and Geoffrey Greatrex (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1997), p. 464. The following paragraphs on Theophanes are drawn from Tolan, Saracens, pp. 64–66.

24. Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, p. 464.

25. Ibid, p. 465.

26. Ibid., p. 592.

27. Ibid., pp. 470–471.

28. Chronicon moissiacense 1.290, MGH Scriptores in usum scholarum (henceforth abbreviated MGH SS) 1.282–313, 2.257–59; see Georges Martin, “La chute du royaume wisigothique d’Espagne dans l’historiographie chrétienne des VIIIe et IXe siècles,” Cahiers de Linguistique Hispanique Médiévale 9 (1984): 210–33.

29. On the chronicles of the sack of Benevento, see James Waltz, “Western European Attitudes toward Muslims before the Crusades,” PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1963, p. 47. On the description of the Battle of Tours, see Rotter, Abendland und Sarazenen, pp. 217–30.

30. Liutprand, Anapodosis, quoted in Waltz, “Western European Attitudes,” pp. 114–16.

31. Adon speaks of “Loca sanctorum, quae impii Sarraceni ac perfidi christiani contaminaverant” (MGH SS 2.323); for John VIII, see Fred Engreen, “Pope John VIII and the Arabs,” Speculum 20 (1945): 318–30.

32. MGH Poetae latini, vol. 3: 403–5; Engreen, “Pope John VIII and the Arabs,” p. 320.

33. Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World,” pp. 308–9.

34. See the examples cited in Jean- Claude Cheynet, Pouvoir et contestations à Byzance (963–1210) (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996), pp. 394–95. 35. H. Cowdrey, “Canon Law and the First Crusade,” in The Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Kedar (Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben- Zvi, 1992), pp. 41–48; James Brundage, “Holy War and the Medieval Lawyers,” in The Holy War, ed. T. Murphy (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976), pp. 99–104, reprinted in James Brundage, The Crusades, Holy War and Canon Law (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1991).

36. See Christopher Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988); Christopher Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004); and Jean Flori, Pierre l’Ermite et la première croisade (Paris: Fayard, 1999), p. 209.

37. Robertus Monachus, Historia iherosolimitana 3.1, in Recueil des historiens des Croisades, Historiens occidentaux (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1844–1895), 3.763 (henceforth abbreviated RHC Occ).

38. See Jonathan Riley- Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London: Athlone, 1986), pp. 140–42; Tolan, Saracens, pp. 115–16.

39. Robertus Monachus, Historia iherosolimitana 1.1 (RHC Occ. 3.727–28). 40. Petrus Tudebodus, Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere, trans. John Hugh Hill and Laurita L. Hill (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), p. 51; on this author, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 111–18.

41. Petrus Tudebodus, Historia, p. 92. This same language is also found in the later abridged version of his chronicle, Tudebodus abbreviatus (RHC Occ. 3.194). 42. Fulcher of Chartres, Historia de Iherosolymitana, chap. 26 (RHC Occ. 3.357). 43. Raoul of Caen, chap. 129 (RHC Occ. 3.695–96); on this passage, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 119–20.

44. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei per Francos, trans. Robert Levine as The Deeds of God through the Franks (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1997), p. 36. On this text, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 135–47.

45. Guibet of Nogent, The Deeds of God through the Franks, p. 32.

46. William of Tyre, Chronique, ed. R.B.C. Huygens (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1986), pp. 105–6.

47. Gratian, Decretum, causa 23; the analysis that follows is drawn from Tolan, “ ‘Cel Sarrazins me semblet mult herite’: L’hétérodoxie de l’autre comme justification de conquête (XIe–XIIe siècles),” in L’expansion occidentale (XIe–XVe siècles): Formes et conséquences (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2003), pp. 65–74.

48. Carolina lo Nero, “Christiana Dignitas: New Christian Criteria for Citizenship in the Late Roman Empire,” Medieval Encounters 7 (2001): 125–45. These ideas were reiterated by Romanist jurists in the Middle Ages; see Frederick Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 50– 51. 49. Russell, The Just War, p. 92.

50. Ibid., p. 184.

51. Ibid., p. 255.

52. See Tolan, “ ‘Cel Sarrazins me semblet mult herite,’ ” pp. 69–70.

53. See Thomas Deswarte, De la destruction à la restauration: L’idéologie du royaume d’Oviedo- Léon (VIIIe–XIe siècles) (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003), pp. 5–12. 54. On the concept of reconquista, see Manuel González Jiménez, “¿Re- conquista? Un estado de la cuestión,” in Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media, vol. 1, ed. Eloy Benito Ruano (Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia, 2000), pp. 155–78.

55. Deswarte, De la destruction à la restauration, pp. 226–31.

56. Ibn Bassam, Dhakhira, excerpt translated into French in Pierre Guichard, L’Espagne et la Sicile musulmanes au XIe et XIIe siècle (Lyons: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1990), p. 123.

57. See Tolan, Saracens, pp. 174–93; Georges Martin, Histoires de l’Espagne médiévale: Historiographie, geste, romancero (Paris: Klincksieck, 1997); Martin, ed., La historia alfonsí: El modelo y sus destinos, siglos XIII–XV (Madrid: Casa de Valázquez, 2000); and Peter Linehan, History and Historians of Medieval Spain (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1993).

58. “Era mas razón de tener con los romanos, que eran de parte de Europe, que con de los de Carthago, que eran de Affrica.” Primera crónica general, § 26. See Americo Castro, La Realidad historica de España (Mexico City: Porrua, 1973), p. 61.

59. J. López Pereira, ed., Crónica mozárabe de 754 (Saragossa, Spain: Anubar, 1980), § 55. See Georges Martin, “La chute du royaume wisigothique d’Espagne dans l’historiographie chrétienne des VIIIe et IXe siècles,” Cahiers de Linguistique Hispanique Médiévale 9 (1984): 210–33; Tolan, Saracens, pp. 78–85.

60. Yves Bonnaz, ed. and trans., Chroniques asturiennes (fin IXe siècle) (Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1987), pp. 5–6. The chronicler found that biography in the Liber apologeticus martyrum of Eulogius of Cordova; see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 98–100, 111.

61. That text is published in Patrick Henriet, “Hagiographie et politique à León au début du XIIIe siècle,” Revue Mabillon 8 (1997): 77–82, discussion, pp. 64–76.

62. Primera crónica general, § 559, p. 313. Here is another passage about churches being turned into mosques: “E los moros . . . loauan el nombre de Mahomat a altas uozes et ante todos en la eglesia de los cristianos o el nombre de Cristo solie seer loado.” Ibid., § 562, p. 316.

63. On the conversion of places of worship, see Pascal Buresi, “Les conversions d’églises et de mosquées en Espagne au XIe–XIIIe siècles,” in Religion et société urbaine au Moyen Âge: Études offertes à Jean- Louis Biget par ses anciens élèves, ed. Patrick Boucheron and Jacques Chiffoleau (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2000), pp. 333– 50; Amy Remensnyder, “The Colonization of Sacred Architecture: The Virgin Mary, Mosques, and Temples in Medieval Spain and Early Sixteenth- Century Mexico,” in Monks and Nuns, Saints and Outcasts: Religion in Medieval Society: Essays in Honor of Lester K. Little, ed. Sharon A. Farmer and Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), pp. 189–219; Deswarte, De la destruction à la restauration, pp. 311–12 (on the restauratio of the cathedral of León in 1073); for the example of the transformation of the mosque of Cordova during its conquest by Ferdinand III in 1236, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. 185–86.

64. Letter in F. Balme et al., eds., Raymundiana seu documenta quae pertinent ad S. Raymundi de Pennaforti vitam et scripta, 4 vols. (Rome: Domo generalitia ordinis praedicatorum, 1898–1901), vol. 4, part 2: 12–13.

65. M. J. Viguera Molíns, ed., El retroceso territorial de al- Andalus: Almorávides y Almohades (siglos XI al XIII), in Historia de España, ed. R. Menéndez Pidal (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1997), vol. 8, part 2.

66. François Clément, “La rhétorique de l’affrontement dans la correspondance officielle arabo- andalouse aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles,” Cahiers d’Études Hispaniques Médiévales 28 (2005): 215–41.

67. Al- Qālamī, Letter on the Victory of Caracuel, French translation in Clément, “La rhétorique,” p. 238.

68. Clément, “La rhétorique,” p. 229.

69. On the use of Christian mercenaries, see Simon Barton, “Traitors to the Faith? Christian Mercenaries in al- Andalus and the Maghreb, c. 1100–1300,” in Medieval Spain: Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence: Studies in Honour of Angus MacKay, ed. Roger Collins and Anthony Goodman (New York: Palgrave, 2002), pp. 23–45; François Clément, “Reverter et son fils, deux officiers catalans au service des sultans de Marrakech,” Medieval Encounters 9 (2003): 79–106.

70. Ibn Tūmart, quoted in Clément, “La rhétorique,” p. 232.

71. ‘Imād al- Dīn al- Isfahānī, al- Fath al- qussī fī al- fath al- qudsī, translated into French by H. Massé as Conquête de la Syrie et de la Palestine par Saladin (Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1972), pp. 54– 57. See John Tolan and Philippe Josserand, Les relations des pays d’Islam avec le monde latin (Rosny: Bréal, 2000), pp. 161–64. 72. Maqrīzī, History, pp. 262–63.

73. See the excerpts from Ibn Wasīl translated in Anne- Marie Eddé and Françoise Micheau, L’Orient au temps des croisades (Paris: Flammarion, 2002), pp. 109–16. 74. See Ana Echevarria, The Fortress of Faith: The Attitude towards Muslims in Fifteenth- Century Spain (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1999).

75. See, among others, Peter Edward Russell, Prince Henry “the Navigator”: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001).

76. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, trans. C. Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage (New York: B. Franklin, 1963).

Chapter 3: The Social Inferiority of Religious Minorities

1. On the legal status of religious minorities in the medieval world, see the website and text database of the European Research Council project “RELMIN: The Legal Status of Religious Minorities in the Euro- Mediterranean World”; available at www.relmin.eu (accessed February 13, 2012).

2. The following section is based primarily on Antoine Fattal, Le statut légal des non- musulmans en pays d’Islam (Beirut: Dar el- Machreq, 1958 and 1995); and Morabia, Le Gihad dans l’Islam médiéval, pp. 263–89.

3. Fattal, Statut légal, pp. 60–69.

4. Ibid., p. 62.

5. , s.v. “Al- Hākim bi- Amf Allāh” (Maurice Canard).

6. Shlomo Goitein, Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, 6 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967–1988), vol. 1: 197.

7. See EI2, s.v. “Tudmīr” (L. Molina): the text of the treaty is translated in Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 1: 32–33.

8. On the meaning and pitfalls of the term “Mozarab,” see Thomas Burman, Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, c. 1050–1200 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1994), pp. 7–9; Mikel de Epalza, “Mozarabs: An Emblematic Christian Minority in al- Andalus,” in The Legacy of Muslim Spain, ed. S. K. Jayyusi (Leiden, Nether lands: Brill, 1992), pp. 149–70; EI2, s.v. “Mozarab” (Pedro Chalmeta). 9. Mikel de Epalza, “Falta de obispos y conversión al Islam de los Cristianos de al Ándalus,” Al- Qantara 15 (1994): 386–400.

10. EI2, s.v. “Mozarab.”

11. Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 1: 78–79.

12. Ibn ‘Abdun, Treatise of Hisba, translated in Évariste Lévi- Provençal, Séville musulmane au début du XIIe siècle: Le traité d’Ibn Abdun sur la vie urbaine et les corps de métiers (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1947), pp. 108–9.

13. Alex Metcalfe, The Muslims of Medieval Italy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009); Umberto Rizzitano, “Gli Arabi di Sicilia,” in Il Mezzogiorno dai Bizantini a Federico II (Turin: Unione Tipografica Editrice Torinese, 1983), pp. 368–434; and Henri Bresc, “Arab Christians in the Western Mediterranean (Eleventh–Thirteenth Centuries),” in Library of Mediterranean History, vol. 1, ed. V. Mallia- Milanes (Malta: Mireva, 1994), pp. 3–45.

14. For a very helpful summary of that question, see Nurit Tsafir, “The Attitude of Sunnī Islam toward Jews and Christians as Reflected in Some Legal Issues,” Al- Qantara 26 (2005): 317–36.

15. Ibid.

16. See R. Arié, “Traduction annotée et commentée des traités de hisba d’Ibn ‘Abd al- Ra’ûf et de ‘Umar al Garsîfî,” Hespéris Tamuda 1 (1960): 5–38, 199–214, 349–75 (here, pp. 206–8); Tolan and Josserand, Relations des pays d’Islam, pp. 169–72.

17. See , s.v. “Khamr” (A. Wensicnk and J. Sadan); on the consumption of wine in Egypt, see Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 122–23.

18. Vincent Lagardère, Histoire et société en occident musulman au moyen âge: Analyse du Mi‘yâr d’al- Wanšarîsî (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1996), p. 52.

19. Ibn ‘Abdun, Treatise of Hisba, Lévi- Provençal trans., pp. 64, 127–28; Arié, “Traduction annotée.”

20. Lagardère, Histoire et société, p. 476.

21. Ibid., p. 477.

22. Ibid., p. 53.

23. See James Powell, ed., Muslims under Latin Rule, 1100–1300 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990).

24. On the Muslims in Norman Sicily, see David Abulafia, “The End of Muslim Sicily,” in Powell, ed., Muslims under Latin Rule, pp. 103–33; David Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor (London: Penguin, 1988); Henri Bresc, “Féodalité coloniale en terre d’Islam: La Sicile (1070–1240),” in Structures féodales et féodalisme dans l’Occident méditerranéen (Xe–XIIIe siècles) (Rome: École Française de Rome, 1980), pp. 631–47; Bresc, “Mudéjars des pays de la couronne d’Aragon et Sarrasins de la Sicile normande: Le problème d’acculturation,” in Charles- Emmanuel Dufourcq et al., Jaime I y su época: X Congreso de Historia de la Corona de Aragón (Saragossa, Spain: Institución Fernando el Católico, 1979), pp. 51–60; Donald Matthew, The Norman Kingdom of Sicily (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Alex Metcalfe, Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily: Arabic Speakers and the End of Islam (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003); and Metcalfe, The Muslims of Medieval Italy.

25. Ibn Jubayr, Rihla, trans. R.J.C. Broadhurst as The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, Being the Chronicle of a Mediaeval Spanish Moor . . . (London: Camelot, 1952), pp. 335–63.

26. A. Turki, “Consultation juridique d’al- Imam al- Mâzarî sur le cas des musulmans vivant en Sicile sous l’autorité des Normands,” Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 50, no. 2 (1984): 691–704; Tolan and Josserand, Relations des pays d’Islam, pp. 152–56. 27. Jean- Marie Martin, “La colonie sarrasine de Lucera et son environnement: Quelques réflexions,” in Mediterraneo medievale: Scritti in onore di Francesco Giunta, ed. Francesco Giunta, 3 vols. (Soveria Mannelli, Italy: Rubbettino, 1989), vol. 2: 795–811. 28. On the place of Muslims in Frankish society in the Holy Land, see Maya Shatzmiller, ed., Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth- Century Syria (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1993); Ronnie Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Benjamin Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant,” in Powell, ed., Muslims under Latin Rule, pp. 135–74; Joshua Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1980); and Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem (Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1969).

29. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, Broadhurst trans., p. 317; on this passage, see Tolan, Saracens, p. xvii.

30. Joseph O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries,” in Powell, ed., Muslims under Latin Rule, pp. 11– 56, esp. 13–18. 31. See Jean- Pierre Molénat, Campagnes et monts de Tolède du XIIe au XVe siècle (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1997).

32. See Clay Stalls, Possessing the Land: Aragon’s Expansion into Islam’s Ebro Frontier under Alfonso the Battler, 1104–1134 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1995); Robert Burns, “Muslims in the Thirteenth- century Realms of Aragon: Interaction and Reaction,” in Powell, ed., Muslims under Latin Rule, pp. 57–102, esp. 64–67.

33. O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” pp. 16–18. 34. See Pierre Guichard, Les musulmans de Valence et la reconquête: XIe–XIIIe siècles, 2 vols. (Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1990–1991); Maria Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, Els sarrains de la corona catalano- aragonesa en el segle XIV: Segregació i discriminació (Barcelona: Consell Superior d’Investigacions Científiques, 1987); Robert Burns, Islam under the Crusaders: Colonial Survival in the Thirteenth Century Kingdom of Valencia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973); Robert Burns, Moors and Crusaders in Mediterranean Spain (London: Variorum, 1978); Robert Burns, Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Crusader Kingdom of Valencia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984); John Boswell, The Royal Treasure: Muslim Communities in the Crown of Aragon in the Fourteenth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); and Mark Meyerson, The Muslims of Valencia in the Age of Fernando and Isabel: Between Coexistence and Crusade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). 35. Benjamin Kedar, “De Iudeis et Sarracenis: On the Categorization of Muslims in Medieval Canon Law,” in Studia in honorem eminentissimi cardinalis Alphonsi M. Stickler, ed. R. J. Castillo Lara (Rome: Libreria Ateneo Salesiano, 1992), pp. 207–13; Henri Gilles, “Législation et doctrine canoniques sur les Sarrasins,” Cahiers de Fanjeaux 18 (1983): 195– 213; Emilio Bussi, “La condizione giuridica dei musulmani nel diritto canonico,” Revista di Storia del Diritto Italiano 8 (1935): 459–94; Peter Herde, “Christians and Saracens at the Time of the Crusades: Some Comments of Contemporary Medieval Canonists,” Studia Gratiana 12 (1967): 361–76; and Andrea Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones de moros y judios en los fueros de la corona de Castilla (siglos XI–XIII),” Temas Medievales 11 (2002–2003): 113–50. See the laws and translations included in the RELMIN database, available at http://www.cn-telma.fr/relmin/index/ (accessed February 13, 2012). 36. Alfonso el Sabio (Alfonso the Wise), Las siete partidos (Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia, 1807 and 1972), § 7.25.1. See Tolan, Saracens, pp. 174–75, 186–93; Robert Burns, “Jews and Moors in the Siete partidas of Alfonso X the Learned: A Background Perspective,” in Collins and Goodman, eds., Medieval Spain: Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, pp. 46–62.

37. Ferrer i Mallol, Els sarrains, pp. 88– 94.

38. Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant,” pp. 154–65.

39. Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones”; O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” p. 37.

40. Alfonso el Sabio, Siete partidas, § 3.11.21.

41. Ibid., § 3.16.8. See also § 3.11.21: “En qué manera deben jurar los moros.”

42. O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” p. 39.

43. Lateran III, canon 26, in Concilia oecumenicorum decreta, p. 223; canon reiterated in § 10.5.6.5 of Corpus iuris canonici, vol. 2: 773; Alfonso el Sabio, Siete partidas, § 4.7.8.

44. Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones.”

45. Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant,” pp. 159–60.

46. Gratian, Decretum, causa 28. For Gregory IX’s confirmation of the decree in 1234, see Responsiones ad dubitabilia circa communicationem christianorum cum sarracenis, in Raymond of Penyafort, Summae, 3 vols. of the Universa Bibliotheca Iurus, ed. Xavier Ochoa and Aloysius Diez (Rome: Commentarium pro Religiosis, 1976– 1978), vol. 3: 1024–36, chap. 11; and Tolan and Josserand, Relations des pays d’Islam, pp. 164–69.

47. Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones,” p. 144. Alfonso el Sabio, Siete partidas, § 7.25.10, 7.24.9.

48. David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 127–65.

49. Agapito Rey, Castigos e documentos para bien vivir ordenados por el Rey don Sancho IV (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1952), pp. 126–33.

50. James Powers, “Frontier Municipal Baths and Social Interaction in Thirteenth- Century Spain,” American History Review 84 (1979): 649–67.

51. O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” p. 31.

52. Benjamin Z. Kedar, “On the Origins of the Earliest Laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The Canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120,” Speculum 74 (1999): 310–35. See James Brundage, “Prostitution, Miscegenation, and Sexual Purity in the First Crusade,” in Crusade and Settlement: Presented to R. C. Smail, ed. Peter W. Edbury (Cardiff, UK: University College Cardiff Press, 1985), pp. 57–65, reprinted in James Brundage, The Crusades, Holy War, and Canon Law (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1991), pp. 60–61.

53. Lateran IV, canon 68, in Les Conciles oecuméniques: Les décrets, vol. 2, part 1 (Paris: Cerf, 1994), p. 567; O’Callaghan, “The Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” pp. 30–31.

54. Lateran IV, canon 68. On the Crown of Aragon, see Elena Lourie, “Anatomy of Ambivalence: Muslims under the Crown of Aragon in the Late Thirteenth Century,” in her Crusade and Colonisation (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1990), p. 52; Nirenberg, Communities of Violence. On Castile, see O’Callaghan, “Mudejars of Castile and Portugal,” p. 44.

55. Alfonso el Sabio, Siete partidas, § 7.28.

56. Ibid., § 7.28.6. See Larry J. Simon, “Jews in the Legal Corpus of Alfonso el Sabio,” Comitatus 18 (1987): 80– 97.

57. See Robert Burns, “Renegades, Adventurers, and Sharp Businessmen: The Thirteenth- Century Spaniard in the Cause of Islam,” Catholic Historical Review 58 (1972): 341–66; Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, p. 128 n. 4; Mikel de Epalza, Fray Anselm Turmeda (Abdallah al- Taryuman) y su polémica islamo- cristiana (Madrid: Hiperión, 1994); Dwayne E. Carpenter, “Minorities in Medieval Spain,” Romance Quarterly 33 (1986): 257–87; and Dwayne E. Carpenter, “Alfonso the Learned and the Problem of Conversion to Islam,” in Estudios in homenaje a Enrique Ruiz- Fornells, ed. Juan Fernández- Jiménez, José Labrador-Herraiz, and Teresa Valdivieso (Erie, PA: Asociación de Licenciados y Doctores de Español en los Estados Unidos, 1990), pp. 61–68. 58. Alfonso el Sabio, Siete partidas, § 4.21.8; see Dwayne E. Carpenter, Alfonso X and the Jews: An Edition of and Commentary on Siete partidas 7.24 “De los judios” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), pp. 95– 98. For the conversions of slaves in Aragon, see Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, pp. 184–85; Burns, “Muslims in the Thirteenth- Century Realms of Aragon,” p. 79; and Benjamin Kedar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches toward the Muslims (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 76–78, 146–52.

59. See EI2, s.v. “Hārūn b. Yahyā” (M. Izzedin) and “Kustantinīyya” (J. Mordtmann). 60. Qur’an 47:4; see Raoudha Guemara, “La libération et le rachat des captifs: Une lecture musulmane,” in La liberazione dei “captivi” tra cristianità e islam: Oltre la crociata e il gihâd: Tolleranza e servizio unmanitario, ed. Giulio Cipollone (Vatican City: Archivio Segreto Vaticano, 2000), pp. 333–34.

61. Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World, trans. Jane Marie Todd (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 36–39. 62. See Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant,” p. 153. 63. Charles Verlinden, L’esclavage dans l’Europe médiévale, vol. 1: Péninsule ibérique, France (Brugge: De Tempel, 1955), p. 186, quoting Abenalcoitía el Cordobés, Historia de la conquista en España, in J. Ribera, Colección de obras arábigas de historia y geografía que publica la Real Academia de Historia, vol. 2 (Madrid: Impr. y estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, 1926), p. 115.

64. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 194; Rafael Pinilla, “Aproximación al estudio de los cautivos cristianos fruto de guerra santa- cruzada en Al- Andalus,” in Cipollone, ed., La liberazione dei “captivi” tra cristiantià e islam, pp. 311–31.

65. Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 2: 35–36. 66. James Brodman, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian- Islamic Frontier (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986), p. 2; Verlinden, L’es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 241. For other examples of captives taken during military actions by the Almohads, see Verlinden, L’es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 200–202. 67. See Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 47– 51.

68. Jacques Heers, Esclaves et domestiques au Moyen Âge dans le monde méditerranéen (Paris: Fayard, 1981), pp. 39–43.

69. Ibid., pp. 44– 50.

70. Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World,” p. 309. 71. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 195–98.

72. Brodman, Ransoming Captives, p. 7; Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones,” p. 117; and Verlinden, L’es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 153–54, 158.

73. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 241.

74. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 328–29.

75. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 49– 50.

76. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 329.

77. Heers, Esclaves et domestiques, pp. 234–44.

78. Brodman, Ransoming Captives, p. 8; Verlinden, L’es clavage, vol. 1: 153, 165–66, 242.

79. Cipollone, ed., liberazione dei “captivi” tra cristianità e islam; Alan Forey, “The Military Orders and the Ransoming of Captives from Islam (Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries),” Studia Monastica 33 (1991): 259–79; Yvonne Friedman, Encounter between Enemies: Captivity and Ransom in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2002); and André Díaz Borrás, El miedo al Mediterraneo: La caridad popular valenciana y la redención de cautivos bajo el poder musulmán, 1323–1539 (Barcelona: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2001).

80. Usāma ibn Munqidh, I’tibār, translated into French by André Miquel as Ousâma: Un prince syrien face aux croisés (Paris: Fayard, 1986); see Paul Cobb, Usâma ibn Munqidh: Warrior- Poet in the Age of the Crusades (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2006), p. 29.

81. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, Broadhurst trans., p. 323.

82. Guemara, “La libération et le rachat des captifs: Une lecture musulmane,” p. 341.

83. Brodman, Ransoming Captives; Cipollone, Cristianità- islam: Cattività e liberazione en nome di Dio:Il tempo di Innocenzo III dopo “il 1187” (Rome: Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1992).

84. Verlinden, es cl av ag e; Heers, Esclaves et domestiques.

85. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery.

86. Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 2: 122–30; EI2, s.v. “Sakāliba” (Pierre Guichard and Mohamed Meouak).

87. On the use of slaves in the production of sugar, see Heers, Esclaves et domestiques; Mohamed Ouerfelli, “Le sucre: Production, commercialisation et usages dans la Méditerranée médiévale,” doctoral thesis, Paris, Université de Paris– I, 2006.

88. Heers, Esclaves et domestique, pp. 136–38.

89. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 145 (for slaves whose masters were Portuguese cobblers and smiths).

90. Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 2: 126.

91. Heers, Esclaves et domestiques, pp. 125–26.

92. EI2, s.v. “ ‘Abd” (R. Brunschvig).

93. EI2, s.v. “Umm al- walad” (Joseph Schacht).

94. Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 2: 2.

95. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 147–48.

96. Ibid., pp. 160–64.

97. See Guemara, “La libération et le rachat des captifs: Une lecture musulmane,” pp. 339–40.

98. EI2, s.v. “ ‘Abd.”

99. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 129–34.

100. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 144.

101. Heers, Esclaves et domestiques, pp. 247–83.

102. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 40–41.

103. El Fuero latino de Teruel, chaps. 361–62; see Tolan and Josserand, Relations des pays d’Islam, pp. 179–89; Mariana Navarro, “Imagenes y representaciones,” p. 145. 104. Bernard of Angers, Livre des miracles de Sainte Foy (Sélestat, France: Société des Amis de la Bibliothèque Humaniste, 1994), pp. 50– 52, 59–60, 67–68, 72–74, 82–85; Angeles García de la Borbolla, “Santo Domingo de Silos y las milagrosas redenciones de cautivos en tierras andalusíes (Siglo XIII),” in Cipollone, ed., La liberazione dei “captivi” tra cristianità e islam, pp. 539–49.

105. See Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, 150–51.

106. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 233–34.

107. Usatges de Barcelona, edited from the Catalan text by J. Rovira i Ermengol (Barcelona: Barcino, 1933), § 96.

108. Heers, Esclaves et domestiques, p. 234.

Chapter 4: In Search of Egyptian Gold: Traders in the Mediterranean

1. Cyril Mango, développement urbain de Constantinople: IVe–VIIe siècles (Paris: De Boccard, 2004).

2. Jean- Claude Garcin, ed., Grandes villes méditerranéennes du monde musulman médiéval (Rome: École Française de Rome, 2000).

3. André Miquel, L’Islam et sa civilisation (Paris: Armand Colin, 1990), p. 78.

4. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 75.

5. Christine Mazzoli- Guintard, “De Damas à Cordoue: Espaces urbains de deux métropoles omeyyades,” in Culture arabe et culture européenne: L’inconnu au turban dans l’album de famille, ed. François Clément and John Tolan (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2006), pp. 149–62; Christine Mazzoli- Guintard, Vivre à Cordoue au Moyen Âge: Solidarité citadines [sic] en terre d’Islam aux Xe–XIe siècles (Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2003); and Mazzoli- Guintard, Villes d’al- Andalus: L’Espagne et le Portugal à l’époque musulmane, VIII–XV siècles (Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1996).

6. Ibn Hawqal, b sūrat al- ard, translated into French by J. Kramer and G. Wiet as La configuration de la terre (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2001).

7. See Olivia Remie Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula, 900–1500 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

8. Henri Pirenne, Mahomet et Charlemagne (Brussels: Nouvelle Société d’Édition, 1936); Maurice Lombard, Espaces et réseaux du haut moyen âge (Paris: Mouton, 1972); Richard Hodges and David Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Adriaan Verhulst, “Marchés, marchands et commerce au haut moyen âge dans l’historiographie récente,” in Mercati e mercanti nell’alto medioevo: L’area euroasiatica e l’area mediterranea (Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo, 1993), pp. 23–43; Peregine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2000), pp. 32–34, 153–60; and Gene W. Heck, Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab Roots of Capitalism (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006).

9. See Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain, pp. 39–41; on this period in European economic history, see Michael McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communication and Commerce, A.D. 300–900 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

10. Philippe Sénac, Carolingiens et al- Andalus (VIIIe– IXe siècles) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2002), pp. 41–42.

11. Philippe Sénac, “Les Carolingiens et le califat abbasside (VIIIe– IXe siècles),” in Chrétiens et musulmans et Méditerranée médiévale (VIIIe–XIIIe siècle), ed. Nicolas Prouteau and Philippe Sénac (Poitiers, France: Centre d’Études Supérieures en Civilisation Médiévale, 2003), pp. 3–19.

12. See Évelyne Patlagean, “Byzance et les marchés du grand commerce, vers 830– vers 1030: Entre Pirenne et Polyani,” in Mercati e mercanti, pp. 587–629, esp. 616.

13. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 61; on trade in the medieval Muslim world more generally, see David Abulafia, “Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe,” in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2: Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. Postan and E. Miller (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 402–73.

14. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 101–8.

15. Ibid., pp. 99–100.

16. Ibid., pp. 53– 54; Shlomo Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 145–74, 278–304.

17. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 209–10.

18. Ibid., pp. 43–44.

19. On the consumption of wine in Egypt, see ibid., pp. 122–23.

20. Mediterraneum: El esplendor del Mediterráneo medieval, s. XIII–XV (Barcelona: Institut Europeu de la Mediterrània, 2004).

21. Barbara Kreutz, “Ghost Ships and Phantom Cargoes: Reconstructing Early Amalfitan Trade,” Journal of Medieval History 20 (1994): 347–57; Armand Citarella, “Patterns of Medieval Trade: The Commerce of Amalfi,” Journal of Economic History 28 (1968): 531–55; Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World before the Crusades,” Speculum 42 (1967): 299–312; and Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, pp. 42–45.

22. On Venice, see Jean- Claude Hocquet, Venise au Moyen Âge (Paris: Belles Lettres, 2003).

23. John Pryor shows that the Venetians actually envisioned the conquest of Egypt; John Pryor, “The Venetian Fleet for the Fourth Crusade,” in The Experience of Crusading, vol. 1: Western Approaches, ed. M. Bull and N. Housley (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 103–23.

24. Gottlieg Tafel and Georg Thomas, eds., Urkunden zur älteren Handels- und Staatsgeschichte der Republick Venedig mit besonderer Beziehung auf Byzanz und die Levante, 3 vols. (Vienna, 1856–1857; Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1964), vol. 2: 184–93; Louise Bunger Robert, “Venice and the Crusades,” in A History of the Crusades, 5 vols., ed. Kenneth M. Setton (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955–1989), vol. 5: 379–451, esp. 441.

25. Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World,” p. 310.

26. See M. de Mas Latrie, Traités de paix et de commerce et documents divers concernant les relations des chrétiens avec les arabes de l’Afrique septentrionale au moyen âge (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1866); on the presence of the Pisan and Genoese merchants in the Andalusian ports, see Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain, p. 42.

27. See Maria Teresa Ferrer Mallol, “El Mediterráneo de los siglos XIII al XV: La expansión catalana,” in Mediterraneum, pp. 143–58 (and bibliography, pp. 600–603); Charles- Emmanuel Dufourcq, L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib au XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1965); David Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: The Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Damien Coulon, Barcelone et le grand commerce d’Orient au Moyen Âge: Un siècle de relations avec l’Égypte et la Syrie- Palestine (ca. 1330–ca. 1430) (Madrid: Casa de Valázquez, 2004).

28. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 327–28.

29. Ibid., p. 331.

30. Ibid., pp. 70–79.

31. On the sakka or saftaja, see ibid., pp. 240–42.

32. Ibid., p. 327.

33. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, Broadhurst trans., p. 328.

34. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 344–45.

35. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, Broadhurst trans., p. 72.

36. Olivia Remie Constable, Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

37. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 220–22.

38. Ibid., pp. 339–43.

39. Ibid., pp. 219–20.

40. Michael McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’: How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy,” Past and Present 177 (2002): 17– 54.

41. Liber pontificalis, ed. Louis Duchesne and Cyrille Vogel, 3 vols. (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1981), vol. 1: 433; see McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages,’ ” p. 28. 42. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 57–81, 97; Yûsuf Râgib, “Les marchés aux esclaves en terre d’Islam,” in Mercati e mercanti, pp. 721–63.

43. Kreutz, “Ghost Ships and Phantom Cargoes,” p. 353.

44. Council of Meaux, in MGH, capit. 2, p. 419, c. 75; see Verlinden, L’es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 216–17.

45. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 218–25.

46. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, p. 73; Lévi- Provençal, Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane, vol. 2: 124–25; Miquel, Géographie humaine, vol. 2: 324–25.

47. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 138.

48. Verlinden, es cl av ag e, vol. 1: 143–47, 167–71.

49. Heers, Esclaves et domestiques, p. 104.

50. Ibid., p. 174.

51. John Tolan, “Taking Gratian to Africa: Raymond de Penyafort’s Legal Advice to the Dominicans and Franciscans in Tunis (1234),” in A Faithful Sea: The Religious Cultures of the Mediterranean, 1200–1700, ed. Adnan Husain and Katherine Fleming (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2007), pp. 47–63.

52. Ibid.

53. See Robert Burns, Society and Documentation in Crusader Valencia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).

54. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1: 126–27.

55. Ibid., vol. 1: 70.

Chapter 5: On the Shoulders of Giants: Transmission and Exchange of Knowledge 1. See Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science (London: Routledge, 2002).

2. On medicine in the Middle Ages, see Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, s.v. “Medicine” (Emilie Savage- Smith); ibid., s.v. “Influence of Arab Medicine in the Western Middle Ages” (Danielle Jacquart); and Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’occident médiéval (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1990).

3. Jacquart and Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’occident médiéval, pp. 32–35.

4. Ibid., pp. 13–14, 229.

5. Ibid., pp. 36–45; EI2, s.v. “Hunayn ibn Ishāk” (G. Strohmaier).

6. Jacquart and Micheau, La médicine arabe et l’occident médiéval, pp. 236–39; EI2, s.v. “Al- Tabarī, Alī b. Rabban” (D. Thomas).

7. Jacquart and Micheau, La médicine arabe et l’occident médiéval, pp. 56–68; EI2, s.v. “al- Razī, Abū Bakr Muhammad b. Zakariyyā” (L. Goodman).

8. Jacquart and Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’occident médiéval, pp. 235–36.

9. Ibid., pp. 74–85; Nancy Siraisi, Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).

10. McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages,’ ” p. 36.

11. Usāma ibn Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, trans. Paul M. Cobb (London: Penguin, 2008), pp. 145–46.

12. Constantinus Africanus (11th cent.) and His Arabic Sources, ed. F. Sezgin (Frankfurt: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch- Islamischen Wissenschaften, 1996); Gabriele Marasco, “Constantin l’Africain, l’abbaye de Montcassin et le développement de la médecine en Occident,” in Clément and Tolan, eds., Culture arabe et culture européenne, pp. 59–80.

13. For the translation of this text, see Edward Grant, ed., A Source Book in Medieval Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 35–38, or Charles Burnett, “The Coherence of the Arabic- Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century,” Science in Context 14 (2001): 249–288, 275–281.

14. Ms. Lat. 6912, vol. 1, fol. 1v; see Jacquart and Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’occident médiéval, ill. 8.

15. Jacquart and Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’occident médiéval, pp. 185–89. 16. For an introduction to the subject, see EI2, s.v. “ ‘Ilm al- Ha‘ya” (David Pingree); for a more exhaustive treatment, see Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 1.

17. Marie- Thérèse d’Alverny, La transmission des textes philosophiques et scientifiques au Moyen Âge (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1994); Charles Burnett, “The Translating Activity in Medieval Spain,” in The Legacy of Muslim Spain, ed. Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marín (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1992), pp. 1036– 58; Danielle Jacquart, “L’école des traducteurs,” in Tolède, XIIe–XIIIe siècles, Musulmans, chrétiens et juifs: Le savoir et la tolérance, ed. Louis Cardaillac (Paris: Autrement, 1991), pp. 177–91; and John Tolan, “Reading God’s Will in the Stars: Petrus Alfonsi and Raymond de Marseille Defend the New Arabic Astrology,” Revista Española de Filosofía Medieval 7 (2000): 13–30. 18. See Roger Arnaldez, À la croisée des trois monothéismes: Une communauté de pensée au Moyen Âge (Paris: Albin Michel, 1993); Alain de Libéra and Maurice- Ruben Hayoun, Averroès et l’Averroïsme (Paris: Que sais- je?, 1991); Alain de Libéra, La philosophie médiévale (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004).

19. Oleg Grabar, The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).

20. See Anthony Cutler, “Everywhere and Nowhere: The Invisible Muslim and Christian Self- Fashioning in the Culture of Outremer,” in France and the Holy Land: Frankish Culture at the End of the Crusades, ed. Daniel H. Weiss and Lisa Mahoney (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), pp. 253–81.

21. See P. Guichard and D. Menjot, eds., Pays d’Islam et monde latin, Xe–XIIIe siècles: Textes et documents (Lyons: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 2000), pp. 100–103. 22. Amato di Montecassino, L’Ystoire de li Normant, ed. Vincenzo Barthomaeis (Rome: Tipografia del Senato, 1935), p. 175.

23. Tolan and Josserand, Relations des pays d’Islam, pp. 148–52.

24. Vladimir Goss, “Western Architecture and the World of Islam in the Twelfth Century,” in The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange between East and West during the Period of the Crusades, ed. Vladimir Goss and Christine Bornstein (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University, 1986), pp. 361–75.

25. See the articles by James Monroe and Roger Boasse in Jayyusi and Marín, eds., Legacy of Muslim Spain.

26. The bibliography on Alfonso, his reign, and the cultural activities of his court is vast. The following are merely a few recent studies: Manuel González Jiménez, Alfonso X el Sabio, 1252–1284 (Palencia, Spain: La Olmeda, 1993); Francisco Márquez Villanueva, El concepto cultural Alfonsí (Madrid: Mapfre, 1994); and Joseph F. O’Callaghan, The Learned King: The Reign of Alfonso X of Castile (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993). Also still useful is the biography by Antonio Ballesteros Beretta, Alfonso X el Sabio (Barcelona: Salvat, 1963).

In 1984, for the seven- hundredth anniversary of his death, a large number of colloquia and collections of articles were devoted to Alfonso: Robert I. Burns, Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth Century Renaissance (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); Burns, ed., The Worlds of Alfonso the Learned and James the Conqueror: Intellect and Force in the Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985); John E. Keller, ed., Alfonsine Essays, volume of Romance Quarterly 33, no. 3 (August 1986); Homenaje a Alfonso X, el Sabio (1284–1984), volume of Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 9, no. 3 (Spring 1985); Juan Carlos de Miguel Rodriguez, ed., Actas del congresso internacional: Alfonso X el Sabio, vida, obra, y época (Madrid: Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales, 1984); and Francisco Márquez Villanueva and Carlos Alberto Vega, eds., Alfonso X of Castile: The Learned King (1221–1284), An International Symposium (Cambridge, MA: Department of Romance Languages and Literatures of Harvard University, 1990). 27. See Martin Accad, “Corruption and/or Misinterpretation of the Bible: The Story of the Islâmic Usage of Tahrîf,” The Near Eastern School of Theology Theological Review 24 (2003): 67– 97; EI2, s.v. “Tahrīf.”

28. On this text, see Laura Bottini, “The Apology of al- Kindī,” in Christian-Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History, 5 vols., ed. David Thomas et al. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009–2012), vol. 1: 585–94; Tolan, Saracens, pp. 60–64.

29. See Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala, “Ibn Hazm,” in Thomas et al., eds., Christian- Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History, vol. 3: 137–39.

30. See John Tolan, “Petrus Alfonsi,” in Thomas et al., eds., Christian-Muslim Rela- tions: A Bibliographical History, vol. 3: 356–62.

31. Oscar de la Cruz Palma and Cándida Ferrero Hernández, “Robert of Ketton,” in Thomas et al., eds., Christian-MuslimRelations: A Bibliographical History, vol. 3: 508–19; Dominique Iogna- Prat and John Tolan, “Peter of Cluny,” ibid., 604–10.

32. See Fernando de la Granja, “Fiestas cristianas en al- Andalus (materiales para su estudio,” Al Andalus 34 (1969): 1–53, and 35 (1970): 119–42; Lagardère, Histoire et société, pp. 50, 176, 476.

33. See Tolan, Sons of Ishmael, chap. 7.

34. Riccoldo da Monte di Croce, Pérégrination en Terre sainte et au Proche- Orient et Lettres sur la chute de Saint- Jean d’Acre, Latin ed. and French trans. by René Kappler (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1997), pp. 172–73.

35. “Machometum dicunt nuncium Dei fuisse et ad se tantum a Deo missum. Hoc legi in Alcorano qui est liber eorum.” Burcardus de Monte Sionis, Descriptio Terrae sanctae, § 15, ed. C. J. Lauren, in Peregrinationes medii aevi Quatuor (Leipzig: Akademie Verlag, 1864). On Burchard, see Aryeh Grabois, “Burchard of Mount Sion,” in Trade, Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages, ed. John Friedman and Kristen Figg (New York: Garland, 1990), pp. 82–83; Aryeh Grabois, “Christian Pilgrims in the Thirteenth Century and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: Burchard of Mount Sion,” in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. B. Kedar et al. (Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben- Zvi Institute, 1982), pp. 285–96. 36. For example, Qur’an 14:4: “Each apostle We have sent has spoken in the language of his own people, so that he might make his meaning clear to them.” 37. For that comparative description of the Saracens and the Latins, see Burcardus de Monte Sionis, Descriptio Terrae sanctae, chap. 33.

38. The first text to give a version of that legend is Novellino, ed. Gérard Grenot and Paul Lariavaille (Paris: 10/18, 1988), pp. 176–79; Boccaccio gives his version in the Decameron, day one, third tale. See John Tolan, “ ‘Tra il diavolo di Rustico e il ninferno d’Alibech’: Muslims and Jews in Boccaccio’s Decameron,” in Images of the Other in Medieval and Early Modern Times, ed. Lieselotte Saurma and Anja Eisenbeiss (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2012).

39. Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth- century Miller, trans. John Tedeschi and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), pp. 112–15.

40. John Tolan, Saint Francis and the Sultan: The Curious History of a ChristianMuslim Encounter (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009).

41. See William of Rubruck, Itinerarium, translated by Peter Jackson and David Morgan as The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of the Great Khan Möngke, 1253–1255 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1990); Antti Ruotsala, Europeans and Mongols in the Middle of the Thirteenth Century: Encountering the Other (Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Sciences, 2001); Michèle Guéret- Laferté, Sur les routes de l’Empire mongol: Ordre et rhétorique des relations de voyage au XIIIe et XIVe siècles (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1994); Jean Richard, La papauté et les missions d’Orient au Moyen Âge (XIIIe–XVe siècles) (Rome: École Française de Rome, 1977); and Richard, Croisés, missionnaires et voyageurs: Les perspectives orientales du monde latin médiéval (London: Variorum, 1983).

42. William of Rubruck, The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, pp. 231–35. On that debate, see Benjamin Kedar, “The Multilateral Disputation at the Court of the Grand Qan Mönkge, 1254,” in The Majlis: Interreligious Encounters in Medieval Islam, ed. H. Lazarus- Yafeh et al. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999), pp. 162–83. 43. Robles Sierra, “Raymond de Penyafort,” DS 86, 190; Laureano Robles, Escritores dominicos de la Corona de Aragon, siglos XIII–XV (Salamanca, Spain: Universidad de Notes to Introduction to Part II • 423

Salamanca, 1972), pp. 12– 57; José María Coll, “San Raymundo de Peñafort y las misiones del norte africano en la edad media,” Missionalia Hispanica 5 (1948): 414–57; and Tolan, Saracens, chap. 10.

44. Ramón Martí, De seta Machometi o de origine, progressu, et fine Machometi et quadruplici reprobatione prophetiae eius, Spanish ed. and trans. by Joseph Hernando i Delgado, Acta Historica et Archaeologica Medievalia, no. 4 (1983): 9–51. Under the title Quadruplex reprobatio, this work was falsely attributed to John of Wales; parts of it were published in Strasbourg in 1550 by W. Dreschsler, under the title Gamlensis de origine et progressu Machometis. Hernando i Delgado’s “Le ‘De seta Machometi’ du cod. 46 d’Osma” has shown that this was actually a work by Ramón Martí; see also his “De nuevo sobre la obra antiislámica attribuida a Ramón Martí.”

45. See Robin Vose, Dominicans, Muslims and Jews in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009). Vose argues that the mission to the Jews and Muslims played only a very small role in the life and activity of Dominican friars in Spain, compared to their mission to serve the Christian communities. The point is well taken, but, in his attempt to minimize the missionary efforts of Dominicans, Vose overlooks much of the evidence for the considerable impact that Dominican missions indeed had in Iberian society. See my review of Vose’s book in Islam and Christian- Muslim Relations 21 (2010): 200–201.

46. On Riccoldo, see Tolan, Saracens, pp. xiii–xiv, 245– 54.

47. Riccoldo, Lettres, vol. 3: 239.

48. Riccoldo, Contra legem Sarracenorum, chap. 15.

49. Ibid., p. 125.

50. Francesco Petrarcha, Letters of Old Age, trans. Aldo S. Bernardo, Saul Levin, and Reta A. Bernardo (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), vol. 2: 471–72, 580. See Francesco Gabrieli, “Petrarca e gli Arabi,” Al- Andalus 42 (1977): 241–48; Nancy Bisaha, “Petrarch’s Vision of the Muslim and Byzantine East,” Speculum 76 (2001): 284–314.

51. On the debates in the medical world, see Danielle Jacquart and Françoise Micheau, La médecine arabe et l’Occident médiéval (Paris, Maisonneuve et Larose, 1996); Nancy Siraisi, Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).

52. Siraisi, Avicenna in Renaissance Italy, pp. 70–73.

53. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man, trans. A. Robert Caponigri (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1956), p. 10; Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), pp. 166–73; Angelo Michele Piemontese, “Il Corano latine di Ficio e i corani arabi de Pico e Monchates,” Rinascimento 36 (1996): 226–73; and Louis Valcke, Pic de la Mirandole: Un itinéraire philosophique (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2005).

54. Paul Zumthor, La mesure du Monde (Paris: Seuil, 1993), p. 334.

Part II:The Great Turk and Europe Introduction to Part II: Continuity and Change in Geopolitics 1. C.H.H. Wake, “The Volume of European Spice Imports at the Beginning and End of the Fifteenth Century,” Journal of Economic European History 15, no. 3 (1986): 633.

2. S. Har-El, Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman- Mamluk War, 1485–1491 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1995).

3. Jean- Louis Bacqué- Grammont and Anne Kroell, Mameluks, Ottomans et Portugais en Mer Rouge: L’affaire de Djedda en 1517, supplement to Annales Islamologiques 12 (1988).

4. Çengiz C. Orhonlu, “Hint Kaptanlığı ve Piri Re’is,” Belleten 34, no. 134 (1970): 235–54.

5. For a somewhat different point of view, see Palmira Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy at the Age of Discovery (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).

6. See Salih Özbaran, The Ottoman Response to European Expansion (Istanbul: Isis, 1994).

Chapter 6: The Ottoman Conquest in Europe

1. See Paul Wittek, “Les Gagaouzes: Les gens de Kaykaus,” Rocznik Orientalistyczny 17 (1953): 12–24; A. Decei, “Le problème de la colonisation des Turcs seljoukides dans la Dobroudja au XIIIe siècle,” Türk Araștırmaları Dergisi 6, nos. 10–11 (1968): 85–111; and Machiel Kiel, “The Türbe of Sarı Saltık at Babadag- Dobrudja,”Güney- Doğu Avrupa Araștırmaları Dergisi 6–7 (1977–1978): 205–25.

2. Stephen W. Reinert, “The Muslim Presence in Constantinople, Ninth– Fifteenth Centuries: Some Preliminary Observations,” in Studies on the International Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire, ed. Hélène Ahrweiler and Angeliki E. Laiou (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998), pp. 125–50; and Michel Balivet, “Les Turcs dans Byzance avant 1453,” in Turcobyzantiae: Échanges régionaux. Contacts urbains (Istanbul: Isis, 2008), pp. 115–16.

3. Balivet, “Les Turcs dans Byzance,” pp. 120–21.

4. Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, “The Conquest of Adrianople by the Turks,” Studi Veneziani 12 (1970): 211–17; Irène Beldiceanu- Steinherr, “La conquête d’Andrinople par les Turcs,” Travaux et mémoires 1 (1965): 439–61; and Halil Inalcik, “The Conquest of Edirne (1361),” Archivum Ottamanicum 3 (1971): 185–210. It is the “brief chronicles” of Byzantium that make it possible to decide in favor of 1369.

5. See Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1481 (Istanbul: Isis, 1990), p. 29.

6. Stephen W. Reinert, “From Niš to Kosovo Polje: Reflections on Murad I’s Final Year,” in The Ottoman Emirate (1300–1389), ed. Elizabeth Zachariadou (Heraklion: Crete University Press, 1993), pp. 169–211.

7. T. A. Emmert, “The Battle of Kosovo: A Reconsideration of Its Significance in the Decline of Medieval Serbia,” PhD diss., Stanford University, 1973; T. A. Emmert, Serbian Golgotha: Kosovo, 1389 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); N. Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History (London: Macmillan,1998); and W. Vucinich and T. Emmert, Kosovo, Legacy of a Medieval Battle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).

8. See Dimitris J. Kastritsis, The Sons of Bayezid: Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402–1413 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007).

9. Michel Balivet, Islam mystique et révolution armée dans les Balkans ottomans: Vie du cheikh Bedreddin, le ‘Hallâj des Turcs’ (1358/59–1416) (Istanbul: Isis, 1995). 10. See Oliver Jens Schmitt, Skanderbeg, der neue Alexander auf dem Balkan (Regensburg, Germany: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 2009).

11. Colin Imber, The Crusade of Varna, 1443–1445 (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006). 12. On the two reigns of Mehmed II, see Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, ed. William C. Hickman, trans. Ralph Manheim (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978).

13. Louis Massignon, “Textes prémonitoires et commentaires mystiques relatifs à la prise de Constantinople par les Turcs en 1453 (=858 Heg.),” Oriens 6 (1953): 10–17, reprinted in his Opera Minora, vol. 2 (Beirut: Daar al- Maaref, 1963), pp. 442–50. 14. See the analyses of Stéphane Yerasimos in M. F. Auzépy, Alain Ducellier, Gilles Veinstein, and Stéphane Yerasimos, Istanbul (Paris: Citadelle et Mazenod, 2002). 15. Epistola ad Mahomatem II/Epistle to Mohammed II, ed. with translation and notes by Albert R. Baca (New York: Peter Lang, 1990).

16. See Theoharis Stavrides, The Sultan of Vezirs: The Life and Times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelović (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2001). 17. Spandouyn Cantacasin, Petit Traicté de l’origine des Turcqs, ed. Charles Schefer (Paris: Leroux, 1896), pp. 47–48; see also Nicolas Vatin, “Macabre trafic: La destinée post- mortem du prince Jem,” in Mélanges offerts à Louis Bazin par ses disciples, collègues et amis, ed. Jean- Louis Bacqué- Grammont and Rémi Dor (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992), pp. 231–39.

18. See Nicoara Beldiceanu, “La conquête des cités marchandes de Kilia et de Cetatea- Albă par Bayezid II,” Südost- Forschungen 23 (1964): 36– 90.

19. Nicolas Vatin, “Le siège de Mytilène,” Turcica 21–22 (1992): 437–59. 20. Sa’dü- ddīn, djü- ttevarīh (Istanbul, 1280/1863), vol. 2: 388.

21. Joseph von Hammer- Purgstall, Histoire de l’Empire ottoman, trans. J. J. Hellert (Paris: Bellizard, Barthès, Dufour, and Lowell, 1836), vol. 5: 457–60.

22. Gülrü Necipoğlu, “Süleymân the Magnificent and the Representation of Power in the Context of Ottoman- Habsburg- Papal Rivalry,” in Süleymân the Second and His Time, ed. H. Inalcik and C. Kafadar (Istanbul: Isis, 1993), pp. 163–94.

23. Ebru Turan, “The Sultan’s Favorite: Ibrahim Pasha and the Making of Ottoman Sovereignty in the Reign of Sultan Süleyman (1516–1526),” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2007.

24. See Nicolas Vatin and Gilles Veinstein, Le sérail ébranlé: Essai sur les morts, dépositions et avènements des sultans ottomans, XIVe–XIXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 2003), pp. 107–8, 123–24, 130–32.

25. See Caroline Finkel, The Administration of Warfare: The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593–1606 (Vienna: Verlag des Verbandes der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaften Österreichs, 1985), p. 69.

26. Jean Nouzille, Histoire des frontières: L’Autriche et l’Empire ottoman, preface by Jean Bérenger (Paris: Berg International, 1991); Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, Ottomans, Hungarians and Habsburgs in Central Europe: The Military Confines in the Era of Ottoman Conquests (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2000).

27. Gustav Bayerle, “The Compromise at Zsitvatorok,” Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 5–53.

28. See Antonis Anastasopulos, ed., The Eastern Mediterranean under Ottoman Rule: Crete, 1645–1840 (Rethymno: Crete University Press, 2008); Nicolas Oikonomides, “From Soldiers of Fortune to Gazi Warriors: The Tsympe Affair,” in Studies in Ottoman History in Honour of Professor V. L. Ménage, ed. C. Heywood and C. Imber (Istanbul: Isis, 1994), pp. 239–47.

29. See Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); W. H. McNeill, Europe’s Steppe Frontier, 1500–1800 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974). 30. Marc David Baer, Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 164–69.

Chapter 7: Ottoman Empire: An Ancient Fracture

1. Istanbul, Archives of the Prime Ministry, Ottoman Archives, Mühimme defteri, vol. 3, fol. 423, no. 1265.

2. English translation of the letter in Pál Fodor, “The View of the Turk in Hungary: The Apocalyptic Tradition and the Legend of the Red Apple in Ottoman Hungarian Context,” in Les traditions apocalyptiques au tournant de la chute de Constantinople, ed. Benjamin Lellouch and Stéphane Yerasimos (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), pp. 101– 2.

3. S. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Sixteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).

4. Ömer Lûtfi Barkan, “Essai sur les données statistiques des registres de recensement dans l’Empire ottoman,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1 (1958): 9–36.

5. Cem Behar, ed., The Population of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey: Historical Statistic Series, vol. 2 (Ankara: State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey, 1996), pp. 23–24.

6. Tayyib Gökbilgin, Rumeli’de yürükler, Tatarlar ve Evlâd- i Fâtihân (Istanbul: Osman Yalçın Matbaası, 1957).

7. Jovan Trifunovski, Albansko stanovnistvo u socialistickoj republici Makedoniji: Antropogeografska i etnografska istrazivanja (Belgrade: NIRO “Književne novine,” 1988).

8. See Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, eds., Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 2 vols. (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982).

9. Machiel Kiel, and Society of Bulgaria in the Turkish Period (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1985); Kiel, Ottoman Architecture in Albania (Istanbul: IRSICA, 1990); and Kiel, “Central Greece in the Suleymanic Age: Preliminary Notes on Population Growth, Economic Expansion and Its Influence on the Spread of Greek Culture,” in Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, ed. Gilles Veinstein (Paris: La Documentation Française, 1992), pp. 399–424.

10. Quoted in V. L. Ménage, “Some Notes on the Devshirme,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 29 (1966): 76.

11. For an attempt to organize the data in view of creating a model tracking conversions to Islam in the Ottoman period, based on the schema established by R. W. Bulliet for the Middle Ages, see Anton Minkov, Conversion to Islam in the Balkans: Kisve Bahası Petitions and Ottoman Social Life, 1670–1730 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004).

12. EI2, s.v. “Bosna” (B. Djurdjev).

13. Halil Inalcik, Fatih devri üzerinde tetkikler ve vesikalar (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1954), pp. 144–66.

Chapter 8: Antagonistic Figures

1. Jean- Claude Margolin, “Réflexion sur le commentaire du père Célestin Pierre Crespet de la lettre du pape Pie II au sultan Mahomet II,” in Chrétiens et musulmans à la Renaissance, ed. B. Bennassar and R. Sauzet (Paris: Champion, 1998), pp. 213–39.

2. H. Prideau, True Nature of Imposture Fully Display’d (London, 1697). 3. Quoted in Jean Delumeau, La peur en Occident (XIVe–XVIIIe s.) (Paris: Fayard,

1978), p. 263.

4. G. Bernetti, “Appassionato discorso di Pio II ai cardinali per la guerra contro i 

Turchi,” S. Caternia di Siena 17, nos. 4–5 (1966): 25.

5. See Maximilian Grothaus, “Zum Türkenbild in der Kultur der Habsburger 

Monarchie zwischen dem 16. und 18. Jahrhundert,” in Habsburgisch- OsmanischeBeziehungen, ed. Andreas Tietze (Vienna: Verlag des Verbandes der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaften Österreichs, 1985), pp. 69–70.

6. Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror, pp. 140–44.

7. See the thesis, still unpublished, of Guy Le Thiec, “Et il y aura un seul troupeau . . . L’imaginaire de la confrontation entre Turcs et chrétiens dans l’art figuratif en 

France et en Italie de 1453 aux années 1620,” Université de Montpellier, 1994; I. Fenlon, 

“In destructione Turcharum: The Victory of Lepanto in Sixteenth- Century Music and 

Letters,” in Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo, ed. F. Degrada (Florence: L. S. Olschki, 1974), 

pp. 257–77.

8. Letter from La Goulette, July 28, 1535, in Ernest Charrière, Négociations de la 

France dans le Levant, vol. 1 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1848), p. 274. 9. See Sylvie Deswarte- Rosa, “L’expédition de Tunis (1535): Images, interprétations, répercussions culturelles,” in Bennassar and Sauzet, eds., Chrétiens et musulmans 

à la Renaissance, pp. 75–132.

10. Winfried Schulze, Reich und Türkengefahr im späten 16. Jahrhundert: Studien zu 

den politischen und gesellschaftlichen Auswirkungen einer äusseren Bedrohung (Munich: 

C. H. Beck, 1978), p. 39.

11. Multimedia center of Le Mans, Maine, 102, posters; information generously

communicated by A. M. Touzard.

12. See Franco Cardini, Europe et islam: Histoire d’un malentendu, trans. Jean- Pierre

Bardos (Paris: Seuil, 2000), p. 200.

13. Michel Febvre, Théâtre de la Turquie traduit de l’italien en françois (Paris: Edme 

Couterot, 1682), p. 423.

14. Charrière, Négociations, vol. 1: 7–47.

15. L’horoscope impérial de Louis XIV Dieudonné prédit par l’Oracle François et Michel Nostradamus (Paris: Chez François Huart, 1652), quoted in Géraud Poumarède,

Pour en finir avec la croisade: Mythes et réalités de la lutte contre les Turcs aux XVIe et

XVII siècles (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004), pp. 119–20.

16. G. W. Leibniz, Mémoire de Leibniz à Louis XIV sur la conquête de l’Egypte, edited 

with a preface and notes by M. de Hoffmanns (Paris: Garnot, 1840).

17. Quoted in P. Hazard, La crise de la conscience européenne, vol. 1, 1680– 1715

(Paris: Nouvelle Revue Française, 1968), p. 274.

18. See, for example, W. Rainolds, Calvino- turcismus, id est, Calvinisticae Perfideae, 

cum Mahometana collatio (Antwerp, 1597).

19. Joseph Matuz, Herrscher Urkunden des Osmanensultans Süleymân des Prächtigen: Ein chronologisches Verzeichnis (Freiburg im Breisgau: Klaus Schwarz, 1971), p. 80, no. 342. 20. S. Fischer-Galati, Ottoman Imperialism and German Protestantism, 1521–1555 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).

21. Guillaume Postel, la république des Turcs, vol 3. (Poitiers, 1560), p. 89. 22. Erasmus, “Utilissima Consultatio de bello Turcis inferendo,” in Opera omnia Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, ed. A. G. Weiler (Amsterdam: North- Holland, 1986), 3.3, pp. 48– 50.

23. Martin Brecht, “Luther und die Türken,” in Europe und die Türken in der Renaissance, ed. B. Guthmüller and W. Kühlmann (Tübingen, Germany: M. Niemeyer, 2000), pp. 9–27.

24. D. Martin Luthers Werke, vol. 30, part 2 (Weimar: Hermann Boehlau, 1909), pp. 81–148.

25. Georgius de Hungaria, Traité sur les moeurs, les coutumes et la perfidie des Turcs, translated from the Latin by Joël Schnapp (Toulouse: Anacharsis, 2003). 26. Cardini, Europe et Islam, p. 186.

27. F. de la Noue, “Discours XXII,” in Discours politiques et militaires, ed. F. E. Sutcliffe (Geneva: Droz, 1967), p. 446.

28. Walter Leisch, “Père Joseph und die Pläne einer Türkenliga in den Jahren 1616 bis 1625,” in Tietze, Habsburgisch- Osmanische Beziehungen, pp. 161–69. 29. A. Pertusi, “I primi studi in Occidente sull’origine e la potenza des Turchi,” Studi Veneziani 12 (1970); 465–515; J. Hankins, “Renaissance Crusaders: Humanist Crusade Literature in the Age of Mehmed II,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 49 (1995): 135–44. 30. Paulo Govio, Commentari della cose de Turchi a Carlo Quinto, imperadore augusto (1538), fol. aiiv–aiiir.

31. N. Oikonomides, “The Turks in Byzantine Rhetoric of the Twelfth Century,” in Decision Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire, ed. C. E. Farah (Kirksville: The Thomas Jefferson University Press at Northeast Missouri State University, 1993), pp. 149–154.

32. F. Sansovino, Lettera overo discorso sopra la predittioni fatte in diversi tempi da diverse persone illustri le quali pronosticano la nostra futura felicità per la guerra del Turco con la Serenissima Republica di Venetia l’anno 1570 (Venice, 1570), fol. 6r. 33. Letter from Lauro Querini to Pope Nicholas V, Candia, July 15, 1453, in A. Pertusi, Testi inediti e poco noti sulla caduta di Constantinopoli (Bologna: Pátron, 1983), pp. 74–76.

34. R. de Chateaubriand, Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem, ed. Jean- Claude Berchet (Paris: Gallimard, 2005), p. 373.

35. Franz Babinger, Die Aufzeichnungen des Genuesen Iacopo de Promontoriode Campis über den Osmanenstaat um 1475 (Munich: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1957), p. 61.

36. Konstantin Mihailović, Memoirs of a Janissary, ed. Svat Soucek, trans. Benjamin Stolz (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975), pp. 176–77.

37. La deffaicte des Turcs par Monseigneur le duc de Mercoeur (Paris, 1601), quoted in Clarence Dana Rouillard, The Turk in French History: Thought and Literature (1520– 1660) (Paris: Boivin, 1942), p. 79.

38. Advis trescertain de ce qui s’est passé entre l’armée Chrestienne et celle des Turcs (Lyons, 1598); cited ibid.

39. Discours de ce qui s’est passé en Transylvanie (Lyons, 1595).

40. Schulze, Reich und Türkengefähr.

41. Ibid., p. 56.

42. Charrière, Négociations, vol. 1: 581.

43. Schulze, Reich und Türkengefähr, p. 59.

44. Ibid., p. 60.

45. F. Garcia Salinero, ed., Viaje de Turquia (La Odisea de Pedro de Urdemalas) (Madrid: Catedra, 1980).

46. Ibid., p. 457.

47. Ibid., p. 413.

48. Ibid., p. 414.

49. Lucette Valensi, Venise et la Sublime Porte: La naissance du despote (Paris: Hachette, 1987).

50. Bey Ahmed Feridün, Münsheāt al- Selātīn, vol. 1 (Istanbul: Takvimhane- i a‘mire, 1857), pp. 228–31.

51. Istanbul, Archives of the Prime Ministry, Ottoman Archives, Mühimme Defteri, vol. 7, no. 721.

52. Istanbul, Archives of the Museum of the Topkapı Palace, E. 11 687, published in Mattei Cazacu and Keram Kévonian, “La chute de Caffa en 1475 à la lumière de nouveaux documents,” Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique 17, no. 4 (1976): 506–11. The document was translated from Persian into French by M. Mokri.

53. Nicolas Vatin, “Un exemple d’histoire officielle ottomane? Le récit de la campagne de Szigetvár (1566) dans une lettre du Sultan Selim II au chah d’Iran Tahmasp,” in Évenement, récit, histoire officielle: L’écriture de l’histoire dans les monarchies antiques, ed. Nicolas Grimal and Michel Baud (Paris: Éditions Cybèle, 2003), pp. 143–54. 54. Quoted in Stéphane Yerasimos, “De l’arbre à la pomme: Généalogie d’un thème apocalyptique,” in Les traditions apocalyptiques, ed. Benjamin Lellouch and Stéphane Yerasimos (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), p. 173.

55. Ibid., pp.170–84.

56. Quoted by Pál Fodor, “The View of the Turk in Hungary,” in Lellouch and Yerasimos, eds., Les traditions apocalyptiques, p. 123.

57. See Robert Dankoff, An Ottoman Mentality: The World of Evliya Celebi (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004), pp. 62 n. 45 and 105 n. 63.

58. J. von Hammer, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, vol. 3 (Pest, Hungary: C. A. Hartleben, 1828), pp. 474–75.

59. See W. Heffening, Die türkischen Transkriptionstexte des Bartholomaeus Georgievitz aus den Jahren 1544–1548: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Grammatik des OsmanischTürkischen (Leipzig: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, 1942).

60. F. Kidrić, “Bartholomaeus Gjorjević: Biographische und bibliographische Zusammenfassung,” in Museion: Veröffentlischungen aus der Nationalbibliothek in Wien 2 (1920): 19–24.

61. Paul Wittek, “Le Sultan de Rûm,” Annuaire de l’Institut d’Histoire et de Philologie Orientale et Slave 6 (1938); and André Miquel, “Rome chez les géographes arabes,” in Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres: Comptes Rendus des Séances 12, no. 151 (January– March 1975): pp. 281–91.

62. Achikpachazade, “Tevarih- i Āl- i Osman,” in Osmanlı Tarihleri, ed. Çiftçioğlu N. Atsız (Istanbul: Türkiye Yayınevi, 1947), chap. 40, p. 124.

Chapter 9: The Islamic- Christian Border in Europe

1. Giuseppe Bonaffini, Un mare di paura: Il Mediterraneo in età moderna (Caltanisseta, Italy: S. Sciascia,1997).

2. For example, “the Austrian military border . . . was the ‘iron curtain’ of Christendom, Europe’s rampart against Ottoman aggression, and a site of confrontation between Christian and Muslim civilizations”; see Nouzille, Histoire des frontières, p. 57.

3. Excerpted from Müniri Belgradî, Silsiletü- l- mukarribîn ve menâkibü- l- müttakîn, quoted in Nathalie Clayer, Mystiques, État et société: Les Halvetis dans l’aire balkanique de la fin du XVe siècle à nos jours (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1994), p. 128.

4. Maria Pia Pedani, Dalla frontiera al confine (Venice: Herder, 2002), pp. 44–46.

5. “Relacja komisarsy Rzeczypospolitej do rozgraniczenia,” Warsaw, AGAD, AKW, Dz. Turk, k. 77, t. 479, no. 803, quoted in Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman- PolishDiplomatic Relations (Fifteenth– Eighteenth Century): An Annotated Edition of Ahdnames and Other Documents (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008), pp. 62–63.

6. Istanbul, Archives of the Prime Ministry, Ottoman Archives, TT 805, p. 378; quoted in Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations, p. 62.

7. Mustafa Naima, Naima Tarihi, 3rd ed. (Istanbul: Tab‘hāne- i ‘āmire, 1864–1867), vol. 5: 21–22.

8. See Virginia H. Aksan, An Ottoman Statesman in War and Peace: Ahmed Resmi Efendi, 1700–1783 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1995), pp. 195–98.

9. Quoted in Géza Palfy, “The Origins and Development of the Border Defence System against the Ottoman Empire in Hungary (up to the Early Eighteenth Century),” in Dávid and Fodor, Ottomans, Hungarians and Habsburgs, p. 40 and n. 3. 10. The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq: Imperial Ambassador at Constantinople, 1554–1562, translated from the Latin by Edward Seymour Forster from the Elzevir edition of 1633 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1968), pp. 14–15. 11. Jean Bérenger, Les “Gravamina,” Remontrances des Diètes de Hongrie de 1665 à 1681: Recherches sur les fondements du droit d’État au XVIIe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1973), p. 76, gravamina 1662, art. 2.

12. See Ferenc Toth, ed., Mémoires du baron de Tott sur les Turcs et les Tartares (Amsterdam, 1785; Paris: Honoré Champion, 2004).

13. See the letter from the khan of Crimea, Muhammad Giray, to Süleyman the Magnificent, Archives of the Museum of the Topkapı Palace, E. 1308 (1301)/2, French translation in Alexandre Bennigsen et al., Le khanat de Crimée dans les archives du musée du palais de Topkapı (Paris: Mouton, 1978), p. 111. See also Alan Fisher, “The Ottoman Crimea in the Sixteenth Century,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 5, no. 2 (1981): 135–70.

14. See Chantal Lemercier- Quelquejay, “Un condottiere lithuanien du XVI siècle, le prince Dimitri Višneveckij et l’origine de la seč zaporogue d’après les archives ottomanes,” Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique 10, no. 2 (1969): 258–79.

15. Louis Bazin, “Antiquité méconnue du titre d’‘ataman’?” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3–4 (1979–1980): 61–70.

16. See C. W. Bracewell, The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth- Century Adriatic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992). 17. Venice, state archives, collection Bailo a Constantinopoli, Busta 333, doc. no. 3. 18. See Klaus Schwarz, Osmanische Sultansurkunden: Untersuchungen zu Einstellung und Besoldung osmanischer Militärs in der Zeit Murâd III, trans. Claudia Römer (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 1997), pp. 90ff.

19. M. Berindei, A. Berthier, M. Martin, and G. Veinstein, “Code de lois de Murad III concernant la province de Smederevo,” Südost- Forschungen 30T (1972): 153. 20. See Salvatore Bono, Corsari nel Mediterraneo (Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori, 1993). 21. Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy 1500–1800 (Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. xxv.

22. The Tunisians finally decided it was time to convert to regular commerce, with the help of the Napoleonic continental blockade of 1806, but the effort ended in failure in 1813 because Westerners did everything they could to neutralize that competition; Daniel Panzac, Les corsaires barbaresques, la fin d’une épopée, 1800–1820 (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1999).

23. Davis, Christian Slaves, p. 8.

24. Ibid.

25. Pierre Dan, Histoire de Barbarie et de ses corsaires (Paris, 1649), p. 284, quoted in Davis, Christian Slaves, p. 15.

26. Bartolomé Bennassar and Lucille Bennassar, Les chrétiens d’Allah (Paris: Perrin, 1989), pp. 199–200, 244–45.

27. Lucien Bély, L’art de la paix en Europe: Naissance de la diplomatie moderne, XVIe–XVIIIe siècles (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2007), pp. 347–52. 28. Mehmed Efendi, paradis des Infidèles: Un ambassadeur ottoman en France sous la Régence, ed. G. Veinstein (Paris: François Maspéro, 1981), pp. 144–45.

Chapter 10: Breaches in the Conflict

1. Istanbul, Library of the Museum of the Palace of Topkapı, KK 888, doc. no. 1036.

2. Ibid., no. 1092.

3. Copie d’une lettre de la Sainte Ligue (Paris, 1572), quoted in Rouillard, The Turk, p. 72.

4. Jean Deny, “Les pseudo- prophéties concernant les Turcs au XVIe siècle,” Revue des Études Islamiques 10 (1936): 201–220.

5. See Stéphane Yerasimos, La fondation de Constantinople et de Sainte- Sophie dans les traditions turques (Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient J. Maisonneuve, 1990), pp. 190–91.

6. Guillaume Postel, Thresor des prophéties de l’Univers, quoted in M. Balivet, “Textes de fin d’Empire, récits de fin du monde: À propos de quelques thèmes communs aux groupes de la zone byzantino- turque,” in Lellouch and Yerasimos, eds., Les traditions apocalyptiques, pp. 10–11.

7. Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations, pp. 255–59.

8. Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966); and Viorel Panaite, The Ottoman Law on War and Peace (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000).

9. Bély, L’art de la paix, p. 161.

10. P. Carali, Fakhr al- Din principe del Libano e la corte di Toscana, 1605–1635 (Rome: Tipografia del Senato 1936); and Albrecht Fuess, “An Instructive Experience: Fakhr al- Din’s Journey to Italy, 1613–1618,” in Les Européens vus par les Libanais à l’époque ottomane, ed. B. Heyberger and C. M. Walbiner (Beirut: Ergon Verlag, 2002), pp. 23–42.

11. Charrière, Négociations, vol. 3: 91 n. 1.

12. “Selâhattin Tansel, “Büyük Friedrich devrinde Osmanlı- Prusya münasebetleri hakkında,” Belleten 10 (1946): 133–65, 271–92; and Kemal Beydilli, Büyük Friedrich ve Osmanlılar: XVIII yüzyılda Osmanlı- Prusya münasebetleri (Istanbul: Istanbul Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, 1985).

13. Istanbul, Archives of the Prime Ministry, Ottoman Archives, Hatt- i hümāyūn, no. 319A, quoted in Beydilli, Büyük Friedrich, p. 54 n. 117.

14. Kolodziejczyk, Ottoman-Polish Diplomatic Relations, pp. 110–11.

15. See N. H. Biegman, The Turco-Ragusan Relationship, according to the Firmans of Murad III (1575–1595) Extant in the State Archives of Dubrovnik (The Hague: Mouton, 1967).

16. Hans Theunissen, “Ottoman- Venetian Diplomatics: The Ahidnames. The Historical Background and the Development of a Category of Political- Diplomatic Instruments Together with an Annotated Edition of a Corpus of Relevant Documents,” PhD thesis, Utrecht University, 1991, p. 161.

17. Harley de Sancy to Seigneur de Villeroy, March 10, 1612, BNF, Ms. fr. 16 145, fol. 100r–v.

18. Guilleragues to the king, October 3, 1682, in Gabriel- Joseph de Lavergne, comte de Guilleragues, Correspondance, ed. Frédéric Deloffre and Jacques Rougeot (Geneva: Droz, 1976), pp. 740–41.

19. G. Noradounghian, Recueil d’actes internationaux de l’Empire ottoman, vol. 1 (Paris: Cotillon, 1897), p. 99.

20. Pierre Duparc, Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France depuis les traités de Westphalie jusqu’à la Révolution française, Turquie (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1969), p. 89; see also the instructions to Ferriol, pp. 173–74.

21. Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme, “Discours sur les couronnels de l’infanterie de France,” in Oeuvres complètes, ed. L. Lalanne, vol. 6 (Paris: Mme v. J. Renourd, 1873), p. 180.

22. Charrière, Négociations, 3:289.

23. Letter to M. de Lodève, May 24, 1557, ibid., vol. 2: 395, note.

24. Report of Veltwyck of Constantinople, November 10, 1545, in Lanz, Korrespondenz des Kaisers Karl V, vol. 2 (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1845), p. 471.

25. BNF, f. fr., ms. 16 148, no. 66, fol. 177–78, quoted in Emmanuel Antoche, “Guerre et diplomatie en Europe orientale au XVIIe siècle: Le cas de la principauté de Moldavie (1606–1621),” unpublished thesis, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2008, pp. 270–71.

26. Guilleragues to the king, June 15, 1682, in Deloffre and Rougeot, eds., Correspondance, 659ff., quoted in Bely, L’art de la paix, p. 337.

27. Rouillard, The Turk, p. 67.

28. Arnaud de Pomponne to Feuquières, from the camp outside Doesburg, June 21, 1672, quoted in Poumarède, Pour en finir avec la croisade, p. 51.

29. Géraud Poumarède, “Les projets d’intégration européenne de l’Empire ottoman,” in Histoire de l’islam et des musulmans en France du Moyen Âge à nos jours, ed. M. Arkoun (Paris: Albin Michel, 2006), pp. 356–57.

30. Paris, Archives Nationales de France, A.E.B.III, 236, quoted in Michel Morineau, “Naissance d’une domination: Marchands européens, marchés et marchands du Levant aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles,” Cahiers de la Méditerranée (1976): n. 16. 31. Jacques Germigny to Henri III, May 1580 in Charrière, Négociations, vol. 3: 907. 32. Quoted in Louis Bergasse, Histoire du commerce de Marseille, vol. 4 (Paris: Plon, 1954), p. 90.

33. Géraud Poumarède, “Venise, la France et le Levant (vers 1520–1720),” thesis, Université de Paris IV- Sorbonne, 2003, pp. 1151– 52.

34. Ibid., pp. 1189– 90.

35. Archives of the Museum of the Palace of Topkapı, E. 12321, fol. 98r, no. 226, in Halil Sahillioğlu, Topkapısarayı arșivi H. 951–952 tarihli ve E- 12321 numaralı Mühimme Defteri (Istanbul: Research Center for Islamic History, Art, and Culture, 2002), pp. 179–80.

36. See the instructions to Ambassador Denis de La Haye- Ventelet, 1665, in Duparc, Instructions aux ambassadeurs, p. 26.

37. Suzanne Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578–1582 (London: Oxford University Press, 1977).

38. Edhem Eldem, “Capitulations and Western Trade,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, part 3, The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839, ed. N. Faroqhi (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 285–335.

39. Duparc, Instructions aux ambassadeurs, p. 27.

40. Eldem, “Capitulations,” p. 300.

41. Charles Carrière and Marcel Courdurié, “Un sophisme économique: Marseille s’enrichit en achetant plus qu’elle ne vend (Réflexions sur les mécanismes commerciaux levantins au XVIIIe siècle),” in Histoire, Économie et Société (1984): 7–51. 42. Quoted in Paul Masson, Histoire du commerce français dans le Levant au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Hachette, 1911), p. 279.

43. Eldem, “Capitulations,” p. 305.

44. Geoffroy Atkinson, Les nouveaux horizons de la Renaissance française (Paris: Droz, 1935), p. 10.

45. Nicole le Huen, Dessainctes peregrinations de Jherusalem (Lyons, 1488), quoted in Rouillard, The Turk, pp. 43–44.

46. Père Boucher, Le Bouquet Sacré composé des plus belles fleurs de la Terre Saincte (Paris, 1620), quoted ibid., p. 239.

47. Guillaume Postel, la République des Turcs (Poitiers, 1560), p. 3. 48. C. Schefer, ed., Le voyage d’outremer de Bertrandon de La Broquière, premier écuyer tranchant et conseiller de Philippe le Bon, duc de Bourgogne (Paris, 1892), p. 121. 49. Nicolas de Nicolay, Dans l’empire de Soliman le Magnifique, ed. Marie- Christine Gomez et Stéphane Yerasimos (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1989), p. 46.

50. Die Pilgefahrt des Ritters Arnold von Harff (Cologne, 1860).

51. Franz Babinger, ed., Hans Dernschwam’s Tagebuch einer Reise nach Konstantinopel und Kleinasien (1553–1555) nach der Urschrift in Fugger- Archiv (Munich, 1923). 52. The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Forster trans.

53. William Foster, ed., The Travels of John Sanderson in the Levant, 1584–1602, with His Autobiography and Selections from His Correspondence (London: Hakluyt Society, 1931).

54. Frédéric Tinguely, L’écriture du Levant à la Renaissance: Enquête sur les voyageurs français dans l’empire de Soliman le Magnifique (Geneva: Droz, 2000), p. 17.

55. Elisabetta Borromeo, Voyageurs occidentaux dans l’Empire ottoman (1600– 1644), vol. 1 (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2007), p. 80.

56. On Rycaut, see Sonia Anderson, An English Consul in Turkey, Paul Rycaut at Smyrna, 1667– 1678 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1989).

57. The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Forster trans., third letter, p. 111.

58. Ibid., pp. 149–50.

59. Voyage du Levant fait par le commandement du Roy en l’année 1621 par le Sr. D. C. [Deshayes of Courmenin] (Paris: Adrien Taupinart, 1632), p. 198.

60. Ibid., p. 286.

61. Jacques Gassot, discours du voyage de Venise à Constantinople (Paris, 1550), fol. 25r.

62. The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Forster trans., p. 61.

63. Philippe du Fresne- Canaye, Le voyage du Levant, ed. H. Hauser (Brassac, France: Le Poliphile, 1986), pp. 63–64.

64. Voyage du Sr de Stochove faict es années 1630, 1631, 1632, 1633 (Brussels: Hubert- Antoine Velpius, 1643), p. 148.

65. Nicolas Du Loir, Les voyages du Sr du Loir contenues en plusieurs lettres écrites du Levant (Paris, 1654; repr. Paris: Hachette, 1976), p. 80.

66. Ibid., p. 79.

67. Pierre Belon, Voyage au Levant: Les observations de Pierre Belon du Mans (1533), ed. Alexandra Merle (Paris: Chandeigne, 2001).

68. Ibid.

69. Excerpt from the register of letters written by M. de Petremol (Troyes, 1623); quoted in Rouillard, The Turk, p. 324.

70. Postel, la République des Turcs, pp. 28–30.

71. Busbecq, Ambassades et voyages (Paris: P. David, 1646), pp. 145–47; Rouillard, The Turk, p. 304.

72. Antoine Geuffroy, Estat de la Cour du Grand Turc, l’ordre de sa gendarmerie et de ses finances: avec ung brief discours de leurs conquestes depues le premier de ceste race (Antwerp, 1542), fol. D1, verso; Rouillard, The Turk, p. 189.

73. Postel, la Republique des Turcs, p. 10.

74. Ibid., p. 69.

75. Du Loir, voyages, p. 166.

76. Jean Chesneau, Le voyage de Monsieur d’Aramon, ed. C. Schefer (Paris, 1887), p. 109.

77. That dissymmetry is a central theme in Bernard Lewis’s famous book The Muslim Discovery of Europe (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982).

78. Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the World around It (London: Tauris, 2004), pp. 204–6.

79. Karl Teply, “Evliyâ Çelebi in Wien,” Der Islam 52 (1975): 125–31.

80. Richard F. Kreutel, Im Reiche des goldenen Apfels (Graz, Austria: Verlag Styria, 1963).

81. Maxime Rodinson, fascination de l’islam (Paris: François Maspéro, 1980), p. 81.

82. Guy Le Thiec, “La Renaissance et l’orientalisme ‘turquesque,’ ” in Arkoun, ed., Histoire de l’islam et des musulmans en France, p. 417 n. 4.

83. M. le comte de Boulainvilliers, La vie de Mahomed (Amsterdam: P. Humbert, 1730); English translation The Life of Mahomet (London, 1731; repr. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2002); see J. Tolan, “European Accounts of Muhammad’s Life,” in Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, ed. Jonathan Brockopp (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 226–50, esp. pp. 240–41.

84. Annie Berthier, “Turqueries ou turcologie? L’effort de traduction des jeunes de langues au XVIIe [recte XVIIIe] siècle, d’après la collection de manuscrits conservée à la Bibliothèque nationale de France,” in Istanbul et les langues orientales, ed. Frédéric Hitzel (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997), pp. 283–317.

85. Quoted in Henri Omont, Missions archéologiques françaises en Orient aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, vol. 1 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1902), p. 2.

86. Jean Bodin, Les six livres de la République (Paris: Fayard, 1986), vol. 2, part 2: 35. 87. John Locke, Letter concerning Toleration, 11th ed. (London, 1812). 88. Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe, and Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1966), pp. 24–25.

89. J. B. de Cloots (Anacharsis), La certitude des preuves du Mahométisme par AliGier- Ber (London, 1780).

90. The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, Forster trans., pp. 135–36. 91. Gottfried Hagen, osmanischer Geograph bei der Arbeit: Entstehung und Gedankenwelt von Katib Çelebis Ğihânnümâ (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 2003). 92. Olivier de la Marche, Mémoires, quoted in Rouillard, The Turk, p. 24. 93. Cited in G. Le Thiec, “La Renaissance et l’orientalisme ‘turquesque,’ ” p. 420. 94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Dominique Carnoy- Torabi, “Regards sur l’islam, de l’âge classique aux Lumières,” in Arkoun, ed., Histoire de l’islam et des musulmans en France, p. 462.

Part III: Europe and the Muslim World in the Contemporary Period Chapter 11: The Eighteenth Century as Turning Point

1. The U.S. Marine Corps Hymn recalls that episode at the beginning of its first stanza: “From the Halls of Montezuma / To the shores of Tripoli / We fight our country’s battles / In the air, on land, and sea.”

Chapter 12: Civilization or Conquest?

1. Report by M. Alexis de Tocqueville on the legislation relating to the special allocation requested for Algeria, May 24, 1847, in his Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1962), vol. 3: 269.

2. Second speech on the Eastern question, in Alexis de Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1985), vol. 3: 290.

Chapter 13: The Age of Reform

1. Official French translation communicated to the embassies and having legal weight; Adel Ismaïl, Documents diplomatiques et consulaires relatifs à l’histoire du Liban et des pays du Proche- Orient du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours, vol. 24 (Beirut: Éditions des Oeuvres Politiques et Historiques, 1980), pp. 50ff.

2. Edmond Bapst, origines de la guerre de Crimée (Paris: C. Delagrave, 1912), p. 314 (italicized portion in French in the ambassador’s dispatch).

3. Text in Adel Ismaïl, Documents diplomatiques et consulaires relatifs à l’histoire du Liban et des pays du Proche- Orient du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours, vol. 29 (Beirut: Éditions des Oeuvres Politiques et Historiques, 1982), pp. 214–23.

4. French Ministry of War, Tableau de la situation des établissements français dans l’Algérie, 1865–1866 (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1868), p. xxxi.

5. Bernard Lewis, “Ali Pasha on Nationalism,” Middle Eastern Studies 10 (1974): 78–79.

6. See the complete anthology collected by Marcel Colombe, Pages choisies de Djamal al- dīn al- Afghani, Orient, vol. 21: 87–117 and vol. 22: 125–60, quotation p. 130.

7. Joseph Ernest Renan, “De la part des peuples sémitiques dans l’histoire de la civilisation,” in his Oeuvres complètes, vol. 2 (Paris: Calmann- Lévy, 1948), pp. 317–35.

8. Joseph Ernest Renan, “L’islamisme et la science,” in his Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1 (Paris: Calmann- Lévy, 1947), pp. 945–65.

9. Lengthy excerpts of this debate can be found in Henry Laurens, “La France et l’Égypte en 1882,” in his Les Orientales, vol. 2 (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 2007), pp. 13– 52.

10. Ibid., p. 42

Chapter 14: The Age of Empire

1. Henry Laurens, “Le Châtelier, Massignon, Montagne, Politique musulmane et orientalisme,” Les Orientales, vol. 2 (Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 2007), p. 252

2. Jean- Michel Gaillard, Jules Ferry (Paris: Fayard, 1989), p. 604.

3. Robert de Caix, “La situation de l’Algérie,” L’Afrique Française, November 1900.

4. Joseph Ernest Renan, “Réponse au discours de réception de M. de Lesseps,” in his Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1: 799–818.

5. Robert de Caix, “La leçon de Fachoda,” L’Afrique Française, November 1898.

6. Joseph Ernest Renan, “Conférence faite à l’Alliance pour la propagation de la langue française,” in his Oeuvres complètes, vol. 2: 1087– 95.

Chapter 15: The First Blows to European Domination

1. Revue du Monde Musulman 2 (1908): 416.

2. Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (MAE; Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Paris, new series, Egypt, vol. 12, June 13 and 14, 1910.

3. MAE, new series, Egypt, vol. 12, part 15, June 2, 1912.

4. Alfred Le Châtelier, “Politique musulmane, lettre à un conseiller d’État,” Revue du Monde Musulman 3 (September 1910): 1–166.

5. Najib Azoury, Le réveil de la nation arabe (Paris: Plon- Nourrit, 1905), pp. 1–8, reprinted in Henry Laurens, Le retour des exilés: La lutte pour la Palestine (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1998), pp. 94–101.

6. Gaston Wiet, “L’antagonisme des Arabes et des Turcs,” L’Asie Française, August 1910. 7. “Un discours de M. Jonnart,” L’Afrique Française, December 1912. 8. Adel Ismaïl, Documents diplomatiques et consulaires relatifs à l’histoire du Liban et des pays du Proche- Orient du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours, vol. 20 (Beirut: Éditions des Oeuvres Politiques et Historiques, 1979), pp. 226–27.

Chapter 16: The Great War and the Beginning of Emancipation

1. Archive center [ Service historique] of the land army, army general staff, Africa branch, 7, no. 2104, Muslim policy, 1916–1917.

2. MAE, Commission Interministérielle des Affaires Musulmanes, report dated April 14, 1917, in which M. Benghabrit envisions certain reforms to be introduced in Algeria, and the establishment of a commission to that end.

3. “Primary Documents, Woodrow Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ Speech, 8 January 1918” ; available at http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/fourteenpoints.htm (accessed February 14, 2012).

4. English text in Helmut Mejcher, Imperial Quest for Oil: Iraq 1910–1928 (London: Ithaca Press, 1976), pp. 177–79.

5. Antoine Hokayem and Marie- Claude Bitar, L’Empire ottoman, les Arabes et les grandes puissances (Beirut: Éditions Universitaires du Liban, 1981), p. 98.

6. League of Nations covenant, Peace Treaty of Versailles, Peace Conference; available at http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/6CB59816195E58350525654F007624BF (accessed February 14, 2012).

7. Daniel Rivet, Lyautey et et 1925 (Paris: l’Harmattan, 2000); Le Maghreb à l’épreuve de la colonisation (Paris: Fayard, 2010).