INTRODUCTION
1 Spiro Kostof, The Third Rome, 1870-1950: Traffic and Glory (Berkeley, Calif.: University Art Museum, 1973): 39.
2 Quoted in a column by Giorgio Bocca, L’Espresso, December 26, 1982: “Dove era cultura non era il fascismo, dove è stato il fascismo non c’era la cultura, non c’è mai stata una cultura fascista.”
3 Henry Hope Reed, “Rome: the Third Sack,” The Architectural Review, 107, no. 638 (February 1950): 91-110.
4 See also Spiro Kostof, “The Emperor and the Duce: The Planning of Piazzale Augusto Imperatore in Rome,” and Henry A. Millon, “Some New Towns in Italy in the 1930s,” in Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1978), edited by Henry A. Millon and Linda Nochlin.
5 See, for example, his “Italian Architecture during the Fascist Period,” The Harvard Architecture Review 6 (1987): 76-87. Ciucci presented the paper in one of several seminars at an international symposium at Harvard on “The Problem of Patronage.”
6 Diane Ghirardo, “Italian Architects and Fascist Politics: An Evaluation of the Rationalists Role in Regime Building,” Journal of the American Society of Architectural Historians 39: 2 (May 1980): 109-127.
7 “From Reality to Myth, Italian Fascist Architecture in Rome,” Modulus 21, The Architectural Review at the University of Virginia (1991): 12. See also Building New Communities, New Deal America and Fascist Italy (Princeton, 1989); “Architects, Exhibitions, and the Politics of Culture in Fascist Italy,” JAE, Journal of Architectural Education (February 1992): 67-75. The latter is one of three essays on “Architecture and Culture in Fascist Italy.” The other two articles are by Libero Andreotti and Jeffrey Schnapp. All three focus on the Exhibit of the Fascist Revolution, the Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista, of 1932.
8 For example, see Denis P. Doordan, Building Modern Italy: Italian Architecture 1914-1936 (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988); Thomas L. Schumacher, Surface and Symbol, Giuseppe Terragni and the Architecture of Italian Rationalism (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991); Richard A. Etlin, Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1991).
9 Philip V. Cannistraro, La Fabbrica del Consenso, Fascismo e Mass Media (Rome-Bari: La Terza, 1975).
10 See Marla Stone, The Patron State: Culture and Politics in Fascist Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities, 1922-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Jeffrey T. Schnapp, “Epic Demonstrations: Fascist Modernity and the 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution,” in Richard J. Golsan, ed., Fascism, Aesthetics, and Culture (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1992), 1-37; Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
11 For a negative reaction to this “culturalist approach to Fascism,” see R. J. B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism (London: Arnold. 1998): 26-27.
CHAPTER 1
1 Robert C. Fried, Planning the Eternal City: Roman Politics and Planning Since World War II (New Haven, Conn. and London: Yale University Press, 1973): 32.
2 Benito Mussolini, Opera Omnia, 44 vols., vol. 3 (Florence: La Fenice, 1951-78): 190-191. (Hereafter cited as Opera Omnia). My thanks to Joshua Arthurs of the University of Chicago for this reference. He is writing his dissertation on “Roman Modernities: Nation, Empire and Romanità in Fascist Italy.”
3 Kostof, The Third Rome, 1870-1950, 30; Kostof’s quotation of Mussolini is in Opera Ominia 25, 84.
4 Opera Omnia 18, 160-161.
5 Peter Bondanella, The Eternal City: Roman Images in the Modern World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press): 177.
6 Opera Omnia 20, 235.
7 Opera Omnia 22, 48.
8 Spiro Kostof, The Third Rome, 22.
9 Bondanella, The Eternal City, 178.
10 On the Institute and the cult of romanità, see the article by Antonio La Penna, “Il culto della romanità, La rivista ‘Roma’ e Istituto di studi romani,” Italia Contemporanea, 217 (December 1999): 605-630.
11 Romke Visser, “Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of Romanità,” Journal of Contemporary History 27 (1992): 5-22; Emilio Gentile, “Fascism as a Political Religion,” Journal of Contemporary History 25 (1990): 229-251, and “The Conquest of Modernity: From Modernist Nationalism to Fascism,” Modernism/Modernity 1 (September 1994): 54-57.
12 Mark Antliff, “Fascism, Modernism, and Modernity,” The Art Bulletin 84:1 (March 2002): 152.
13 Italo Insolera, Roma moderna: Un secolo di storia urbanistica (Turin: Einaudi, 1962): 121-122.
14 Edwin Ware Hullinger, The New Fascist State: A Study of Italy under Mussolini (New York: Rae D. Henkle, 1928): 143-145.
15 John Patric, “Imperial Rome Reborn,” The National Geographic Magazine 71:3 (March 1937): 269-325.
16 Patric, “Imperial Rome Reborn,” 279.
17 Kostof, The Third Rome, 33.
18 Travel in Italy, Monthly Tourist Review of E.N.I.T., Italian State Tourist Department (October 1935): 22.
19 Travel in Italy (April 1936): 2.
20 Antonio Cederna, Mussolini Urbanista: Lo sventramento di Roma negli anni del consenso (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1981): 97ff.
21 Cederna, Mussolini Urbanista, 99.
22 Ezra Pound, Jefferson and/or Mussolini: I’Idea Statale, Fascism as I Have Seen It (New York: Liveright, 1995) [originally published 1935], 33-34.
23 See entry on Piacentini in Philip V. Cannistraro, ed., Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy (Westport: Greenwood Press, 182): 421.
24 Spiro Kostof, “The Emperor and the Duce: The Planning of Piazzale Augusto Imperatore in Rome,” in Millon and Nochlin, Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics, 287-289; Cederna, Mussolini Urbanista, xix-xx.
25 Antonio Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini (Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1935): 149.
26 Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini, x.
27 “Ricostruzione della Chiesa S. Rita in Piazza Campitelli,” Capitolium (1940): 651-653.
28 Georgina Masson, The Companion Guide to Rome, revised by Tim Jepson (Suffolk, UK and Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer, 2000): 92.
29 Sergio Lambase, ed., Storia Fotografica di Roma (Naples: Intra Moenia, 2003), 254.
30 The others were the Ponte Duca D’Aosta, the Ponte Principe Amedeo Savoia Aosta, and the Ponte XXVIII Ottobre, now the Ponte Flaminio.
31 See “Fascio Littorio” in Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 205.
32 “Il Ministero dell’Aeronautica,” Architettura (1932): 53.
33 “La Nuova Casa di Lavoro per i Ciechi di Guerra,” Architettura (1932), 3-26; see also Doordan, Building Modern Italy, 95.
34 “La Casa Madre dei Mutilati,” Capitolium (1929): 1-9.
35 Guida d’Italia della Consociazione Turistica Italiana, Roma e Dintorni (Milan 1938): 417-418.
36 “Il Foro Mussolini in Roma,” Architettura (February 1933): 65.
37 See Chapter 3.
38 See “Mentre l’Obelisco Dedicato al Duce Viaggia Verso Roma,” Capitolium (1929): 270-276. Italo Insolera, Roma fascista nelle fotografie dell’Istituto Luce (Rome: Riuniti, 2001): 32-37.
39 The Foro Mussolini will be examined more thoroughly in chapter 3.
40 Kostof, The Third Rome, 50.
41 Kostof, 32.
42 Emporium, 72 (July-December 1933): 223-235.
43 Almanacco Fascista del “Popolo d’Italia,” 1932, 348.
44 Insolera, Roma moderna, 146.
45 “Il Nuovo Piano Regolatore di Roma,” Emporium 78 (1933): 223-235; Architettura, “Urbanistica della Roma Mussoliniana,” special issue, Christmas 1936.
46 “Il Nuovo Piano Regolatore di Roma,” Emporium 78 (1933): 223.
47 Fried, Planning the Eternal City, 35.
48 Reed, “Rome: the Third Sack,” 102.
49 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2000): 72.
50 Ghirardo, “From Reality to Myth,” 28.
51 Emil Ludwig, Talks with Mussolini (Boston: Little, Brown, 1933). The original edition in German appeared in 1932, as did the Italian translation, Colloqui con Mussolini (Milan: Mondadori, 1932).
CHAPTER 2
1 “Do You Know Italy?” (Rome-E.N.I.T., n.d.) [Wolfsonian Collection].
2 “Roma di Mussolini,” Opere Pubbliche-Decennale, 359. [Wolfsonian Collection].
3 Travel in Italy (January 1933): 4.
4 Ghirardo, “From Reality to Myth,” 26.
5 Travel in Italy (January 1933): 4-5.
6 Casabella, 85 (January 1935): 13.
7 Heather Hyde Minor, “Mapping Mussolini: Ritual and Cartography in Public Art during the Second Roman Empire,” Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography 51 (1999): 153. See also Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini, 221-222.
8 See Minor, “Mapping Mussolini,” 153ff.
9 Guido Calza, “The Via dell’Impero and the Imperial Fora,” Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects (March 1934): 491.
10 Calza, “The Via dell’Impero and the Imperial Fora,” 499, 503.
11 On the Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista, see Marla Stone, “Staging Fascism: The Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution,” Journal of Contemporary History 28 (April 1993): 215-243, and Patron State, chapter 5; also Jeffrey T. Schnapp, “Epic Demonstrations,” 1-38; and articles by Schnapp, Diane Ghirardo and Libero Andreotti in JAE: Journal of Architectural Education 45 (February 1992): 67-106.
12 Margherita Sarfatti, “Architettura, Arte e Simbolo alla Mostra della Rivoluzione,” Architettura (January 1933): 1.
13 See Claudio Fogu, “Fascism and Historic Representation: The 1932 Garibaldian Celebrations,” Journal of Contemporary History 31:2 (April 1996): 317-345, and his The Historic Imaginary: Politics of History in Fascist Italy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003): 122-130.
14 Dino Alfieri and Luigi Freddi, Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista (Rome: Partito Nazionale Fascista, 1933; facsimile edition, Milan: Industrie Grafiche Italiana, 1982.)
15 Barbara Allason, Memorie di un antifascista (Milan, 1961; originally published in 1947): 123-125.
16 After the exhibit closed, the Fascist Party published a large folio volume with many photographs and a day-by-day chronicle of visitors: Francesco Gargano, Italiani e stranieri alla Mostra della Rivoluzione (Rome: SAIE, 1935).
17 Anthony Eden, Facing the Dictators: The Memoirs of Anthony Eden, Earl of Avon (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962): 88.
18 Il Popolo d’Italia, September 27, 1934.
19 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 104-107.
20 Herman Finer, Mussolini’s Italy (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1965; originally published in 1935): 397-398.
21 Kostof in Millon, Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics, 287.
22 Antonio Muñoz, Via dei Trionfi (Rome: Governatorato di Roma, 1933): 5-6.
23 Muñoz, Via dei Trionfi, 22.
24 “Il Parco del Colle Oppio,” Capitolium (1928): 130-138.
25 Antonio Muñoz, Il Parco di Traino e La Sistemazione delle Terme Imperiali (Rome: Biblioteca d’Arte, 1936): 16.
26 Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini, 412-418.
27 Travel in Italy (October 1934): 5.
28 Antonio Muñoz, “La Via del Circo Massimo,” Capitolium (1934): 479-481.
29 Mazzini had favored a republican Italy, and Ugo La Malfa was the leader of Italy’s Republican Party at the time. Hence the fascist piazzale became a site celebrating the end of the monarchy and the beginning of the republic.
30 These and other exhibitions will receive full treatment in chapter 4.
31 Bruno Tobia, L’Altare della Patria (Bologna: Mulino, 1998): 87-88.
32 Philip M. Hannan, Rome: Living Under the Axis (McKees Rocks, Penn.: St. Andrew’s Productions, 2003): 31-32.
33 “Nel Natale di Roma,” Capitolium (1940): 631-636.
34 Roma e Dintorni, 111-112; “Il Nuova Museo Mussolini,” Capitolium (1925-26): 469-481.
35 Masson, Companion Guide to Rome, 10.
36 “L’Isolamento del Campidoglio, Demolizioni e Ricordi,” Capitolium (1940): 521-538.
37 “L’Ara dei Caduti Fascisti,” Capitolium (1926-27): 424; “L’Ara dei Caduti Fascisti Eretta sul Campidoglio,” Capitolium (1928): 416-418.
38 Dizionario Mussoliniano, 1500 Affermazioni e Definizioni del Duce (Milan: Farigliano, 1992): 154.
39 “L’Isolamento della Mole Adriana,” Capitolium (1934): 209-210.
40 “La Nuova Sede Provinciale dell’Istituto Nazionale Fascista della Previdenza Sociale,” Architettura (October 1939): 607.
41 “Mussolini Builds a Rome of the Caesars,” New York Times, Sunday, March 19, 1933, VI, 6.
42 “Dreams of Empire Kindle Rome,” New York Times, Sunday, August 25, 1935, VIII, 1.
43 Il Popolo d’Italia, October 23, 1934.
44 Travel in Italy (October 1936): 39.
45 “Dalla Mostra alle Corporazioni,” Capitolium (1934): 518.
46 Alexander De Grand, Italian Fascism, 3rd edition (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2000): 80.
CHAPTER 3
1 Giuseppe Prezzolini, Italy (Florence: Valacchi Publisher, 1939): 95.
2 Quoted in Dizionario Mussoliniano, 169.
3 “Nuove Opere al Foro Mussolini,” Capitolium (1938): 199.
4 “Per L’Incremento dell’Educazione Fisica nell’Urbe,” Capitolium (1930): 389.
5 For a brief overview of the Foro and its subsequent development see Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 44-48; for a more detailed summary of the Foro’s history from the beginning to the World Cup soccer matches in 1990, see Comitato dei Monumenti Moderni, Il Foro Italico(Rome: Clear, 1990).
6 “Il Concorso per il Ponte sul Tevere al Foro Mussolini,” Architettura (July 1936): 310-313.
7 “Mentre l’Obelisco Dedicato al Duce Viaggia Verso Roma,” Capitolium (1929): 270-276.
8 See Tiziana Gazzini, “Invisible Architecture,” in the magazine Follow Me: Anno III n. 19 (May 1991): 46-52. See chapter 7 for details of the Allied occupation of the forum.
9 “Nuove Opere al Foro Mussolini,” Capitolium (1938): 200-202.
10 See “Il Piazzale dell’Impero al Foro Mussolini in Roma,” Architettura (September-October 1941): 347-351.
11 David Ward, Antifascisms: Cultural Politics in Italy 1943-46 (Madison, NJ, & London 1996): 135.
12 Peter Aicher, “Mussolini’s Forum and the Myth of Augustan Rome,” The Classical Bulletin 76.2 (2000): 134.
13 “Fontana Marmorea al Foro Mussolini in Roma,” Architettura (March 1935): 132.
14 For the postwar transformation of the stadium, see Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 351-353.
15 Travel in Italy (December 1934): 13.
16 “Lo Stadio Olimpionico ed i Campi di Allenamento per il Tennis al Foro Mussolini in Roma,” Architettura (February 1935): 65-71.
17 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 160.
18 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 46.
19 On the debate, see chapter 4.
20 “[Moretti] è moderno, ma si defende a spada tratta dall’essere ritenuto un razionalista: ed infatti, a tener conto dell’equilibrata valutazzione che egli fa degli apporti della forma e del contenuto all’unità attiva dell’opera d’arte, egli è senza dubbio un classico.” “La Casa delle Armi al Foro Mussolini in Roma,” Architettura (August 1937): 437.
21 Robert Kahn, ed., City Secrets- Rome (New York: The Little Bookstore, 1999): 236.
22 Il Foro Mussolini, preface by Renato Ricci (Milan 1937): 5 [Wolfsonian Collection].
23 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 160.
24 Tim Benton, “Rome Reclaims Its Empire,” in Dawn Ades et al., eds., Art and Power: Europe under the Dictators 1930-1945 (London: Hayward Gallery, 1995): 124.
25 For a summary of the competitions of 1934 and 1937, see Rossi, Roma, Guida moderna all’architettura moderna, 104-105, 122-123.
26 The review of the design in Pagano’s journal acknowledged the massive building had some of the qualities of a palazzo in the tradition of civic architecture in the Renaissance and of modern rationalist architecture, but unfortunately tended toward a conventional monumentality. “Documenti del Concorso per la Casa Littoria di Roma,” Casabella, 122 (February 1938): 20-21.
27 “Nuove Opere al Foro Mussolini,” Capitolium (1938): 197-202.
28 Il Foro Mussolini (Milan 1937): 6 [Wolfsonian Collection].
29 Attraverso L’Italia, vol. 9, Roma, Parte II (Milan: Consociazione Turistica Italiana, 1942): photograph no. 256, p. 125.
30 Guglielmo Ceroni, Roma nei suoi quartieri e nel suo suburbio (Rome: Fratelli Palombi, 1942): 205-206; See also Livio Toschi, “Uno Stadio per Roma dallo Stadio Nazionale al Flaminio (1911-1959)” Studi Romani 38 (1990): 83-97.
31 Roma e Dintorni (1938): 303.
32 Tracy H. Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy, 1922-1943 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1985): 101.
33 “Trionfo di Giovinezza,” Capitolium (1933): 473-476.
34 “Campo Dux,” Capitolium (1934): 445-456.
35 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 184.
36 Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight, 101.
37 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 203-216.
38 The quotations in this and the previous paragraph are from “La Casa della Giovane Italiana all’Aventino in Roma,” Architettura (July 1937): 403-411.
39 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 113.
40 “Casa della Gioventù Italiana del Littorio a Roma in Trastevere,” Architettura (1941): 360.
41 Patric, “Imperial Rome Reborn,” 279.
42 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 174.
43 For a summary see “Educational Policies,” Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 180-182.
44 Prezzolini, Italy, 164.
45 Quotation and picture are from “La Scuola all’Aperto Rosa Mussolini,” Capitolium (1929): 588.
46 F. Irace, “L’Utopie Nouvelle: L’Architettura delle Colonie Estive/Building for a New Era: Health Services in the ‘30s, “Domus 659 (March 1985): 3.
47 See chapter 4.
48 See chapter 5.
49 “Progetto per il Nuovo Edificio Scolastico alla Garbatella,” Capitolium (1929): 148.
50 “La Scuola d’Avviamento Profesionale ‘E. F. Duca d’Aosta,’” Capitolium (1933), 253-260.
51 “Opere Publiche del Governatorato Inaugurate nella Ricorrenza del 28 Ottobre XVII,” Capitolium (1939): 433-436.
52 “R. Liceo Ginnasio Giulio Cesare al Corso Trieste in Roma,” Architettura (August 1937): 455; “Nuova Scuola al Corso Trieste,” Capitolium (1934): 617-618. See also Irene de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna dal 1870 ad Oggi (Rome: De Luca, 2001): 72; Giuseppe Strappa and Gianni Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma nel Lazio 1920-1945 (Roma: EdilStampa, 1990): 191.
53 “Una Nuova Scuola del Governatorato di Roma,” Capitolium (1933): 35-42; “Scuola Elementare in Roma,” Architettura (January 1933): 23-34.
54 “Una Nuova Scuola al Lido di Roma,” Capitolium (1934): 410-412.
55 Mrs. Kenneth Roberts, “Sojourning in the Italy of Today,” National Geographic Magazine 70:3 (September 1936): 377.
56 Giuseppe Prezzolini, Italy.
57 For this paragraph, see Clive Foss, “Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini’s Italy,” Harvard Library Bulletin, 8:1 (Spring 1997): 5-30; quotation, 10.
58 Alessandro La Bella, Piccolo Albo di Cultura Fascista (Milan: Castano Primo, 1934): 27.
59 Foss, “Teaching Fascism,” 30.
CHAPTER 4
1 Marla Stone, The Patron State, 5-6 and passim.
2 Fascismo e antifacismo, Lezioni e testimonianze, third edition (Milan 1971): vol. 1, 335.
3 Etlin, Modernism in Italian Architecture, 393, 400.
4 “Casa sul Lungotevere Tor di Nona in Rome,” Architettura (1932): 582.
5 Doordan, “The Political Content in Italian Architecture during the Fascist Era,” Art Journal (1983): 130.
6 Benson, “Speaking Without Adjectives, in Ades, Art and Power, 42.
7 Casabella, 123 (March 1938): 2.
8 Diane Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 62.
9 “Architettura Italiana dell’Anno XIV,” Casabella, 95 (November 1935): 4.
10 Herbert W. Schneider, The Fascist Government of Italy, The Governments of Modern Europe (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1936): 150-51.
11 Ghirardo, “From Reality to Myth, Italian Fascist Architecture in Rome,” Modulus 21 (1991): 18.
12 “Dallo Studium Urbis alla Città degli Studi,” Capitolium (1933): 603.
13 “Opere Ciclopiche a Roma, La Città Universitaria,” Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 379-380.
14 Ghirardo, ‘From Reality to Myth,” 18.
15 Doordan, “The Political Content in Italian Architecture during the Fascist Era,” 121.
16 Architettura, fascicolo speciale, 1935 as quoted by Rossi, Roma,Guida all’architettura moderna, 101.
17 Casabella, 99 (March 1936): 2.
18 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 100.
19 Doordan, “Political Content in Italian Architecture during the Fascist Era,” 122.
20 “Opere Ciclopiche a Roma, La Città Universitaria,” Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 382.
21 “Fascist Architecture,” Travel in Italy (September 1935): 14-15.
22 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 136.
23 Philip V. Cannistraro and Brian R. Sullivan, The Duce’s Other Woman (William Morrow and Company: New York, 1993): 475.
24 Christopher Woodward, The Buildings of Europe: Rome (Manchester & New York, 1995): 148. See also Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 88.
25 Mirella Duca and Filippo Murgia, “Adalberto Libera: il Palazzo delle Poste, the post office built, Roma,” L’architettura cronache e storia, The Architecture events and history, 47 (July 2001): 420.
26 See chapter 5.
27 Woodward, Rome, 147; Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 87.
28 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 200.
29 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 102.
30 Opera Omnia 27, 268-269.
31 Cederna, Mussolini Urbanista, xviii-xix, 233-234.
32 “Il Corso del Rinascimento,” Capitolium (1937): 74-89; Cederna, Mussolini Urbanista, 219-232; Il Popolo d’Italia, April 26, 1936.
33 Stappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 176-77.
34 As quoted in Insolera, Roma fascista, 161.
35 “La Parola al Piccone,” Capitolium (1934): 465-468.
36 See “Lo Scavo e la Ricostruzione dell’Ara Pacis Augustae,” Capitolium (1938): 479-490. In 2000 this housing for the Ara Pacis was torn down. The planned replacement is the design of American architect Richard Meier, a change that has provoked considerable controversy in Rome.
37 Michael Wise, “Dictator by Design,” in Travel and Leisure (March 2001): 108.
38 Spiro Kostof, “The Emperor and the Duce: The Planning of Piazzale Augusto Imperatore in Rome,” in Millon and Nochlin, Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics, 309.
39 Kostof in Millon and Nochlin, 309.
40 Kostof in Millon and Nochlin, 316.
41 Kostof in Millon and Nochlin, 322.
42 “Romanità” in Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 463. See also Philip V. Cannistraro, “Mussolini’s Cultural Revolution,” Journal of Contemporary History (July-October 1972): 127-154.
43 Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 306-307.
44 Stone, The Patron State, 246.
45 Stone, The Patron State, 246.
46 “La Mostra Augustea della Romanità,” Capitolium (1937): 519-528.
47 “La Mostra Augustea della Romanità,” Architettura (November 1938): 655-663.
48 “La Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista a Valle Giulia,” Capitolium (1937): 515.
49 “La Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista a Valle Giulia, 517.
50 See Roma e Dintorni 1938 (CTI Guida d’Italia): 325-326.
51 Gigliola Fioravanti, ed., Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista, Inventario (Rome: Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali, 1990): 40.
52 ACS, PNF Direzione Servizi vari, Serie II, Busta 332, fasc. “A XIX” (April 1941).
53 Il Popolo d’Italia, September 4, 1937.
54 Stone, The Patron State, 302, n. 13.
55 See Stone, The Patron State, 226-244 for a good summary and discussion of the four exhibits in the Circus Maximus.
56 “La Mostra delle Colonie Estive e dell’Assistenza all’Infanzia,” Casabella 116 (August 1937): 10-15.
57 Il Popolo d’Italia, June 16, 1937.
58 Il Popolo d’Italia, May 26, 1939.
59 Victoria De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) explores fascist policies and practices for women thoroughly, including such contradictions.
60 “La Mostra delle Colonie Estive e dell’Assistenza all’Infanzia in Roma,” Architettura (June 1937): 307.
61 “Una Visita alla Mostra delle Colonie Estive,” Capitolium (1937): 496.
62 Stone, Patron State, 304, n. 54.
63 Francesco Garofalo and Luca Veresani, Adalberto Libera (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1992; original Italian edition 1989): 98.
64 “La Mostra delle Colonie Estive e dell’Assistenza in Roma,” Architettura, 313.
65 “La Mostra delle Colonie Estive e dell’Assistenza all’Infanzia,” Casabella, 116 (August 1937): 6.
66 See Stone, Patron State, 226; Il Popolo d’Italia, November 19, 1937.
67 “Abbiamo realizazato l’imperativo del Duce verso il popolo. Le nostre fibre hanno dato al popolo italiano la possibilità di vestirsi degnamente con spesa modesta,” in “Discorso sulla Mostra Romana del Tessile,” Casabella, 121 (January 1938): 26.
68 See article on “Dopolavoro,” in Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 175-177. The best book on the Dopolavoro is Victoria de Grazia, The Culture of Consent: Mass Organization and Leisure in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
69 “La Prima Mostra dell’Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro al Circo Massimo,” Capitolium (1938): 353.
70 “La Prima Mostra dell’Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro,” 355-356.
71 “La Prima Mostra dell’Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro,” 358-359.
72 Stone, Patron State, 240.
73 Stone, Patron State, p. 304, n. 54.
74 Antonella Russo, Il fascismo in mostra (Rome: Riuniti, 1999): 25.
75 “Mostra Autarchica del Minerale Italiano in Roma,” Architettura (April 1939): 197.
76 “La Prima Mostra Autarchica del Minerale Italiano,” Capitolium (1939): 211-213.
77 “Mostra Autarchica del Minerale Italiano in Roma,” Architettura, 197-229.
78 Stone, Patron State, 242-243.
79 “E non si dobrebbe scrivendo della Roma di Mussolini, parlare della redenzione dell’Agro Pontino?” Roma, Part I (Rome: Consociazione Turistica Italiana, 1941): 21.
80 Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities, 4.
81 Quoted in Henry A. Millon, “Some New Towns in Italy in the 1930s,” in Millon and Nochlin, Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics, 326.
82 Carl Ipsen, Dictating Demography: The Problem of Population in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 113.
83 Gelasio Caetani, “By Draining the Malarial Wastes Around Rome, Italy Has Created a Promised Land,” National Geographic Magazine 66:2 (August 1934): 201.
84 Diane Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 44-45.
85 Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 78-79.
86 Millon, “Some New Towns in Italy in the 1930s,” in Millon and Nochlin, Art and Power in the Service of Politics, 332.
87 Claudio Galeazzi and Giorgio Muratore, Littoria-Latina, La Storia, Le Architetture (Latina: Novecento, 1999): 199-200.
88 Opera Omnia, 25, 185.
89 Ipsen, Dictating Demography, 112.
90 Guida d’Italia, Lazio, Touring Club Italiano (Milan: Touring Editore, 1999): 132.
91 Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 62.
92 Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 78.
93 Sabaudia, Città Nuova e Fascista (London: Architectural Association 1981) [Wolfsonian Collection]: 2.
94 Mellon, “Some New Towns in Italy in the 1930s” in Millon and Nochlin, Art and Power in the Service of Politics, 332.
95 Ghriardo, Building New Communities, 75. She also states: “Visiting the town now, it is difficult to see why it was so controversial at the time, and why subsequent scholars have lavished such praise on it and not on the other towns” (75).
96 Ghirardo, Building New Communities, 53.
97 Guida Breve, Italia Centrale (Milan: Touring Club Italiano, 1949): 360-364.
98 Frank M. Snowden, “From Triumph to Disaster: Fascism and Malaria in the Pontine Marshes, 1928-1946,” in John Dickie, John Foot, and Frank M. Snowden, eds., Disastro! Disasters in Italy Since 1860, Culture, Politics, Society (New York: Palgrave, 2002): 113-140.
CHAPTER 5
1 Quoted in Carl Ipsen, Dictating Demography, 68.
2 Casabella, 116 (August 1937): 6.
3 Irene de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 52.
4 Insolera, Roma Moderna, 152; Antonio Gollini, “La Popolazione” in Luigi De Rosa, ed., Roma del Duemila, (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2000): 121-122.
5 “Sviluppo Urbanistico di Roma, Attraverso le Nuove Strade Governatoriali,” Capitolium (1938), 81-86.
6 Diane Ghirardo, “Città Fascista: Surveillance and Spectacle,” Journal of Contemporary History 31 (1996): 349.
7 See Italo Insolera, Roma Moderna, ch. 11, “Gli seventramenti e le borgate,” 136-151.
8 “Una Giornata ad Acilia,” Capitolium (1940): 647-650.
9 Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini, 372.
10 See the comments of Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 73.
11 Insolera, Roma Moderna, 145.
12 See Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, “Gli sventramenti e le borgate ufficiali,” 74-78.
13 Fried, Planning the Eternal City, 38.
14 Kostof, Third Rome, 20.
15 New York Times, Sunday, March 19, 1933, VI: 6.
16 “Delenda Baracca,” Capitolium (1931): 44-48.
17 Quoted in Alessandro Portelli, The Order Has Been Carried Out: History Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003): 62.
18 “L’Ufficio di Assistenza Sociale nel 1931 (IX-X), III-Servizi Vari,” Capitolium (1932): 134-141.
19 Giuseppe Aldo Rossi, Monte Mario, Profilo storico, artistico e ambientale dal colle più alta di Roma (Rome: Montimer, 1996): 154.
20 For example, see Portelli, The Order Has Been Carried Out, 236-239, and Franco Ferrarotti, “Tendenze Evolutive,” in De Rosa, Roma del Duemila, 229-232.
21 Augusto Moltoni as quoted in Portelli, The Order Has Been Carried Out, 62. I visited Primavalle in 1996 and talked with two of the original residents who gave similar accounts of their transfer there and told of the antifascist political culture that developed.
22 “Il Nuovo Centro Assistenziale per la Borgata Tiburtina III,” Capitolium (1939): 177-180.
23 See Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, “Quartiere San Saba,” 2-3.
24 Its new name was Istituto Fascista Autonomo per le Case Popolari.
25 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 148.
26 Irene de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 69. See also Steven Brooke, Views of Rome (New York: Rizzoli, 1995): 209. “Innocenzo Sabbatini joined the new Institute for Public Housing [ICP] in 1919. Though not a strict rationalist, Sabbatini joined the group, seeking new solutions to public housing for the rapidly expanding population. His four housing blocks for the new garden suburb of Garbatella, built in 1927, departed from the Italian tradition of large structures built around open-air courtyards. His buildings were often characterized by wings radiating from a central block. Some even included communal facilities.”
27 Architettura (February 1936): 88-90.
28 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 56; Irene de Guttry, Guida di Roma moderna, 43-44; Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 168.
29 “Gruppo di Case Popolari in Via Donna Olimpia in Roma,” Architettura (September 1939): 571.
30 Portelli, The Order Has Been Carried Out, 61.
31 See, Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 118; Opere pubbliche: rassegna mensile illustrate (Rome 1932): 434-438 [Wolfsonian].
32 “Alloggi e Provvidenze Relative,” Capitolium (1930): 150-152.
33 “II—Alloggi e Provvidenze Relative,” Capitolium (1931), 78.
34 John Agnew, Rome (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995): 64.
35 “II-Alloggi e Providenza Relative,” Capitolium (1931): 70-83.
36 For more on the film, see chapter 6.
37 See Chapter 6.
38 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 50.
39 Irene de Guttry, Guida di Roma moderna, 71, 51; Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 173.
40 Insolera, Roma fascista, 71.
41 “Mostre delle Abitazioni, L’Istituto per le Case dei Dipendenti del Governatorato,” Capitolium (1929): 532-537.
42 See “Concorso per gli Uffici postale 1932-1933,” Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 84-86.
43 “Sistemazione Edilizia della Zona di Porta Angelica a Roma,” Architettura (December 1941): 452.
44 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 226-227.
45 Agnew, Rome, 46; also note: “the villa-apartments (villini and palazzine) are the building type of the bourgeoisie whereas la casa intensiva, or multi-storey block of apartments, is typical for the areas, with status decreasing as the number of storeys increases” (123).
46 For what follows, see the two articles on the Aventine in Studi Romani 43: 1-2 (January-June 1995): 56-80 and 43: 3-4 (July-December 1995): 297-319.
47 Studi Romani 43: 303.
48 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 122-123.
49 See “II-Case, Alloggi e Providenze Relative,” Capitolium (1932): 127-133.
50 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 169; de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 70.
51 de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 74.
52 “Il duce capocantiere,” in Sergio Luzzatto, L’immagine del duce, Mussolini nelle fotografie dell’Istituto Luce (Rome: Riuniti, 2001): 205-207.
53 “Il Viale Maresciallo Pilsudski in Roma,” Capitolium (1938): 105-116.
54 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 157.
55 “Opere Pubbliche del Governatorato Inaugurate nella Ricorrenza del 28 October XVII,” Capitolium (1939): 427.
56 “Buozzi, Bruno,” in Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 93-94.
57 “Villino P. sui Colli Parioli a Roma,” Architettura (January 1938): 1-4.
58 Rossi, Rome, Guida all’architettura moderna, 121.
59 “Palazzina in Via S. Valentino a Roma, Arch. Mario Ridolfi,” Architettura (May 1939): 283-285; Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 116.
60 Rossi, Roma, Guida architettura moderna, p. 115.
61 Rossi, Roma, Guida architettura moderna, p. 59.
62 “Casa in Via Archimede in Roma, Arch. Mario Tufaroli Luciano,” Architettura (November 1936): 547-548.
63 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’archtiettura moderna, p. 128; Strappa and Mercurio, 223.
64 “Palazzina in Via Maria Adelaide a Roma, Architetto Gino Franzi,” Architettura (May 1937): 259-263; Rossi, Roma Guida all’architettura moderna, p. 177; Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 208.
65 “Case d’Abitazione in Roma, Arch. Angelo Di Castro,” Architettura (July 1937): 413-415.
66 “Palazzetto Papi al Lungotevere Flaminio in Roma,” Architettura (September 1939): 566-567.
67 Rossi, Rome, Guida all’architettura moderna, 131; de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 57; Strappa and Mercurio, 207.
68 “Palazzina ed Appartamenti in Via Bruxelles in Roma, Arch. Andrea Busiri-Vici,” Architettura (October 1936): 497; Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 109.
69 “Casa in Via Panama in Roma, Arch. Mario Tufaroli Luciano,” Architettura (November 1936): 552-553.
70 “Palazzine Signorili in Roma, Arch. Mario Tufaroli Luciano,” Architettura (November 1937): 627.
71 de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 54.
72 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 62; de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 56; Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 174.
73 de Guttry, Guida di Roma Moderna, 72.
74 Strappa and Mercurio, 188.
75 Irene de Guttry, Guida, di Roma Moderna, 51.
76 “Casa Ceradini in Via Amba Aradam in Roma,” Architettura (October 1936): 503.
77 Strappa and Mercurio, 190.
78 Strappa and Mercurio, 202.
79 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 93; Garofalo and Veresani, Adlaberto Libera, 63.
80 Rossi, Roma,Guida all’architettura moderna, 103; Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 130.
81 Andrea Riccardi, “Capitale del Cattolicesimo,” in De Rosa, Roma del Duemila, 49.
82 “Cronache Romane, La Chiesa di Cristo Re,” Emporium (1934): 41-42.
83 Muñoz, Roma di Mussolini, 377-381; Prezzolini, Italy,142-150. Today the Ospedale Littorio is the Ospedale S. Camillo.
84 Sepp Schüller, Das Rom Mussolinis, Rom als Moderne Haupstadt (Dusseldorf: Mosella-Verlag, 1943): 10 [Text in both German and Italian].
CHAPTER 6
1 Quoted in Simonetta Fraquelli, “All Roads Lead to Rome,” in Ades, Art and Power, 136.
2 See Cannistraro, La fabbrica del Consenso and Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il duce, Gli anni del consenso 1929-1936 (Milan: Einaudi, 1974).
3 Cannistraro, “Ministry of Popular Culture,” in Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 339-340.
4 Strappa and Mercurio, Architettura Moderna a Roma e nel Lazio, 210.
5 Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities, 139.
6 Lutz Becker, “Black Shirts and White Telephones,” in Ades, Art and Power, 138.
7 Strappa and Mercurio, 211. See also “Luce,” in Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 313-314.
8 Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities, 92.
9 “La ‘fede’ ideale,” Il Popolo d’Italia, December 19, 1935; Almanacco Fascista del Popolo d’Italia 1937, 139, 146-147.
10 Letter of June 8, 1931 from Hitler to Mussolini in “Mussolini and Italian Fascism,” in Borden W. Painter, ed., Cesare Barbieri Courier (Hartford: Trinity College 1980): 25-27.
11 Il Popolo d’Italia, September 1, 1937.
12 Richard Bosworth, Mussolini (Arnold: London, 2002): 329. The quotation is from Opera Omnia 29, 1.
13 “Padiglione Provvisorio della Stazione di Roma Ostiense, Architettura (August 1938): 489-494.
14 Heather Minor, “Mapping Mussolini,” 159.
15 “Strutture Lamellari Metalliche per L’Esecuzione di Tettoia,” Casabella 133 (January 1939): 38-41.
16 “La Sistemazione Ferroviaria di Roma nei suoi Riflessi Urbanistici,” Capitolium (1938): 391.
17 New York Times, May 4, 1938: 1.
18 New York Times, May 4, 1938: 18.
19 Hannan, Rome: Living Under the Axis, 207.
20 New York Times, May 7, 1938: 5.
21 loc cit.
22 “Roma Pavesata,” Capitolium (1938): 223.
23 Viale XXI Aprile 21-29 in the Piazza Bologna neighborhood. See chapter 5.
24 Memmo Caporilli and Franco Simeoni, Il Foro Italico e lo Stadio Olimpico, Immagini della Storia (Rome: Tomo, 1991): 128.
25 “Sistemazione Ferroviaria di Roma nei suoi Riflessi Urbanistici,” Capitolium (1938): 392.
26 “The Town Plan,” Architettura, Special Edition (1938): 742.
27 “La Sistemazione Ferroviaria di Roma nei suoi Riflessi Urbantistici,” Capitolium (1938): 390.
28 “La Statzione di Termini,” Capitolium (1940): 820-828.
29 “La Sistemazione Ferroviaria di Roma nei suoi Riflessi Urbanistici,” Capitolium (1938): 389. See also “La Sistemazione dei Servizi Ferroviaria dell’Urbe,” Capitolium (1938): 378.
30 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 160.
31 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 161.
32 Casabella, 149 (May 1940): 2-3.
33 Architettura, Special Issue (1939): 76.
34 Capitolium (1940): 825; Roma e Dintorni (1938): 240.
35 Il Popolo d’Italia, April 24, 1938.
36 Today the building is the Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura.
37 Apparently the building was originally the Istituto Commerciale designed by Alberto Calza Bini and Mario De Renzi, Roma e Dintorni (1938): 250; on the unpublished Oriani novel, see Painter, Cesare Barbieri Courier (1980): 11-12.
38 “Town Planning and Architecture,” Architettura (December 1938): 728.
39 “The 1942 Universal Exhibition,” Architettura (December 1938): 723.
40 “Town Planning and Architecture,” Architettura (December 1938): 728.
41 Italo Insolera, Roma Moderna, 171-172.
42 “Del Monumentale nell’Architettura,” Casabella (March 1938): 1-2.
43 Quoted in Tim Benton, “Speaking Without Adjectives,” in Ades, Art and Power, 42.
44 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 136.
45 Fraquelli in Ades, Art and Power,130.
46 “Il Palazzo degli Uffici dell’Esposizione Universale di Roma,” Costruzioni-Casabella, 151, 152, 153 (July-September 1940): 4-8.
47 For its postwar history, see chapter 7.
48 See Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 144.
49 “Il Parco Cestio,” Capitolium (1939): 184-185; “Il Parco Cestio,” Capitolium (1940): 654-655.
50 “L’Inaugurazione delle Opere Realizzate nell’Urbe nell’Anno XVIII,” Capitolium (1940): 817-818.
51 “La Via Imperiale,” Capitolium (1939): 1; see also “Opere Pubbliche del Governatorato Inaugurate nella Ricorerenza del 28 Ottobre XVII,” Capitolium (1939): 423-427.
52 “Concorso per il ministero dell’Africa Italiana,” Architettura (November 1939): 665.
53 Baedecker’s Italy from the Alps to Naples (Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1928): 322; “La Passeggiata Archeologica,” Capitolium (1939): 83-87.
54 “Guido Bacelli e il Suo Monumento,” Capitolium (1931): 175-186.
55 “Il Sistema delle Strade di Accesso all’Esposizione Universale del 1942,” Capitolium (1939): 397-414. This article contains photos, maps, and drawings depicting the Via Imperiale.
56 New York Times, February 17, 1937, 14:2.
57 See EUR MCMXLII—XX EF [Wolfsonian Collection].
58 “La Via XXIII Marzo,” Capitolium (1940): 585-594.
59 Cannistraro, Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy, 121-23.
60 Alberta Campitelli, “Villa Paganini Alberoni,” in Luisa Cardelli, ed., Gli Anni del Governatorato (1926-1944) (Rome: Kappa): 183-186.
61 “Dallo Studium Urbis alla Città degli Studi,” Capitolium (1933): 581.
62 “La Via XXIII Marzo,” Capitolium (1940): 585.
63 Ibid., 593-594.
64 Roma e Dintorni (1938): 626.
65 “Nuovi Fabbricati in Via 4 Fontane e Via XX Settembre a Roma,” Architettura (August 1938): 457-471.
66 “La Nuova Sistemazione della Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista in Roma,” Architettura (January 1943): 1-10.
67 Paul Corner sees the war in Ethiopia ushering in “what has been termed the ‘totalitarian phase’, a phase which saw the attempt to increase the Fascist presence in the daily life of Italians in an effort to produce a truly Fascist nation.” “Italy 1915-1945: Politics and Society,” in The Oxford History of Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997): 282-283.
68 Clive Hirschorn, The Hollywood Musical (New York: Crown, 1981): 95.
69 See Borden Painter, “American Films in Fascist Propaganda: The Case of the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution 1942-43,” Film & History 22:3 (September 1992): 100-111.
70 Lucilla Albano, “Hollywood: Cinelandia” in Cinema italiano sotto il fascismo, edited by Riccardo Redi (Venice: Marsilio, 1979): 230-231.
71 ACS, MRF, b. 15, fasc. 109, December 14, 1942.
72 Il Popolo d’Italia, February 23, 1943.
CHAPTER 7
1 “At the army’s high point in April 1943 it thus numbered almost 3.7 million officers and men. Its combat units were as under equipped, undermanned, inadequately officered, and poorly supported as they had been at the outset.” MacGregor Knox, Hitler’s Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940-1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 56-57. See also Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini’s Roman Empire (New York: Viking Press, 1976) on the gap between rhetoric and reality on the Italian military.
2 Letter of Colonel Paul T. Hanley, February 2, 1953. Copy in possession of the author.
3 New York Times, June 11, 1940, 1 & 4.
4 “10 Giugno XVIII,” Capitolium (1940): 685-686.
5 “L’Inaugurazione delle Opere Realizzate nell’Urbe nell’Anno XVIII,” Capitolium (1940): 813-819.
6 “I Nuovi Ponti sul Tevere nella Loro Funzione Urbanistica,” Capitolium (1939): 449-453.
7 Ibid., 453-48.
8 For a concise description of this plan, see Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 150-153.
9 See, for example, the maps in Anna Maria Ramiera, “La via Imperiale e le scoperte archeologiche (1937-1941),” in Cardilli, Gli Anni del Governatorato, 111.
10 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 152. See also Insolera, Roma moderna, 171.
11 Original newsreel reproduced in video cassette La Guerra del Duce 1942, Prima Parte (Hobby & Work Italiana: Milan, 1997).
12 Caporilli and Simeoni, Il Foro Italico e lo Stadio Olimpico, 256-257.
13 M. Zocca quoted in Insolera, Roma moderna, 172. See also Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 150-154.
14 Elena Agarossi, A Nation Collapses: The Italian Surrender of September 1943 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 87-89.
15 Robert Katz, The Battle for Rome: The Germans, the Allies, the Partisans, and the Pope, September 1943-June 1944 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003): 38.
16 Jane Scrivener, Inside Rome with the Germans (New York: Macmillan, 1945): 5.
17 Scrivener, Inside Rome with the Germans, 6-7.
18 For an account of Jews during the fascist period, see Alexander Stille: Benevolence and Betrayal, Five Italian Jewish Families Under Fascism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).
19 For recent views on this subject, see Joshua Zimmerman, ed., The Jews of Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
20 For accounts of the fate of Rome’s Jews, see Robert Katz, Black Sabbath: A Journey Through a Crime Against Humanity (New York: Macmillan, 1969) and The Battle for Rome.
21 Scrivener, Inside Rome with the Germans, 38-39.
22 Susan Zuccotti, Under His Very Windows: The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2000): 155-156.
23 Katz, The Battle for Rome, 224-225.
24 Katz, Death in Rome (New York: Macmillan, 1967): 73.
25 Stanislao G. Pugliese, Desperate Inscription: Graffiti from the Nazi Prison in Rome 1943-1944 (Boca Raton: Bordighera Press, 2002): 11.
26 See Desperate Inscriptions for examples.
27 Pugliese, Desperate Inscriptions, 8-9, 49.
28 See photographs in Antonio Spinosa, Salò, Una Storia per Immagini (Milan: Mondadori, 1992).
29 Caporilli and Semeoni, Il Foro Italico e lo Stadio Olimpico, 269.
30 See Appendix II for a list of principal examples.
31 There is a Largo dei Caduti di El Alamein in the Via Tuscolana southeast of the center and just beyond Cinecittà.
32 “Fosse Ardeatine, Ara di Martiri XXIV Marzo MCMXXXXIV,” Capitolium (1949): 65-76; see also “VI Anniversario dell’Eccidio alle Fosse Ardeatine,” Capitolium (1950): 91-98.
33 Rossi, Roma, Guida all’architettura moderna, 164-165.
34 Angelo Del Boca, “The Myths, Suppressions, Denials, and Defaults of Italian Colonialism,” in Patrizia Palumbo, ed., A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 21-25; New York Times,December 26, 1998 and December 9, 2003.
35 A copy of the painting appears in Galeazzi, Sabaudia, 103.
36 Alexander De Grand, “Cracks in the Façade: The Failure of Fascist Totalitarianism in Italy 1935-9,” European History Quarterly 21:4 (October 1991): 526.
37 Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Knopf, 2004): 171.