Chapter Eight

The Primary Vibration

BACKGROUND

The coordination between the breath and the vibration of the vocal cords is the central issue in singing. Only when the breath is under perfect control and the attack is made without pressing or breathiness, can great singing happen. Louis Bachner called this “the hookup.” Those who aspire toward the perfection of the vocal art have always sought this miracle of synchronism.

Mathilde Marchesi was the most successful teacher of female artists in history. Her pupils included Nellie Melba, Emma Calvé, Emma Eames, and Frances Alda, to name a few. Marchesi studied with Manuel Garcia II in Paris for four years, served as his assistant for a time, and applied the Garcia system to her own teaching. She stated the following regarding the study of anatomical and mechanical principles:

If we do not teach the elements of the anatomy and physiology of the human voice, we needlessly deprive the pupil of the means of becoming acquainted with the physical phenomena of the vocal organs. Each pupil should, therefore, at least be taught how to manage and preserve the voice in its career, and should understand the exact meaning of the words Larynx, Glottis, Vocal Cords, &c., words which the antagonists of the physiology of the voice are themselves obliged to use continually in speaking of the art of singing.¹

Mme. Marchesi used anatomical charts and an artificial larynx to augment verbal instructions to students. It is hard to imagine Melba or Calvé poring over these teaching aids, but one must take Marchesi’s word for it. I will attempt to emulate Marchesi’s example without overwhelming the reader with a mass of extraneous detail.

THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF THE PRIMARY VIBRATOR

If you were building a musical instrument, how would you design a mechanism that would be capable of sounding all of the pitches from the lowest notes of the basso profondo to the highest reaches of the coloratura soprano, all of the infinite shades of color, all of the gradations of dynamics from softest pianissimo to an ear-splitting shriek, all of the textures from velvety softness to steely ring, all the emotional range from doleful moan to ecstatic cries of joy, and which, in addition, could utter words for all the concrete and abstract things, whether real or imagined, in the world? There would be nothing else like it—the ideal instrument. Happily, such an instrument already exists; it is the human voice. Let us, therefore, examine such parts of this marvelous contraption as will aid our understanding of how to play upon it.

Before we can consider the voice as a whole, it is well to consider the nature of the primary vibrator—the human larynx. Man has been singing and speaking for thousands of years, but phonation is an adaptive mechanism. Nature designed the larynx in animals as well as humans for other vital functions, such as guarding the respiratory tract against choking while swallowing food or liquid. Closure of the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) in coughing helps clear the lungs of mucus or foreign matter and also helps raise intra-abdominal pressure, as in expelling waste or as in parturition.

The sounds that we call singing or speaking are primarily produced by the vibration of the vocal cords (or bands), which generate oscillations of air pressure like the reed of an oboe. The vocal cords produce compression and rarefaction waves by allowing the expired air to escape in small, rhythmic puffs through the slit of the glottis, a term coined by Galen. It is important, however, to think of the vocal sound thus produced as vibration of air particles and not as breath expelled violently. The movements of the cords are very complex, vibrating in three dimensions at once.

Three intrinsic muscular groups that Husler and Rodd-Marling called the Stretchers, the Closers, and the Tensors affect changes in pitch and quality of this original vocal sound within the larynx. The larynx is suspended from the root of the tongue by the hyoid bone and stabilized by an extrinsic network of muscles called the suspensory system.

The fundamental vibrations of the vocal cords would sound like the squawk of a duck call, were they not amplified and influenced by alterations in the shape and size of the resonating cavities above—namely the throat, mouth, and nose. These alterations are effected primarily by movements of the tongue, and also by the soft palate, lips, and jaw. Therefore, in Berton Coffin’s phrase, “source and system are one,”² meaning that the harmonic tuning of the resonators, along with the management of the breath, is the controlling factor for the vocal cords.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEMS OF THE LARYNX

The larynx is composed of a cartilaginous framework that is held in place by a network of muscles, both intrinsic and extrinsic. It is entirely lined with a mucus membrane, which folds to form the false vocal cords and provides a thin covering for the true vocal cords. The most conspicuous part of the larynx is the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple), which can be seen clearly on some men, notably baritones and basses. This structure can be felt as a sharp protuberance on the front of the neck in all singers. The vocal organs of women are, of course, much smaller than those of men, except perhaps for Brigita Banti (1756–1806), one of the prima donnas in the last decades of the opera seria. She bequeathed her larynx, which was of extraordinary size, to the city of Bologna, where it was supposed to have been preserved in spirits!

Figure 8.1. Cartilages of the Larynx.

The thyroid (shield) cartilage is positioned atop the cricoid (figure 8.3). It has two sets of cornus, or “horns.” The lower cornu makes a gliding articulation with the cricoid cartilage. Besides gliding, the thyroid also moves with a rocking motion. The front portion of the vocal cords is immovably attached inside the front of the thyroid cartilage. The rocking and gliding motions stretch and tighten the vocal cords to attain higher pitches (figure 8.3).

The base of the laryngeal framework is the cricoid cartilage (figure 8.1). The cricoid cartilage forms the top ring of the trachea (windpipe) and the bottom and back part of the laryngeal cavity. It is thicker toward the back, like a class ring, and features two flattened areas opposite each other on top of this rearward portion of the ring. The amazing arytenoid cartilages are mounted here and are articulated by synovial (self-lubricated) joints. These small pyramid-shaped cartilages move with three motions—gliding, pivoting and tilting. They anchor the rearward portion of the vocal cords and provide the mechanical action for opening and closing the vocal folds. In addition, their rearward tilting action helps to provide resistance to the stretchers and tensors. The contractions of the posterior crico-arytenoid (posticus) muscles nerve rotate the arytenoid cartilages outward and open the glottis, as in inhalation.

The Closers are composed of two coordinated muscle groups—the lateral crico-arytenoid and the arytenoideus muscles. When the lateral crico-arytenoid muscles contract, the arytenoid cartilages rotate inward to cause the vocal cords to meet at midline for phonation. The action of the arytenoideus muscle moves the arytenoid cartilages together so that the glottis forms a straight line. (See figure 8.3 for illustrations of this muscular and mechanical process.) Garcia called the closure of the cartilaginous portion of the glottis (about two-fifths of its total length) the “pinch of the glottis.” This adjustment, where the glottis is closed but without much tension, with only the edges of the cords vibrating, probably accounts for the quality of sound called voce finta (coordinated falsetto). It is not adequate, however, for higher levels of intensity; increased subglottal pressure would tend to cause the vocal cords to blow open. This is why falsettists (called countertenors these days) are not able to sing as loudly as more fully integrated singers, such as Marilyn Horne. The male falsettist must sing the same pitches as the female alto but without using the full coordination of the instrument. He must do this to compensate for the naturally larger size of the male vocal organs. We can, therefore, under-stand that the advent of the castrato was a brilliant (if extremely drastic) solution to the problem of the inadequacy of the falsetto voice.

Figure 8.2. Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx.

As subglottal pressure increases, so does the action of the Tensors—the vocalis and thyro-arytenoid muscles. Contraction of the Tensors adds both longitudinal and medial tension to increase the “pinch of the glottis” as well as to shorten the cords. In addition, as there is more compression, the vocal cords tend to vibrate more “deeply” or “thickly.” Control of the amount of tension that this muscle group adds to or subtracts from the functional unity of the voice is an important attribute of fine singing. This manifests itself in the tone as a ringing or veiled sound.

The cricothyroid muscle is the Stretcher. Its function is to lengthen, stretch, and tense the vocal cords—an action that is essential in the production of high notes. As illustrated in figure 8.3, this is a complicated action. In essence, the rocking and forward sliding motion of the thyroid cartilage increases the distance between the anterior and posterior attachment points of the vocal cords, thereby lengthening and tensing them.

Above the true vocal cords lie two parallel folds known as the ventricular bands or false cords. Under normal conditions these do not contract during phonation. The small pocket between the false and the true cords is called the laryngeal ventricle. Some believe that this small cavity contributes to the resonance of the voice by producing the so-called singer’s formant. The squillo, or “ring,” in the voices of good singers has been described as a strong overtone in the vicinity of 2,800 cycles per second (about F⁷ at the top of the keyboard). This prized “ring” is generated when the vocal cords are firmly approximated. Of course, in the falsetto there is less resistance, and this “ring” is not as strong. The ear canal also has a cavity resonance of from 3,000 to 4,000 cycles per second, which causes our ears to buzz when the singer’s formant is generated.

The remaining major cartilage of the larynx is the epiglottis—a leaf-shaped cartilage that folds down over the top of the larynx to protect the airway from foreign matter while eating or drinking. This organ should be in the near-vertical position during the act of singing. If the tongue is allowed to slide backward, the epiglottis may partially close, offering an obstruction to the tone. Dr. Marafioti, Caruso’s doctor and the author of Caruso’s Method of Voice Production, considered this to be an important issue.

Figure 8.3. Action of the Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx.

THE SUSPENSORY SYSTEM

It should not be thought that the previously described actions of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are independent of the suspensory network or the breathing system. Great singing depends upon the exquisite coordination of many muscle groups under the control of the musical mind. As we have learned from our study on breathing, each muscle must have an antagonist or antagonists to regulate its movement. For example, the action of the Stretcher (crico-thyroid) is opposed by the Opener (posticus), Tensor (vocalis), and Closer (crico-arytenoids, lateral and transverse). However, its main antagonist is the sterno-thyroid, which is a component of the extrinsic suspension system. Figure 8.4 illustrates the mechanical actions of the Suspensory System.

As the act of singing takes place, a network of muscles steadies the larynx. Some of these muscles pull upward (also slightly forward and backward) and others downward (slightly forward and backward as well). Since the larynx is suspended from the hyoid (lingual or tongue) bone, the larynx is free to follow the vertical movements of the tongue in the pronunciation of vowels. It follows that attempts to fix the position of the larynx will interfere with the free functioning of the instrument. If the larynx is fixed too high (often caused by bad breathing) the result is the voce bianca (white voice), the constricted colorless sound produced by many lyric sopranos. In the male, this is caricatured as the “necktie” tenor—chin thrust out and up and straining for the high note. The “hooty” or “back” sound (often caused by bad advice) is a characteristic of some basses and mezzos who press the larynx down with the base of the tongue. I call this “mezzoitis”! In Novikova’s tart phrase, when you sing like this “you are singing for your own royal pleasure!”³

OPENING PANDORA’S BOX—THE COUPE DE LA GLOTTE

Manuel del Popolo Vincente Garcia, also known as Garcia II, presented his Mémoire sur la voix humaine to the French Academy in 1841. He was a titan indeed and the first in the vocal field to accurately describe the physical mechanics of the vocal organ. Garcia was able to observe the functioning of the living larynx with his invention of the laryngoscope. When you visit your laryngologist, he uses a small mirror set at an angle on a long thin handle and another larger mirror to reflect light into the throat. This is the laryngoscope, and a voice teacher invented it. Garcia worked at a military hospital in Paris and studied the anatomy of the respiratory and vocal systems by dissecting cadavers. The result of Garcia’s work was published in 1841 as Part I of Traité complet de l’art du chant.

Part II, which contained the most complete account of the traditions and performance practices up to that time, followed in 1847. This is an important point because Garcia’s Traité was above all, a manual on singing, not a medical treatise. Manuel Garcia II had been trained by his father and may have had some lessons from his father’s teacher, Giovanni Ansani.⁴ Giovanni Battista Velluti, the last great castrato, assisted Garcia in the preparation of his treatise.⁵ Since Garcia I, Ansani, and Velluti were all renowned for the perfection of their techniques, we can conclude that Manuel Garcia II was attempting to validate the old methods by scientific observation as well as to accommodate the voix sombrée and the new declamatory style of the Age of Grand Opera. The nineteenth century was, after all, the century of the Industrial Revolution, with the explosion of scientific knowledge and dazzling mechanical marvels constantly being introduced. There is little wonder, therefore, that the 35-year-old Manuel Garcia was interested in explaining his ancient art in the language of the scientific age just then being born. He was immediately attacked.

The onset of the vibration of the vocal cords was observed by Garcia and called the coupe de la glotte or the stroke of the glottis. He stated:

The glottis is prepared for articulation by closing it, which causes a momentary accumulation of air below; and it is then opened by a sudden and vigorous stroke, similar to the action of the lips when strongly emphasising the letter P. Some masters recommend the use of the syllables Pa, La, Ma, &c., in order to acquire precision in striking notes; but in our opinion, this plan (by which the lips, the tongue and other organs not concerned with the omission of the voice, are set in motion) has the disadvantage of merely disguising the faulty articulation of the glottis, without possessing any power whatever of correcting it.⁶

Figure 8.4. Extrinsic Muscles of the Larynx and Their Action.

Carlo Bassini⁷ called this kind of attack a “reed” attack, because of the similarity of the primary vibration of the voice to a reed instrument such as an oboe. In 1841, as now, there were those who confused the coupe de la glotte with the glottal plosive[?], which is a much more violent maneuver. Garcia had explained it clearly:

The pupil must be warned against confounding the articulation or stroke of the glottis, with the stroke of the chest, which latter resembles the act of coughing, or the effort made in expelling some obstruction from the throat. This stroke, or coughing out the notes of the chest, causes a great loss of breath, rendering the tones aspirated, stifled, and uncertain in tone. The function of the chest is solely to supply air, not to throw it out violently.⁸

Apparently, this explanation did not seem sufficient during the ensuing fifty-four years, so Garcia published the Hints on Singing in 1894, with the help of Herman Klein.⁹ He wished to “dispel many false ideas afloat on the question of voice production.” The Hints were written in a question and answer format and Klein inserted the following footnote for the term articulation or stroke of the glottis.

Q. What do you mean by the stroke of the glottis?*

A. The neat articulation of the glottis that gives a precise and clean start to a sound.

Q. How do you acquire that articulation?

A. By imitation, which is quickest of all; but in the absence of a model, let it be remembered that by slightly coughing we become conscious of the existence and position of the glottis, and also of its shutting and opening action. The stroke of the glottis is somewhat similar to the cough, though differing essentially in that it needs only the delicate action of the lips and not the impulse of the air. The lightness of movement is considerably facilitated if it be tried with the mouth shut. Once understood, it may be used with the mouth open on any vowel.

* It is of the utmost importance that these observations should be carefully studied and correctly understood. The meaning of the term “stroke of the glottis” which was invented by the author (French coupe de la glotte) has been seriously misrepresented and its misuse has done a great deal of harm. To the student it is meant to describe a physical act of which there should be merely a mental cognizance, not an actual physical sensation. The “articulation” which gives the precise and clean start to a sound is not felt in the throat, (i.e. the larynx) of the singer. It is the sound itself, the attack of the note, beginning clean, clear, and true, upon the middle of the note, without preliminary movement or action of any sort beyond the natural act of singing.

N.B. The suggestion of an analogy between the stroke of the glottis and the act of coughing is intended simply to aid the student in locating the position and realising the functions of the glottal lips. There is no need to even think of its application, when articulating or attacking a vocal sound. (Note H.K.)¹⁰

Figure 8.5. Manuel Garcia II.

These statements seem perfectly clear, but “a momentary accumulation of air below”—there’s the rub! If there is too large an accumulation, the glottis will become too tense and an explosive attack will result. The breath must be under perfect control. With all due deference to Mr. Garcia and Mr. Klein, the problem with the coupe de la glotte is the term itself, which immediately evokes a hitting or slamming action of the vocal cords in the mind of the reader. In the true coupe de la glotte, the glottis is firmly closed before the attack. Garcia called this the “pinch of the glottis.” This means that the attack is instituted by the vocal cords opening into their vibration instead of slamming closed. I therefore come down on the side of the “firm onset” which I will call the “reed attack” in the middle and the bottom of the voice. This must be done while the breath is “standing still.” In Marchesi’s words:

The closing of the glottis is, then, a natural and spontaneous organic action. But, in speaking, this action is intermittent, the opening of the lips of the glottis being followed by their contraction with equal rapidity. The pupil need do no more than endeavor to keep the glottis contracted after its lips have been brought together. That is to say, when once the note has been attacked, it is necessary to practise holding the glottis contracted as long as the professor considers it expedient for the development of the elasticity of the vocal organs, development which practice will increase daily. We repeat, then, that if the pupil would acquire a good attack, the glottis must be closed an instant before Expiration commences; in other words, it should be prepared.¹¹

This is done mostly with the Closers—the arytenoideus and lateral crico-arytenoid muscles that close the vocal cords (see figure 8.3). The Closers act simultaneously with the paired crico-thyroid muscles, or Stretchers, which tighten the vocal cords and provide for variations in pitch. The third action in this functional unity is that of the Tensors, the vocalis and thyro-arytenoid muscles, which inter-react to stiffen the vocal cords against subglottal pressure.

I believe that the great Italian singing schools taught this kind of efficient attack from the earliest times. The students were required to sing “hard and difficult things” for up to an hour daily. Doubtless these things included rigorous training on beginning the tone. The castrati were able to sing phrases for up to a minute and a half. Even with the advantages of large chests and small larynxes, they could not have achieved these feats if their glottises were not perfectly closed.

OTHER TYPES OF ONSET

The concept of the coupe de la glotte or reed attack does not cover every kind of onset that a singer is required to give. It is indispensable in the middle and bottom of the voice, but there are times when a high tone must be attacked loudly straightaway. If the glottis is too tight, a pressed tone can result. The second kind of onset is a light aspirate and was called the flute attack by Bassini. This aerodynamic kind of attack takes advantage of the Bernoulli effect which, briefly stated, is that fluid pressure is reduced wherever the speed of flow is increased.¹² Therefore, when a quick [h] (aspirato) is employed, the vocal cords are literally sucked together by atmospheric pressure. William Vennard has an excellent description of this effect in his book.¹³ Also, when there are runs up into the top from the middle, it is advantageous to be able to change the mode of vibration from myoelastic (using muscular elasticity) to aerodynamic. Luisa Tetrazzini was a master of this kind of vocalism, and her dynamic insouciance on high-flying coloratura passages is thrilling to hear. The Marchesi pupils all had this kind of vibration on top, as did Adelina Patti. Marchesi’s pupils were said by John Stratton to utilize “blown tone” in the head voice.¹⁴ The tones of the head voice in the female were often called “flute” register. The male singer can also use this technique to great effect. Beniamino Gigli was renowned for the way his tones would “float on the breath.”

There is a third type of onset described by vocal authorities—the simultaneous attack (an unattainable ideal in my opinion), in which one attempts to have the vocal cords close at the exact instant that the breath gets there. Usually this concept results in a slightly aspirated attack, which is not harmful in itself, but lacks the “ring” needed for true operatic singing.

IS FALSETTO FALSE?

I have included falsetto in this chapter on the primary vibration because I have come to think of falsetto not as an acoustical register, but as a mechanical one. The vocal cords are shortened and thinned out and there is less engagement of the tensing function. Coffin used the word “uncoupled” when describing falsetto. There is a lot of confusion about the term falsetto or falsettone. Bassini says:

The word falsetto, I am aware, is often applied to the peculiar tones in men which are produced in imitation of women’s tones—or in a more general sense, perhaps, to the highest regions of the human voice, as in the sense used in the foregoing article [falsetto tones resemble the flute family]. But this is not the theoretical significance of the word: in theory, all are falsetto tones which are not produced from the chest.¹⁵

This explains why Garcia called the Middle Register “Falsetto” in 1841. The term had been in use for hundreds of years before. During the ensuing fifty-three years before the publication of Hints on Singing, orchestras got larger and opera more dramatic, so it became necessary to sing with a fuller sound. Within the larynx, this meant a greater participation of the Tensors to resist the increased pressure. In 1894 Garcia renamed the Falsetto Register the Medium. The coordinated falsetto is a clear sound produced by a firm pinch of the glottis with little breath pressure. The involvement of the Tensors is minimized but definitely there.

It is clear from most accounts of historical pedagogy and the findings of modern research that there are at least two distinct types of falsetto. The first is the “hooty,” thin, breathy sound that is known to some as “witch voice” and to others as uncoordinated falsetto and is the only sound recognized as falsetto by most people. This sound is often used by men to imitate the singing voices of women. I find it curious that this falsetto sound is very common among male rock singers while the females “belt” in chest voice. I leave it to the reader to decide what sociological implications this has.

When the vocal cords are imperfectly closed, using only the Closers and Stretchers, with minimal involvement of the Tensors, a weak, breathy species of falsetto tone ensues. Only the vocal ligaments (inner edges of the cords) vibrate. This uncoordinated falsetto is separated from the rest of the voice by the infamous “break” and is often the type of tone found in the middle of the young female voice. This species of falsetto is most often identified as the “hooty” sound men use to imitate women for comic effects. Those who purport to “take the registers apart to strengthen them individually” use the uncoordinated falsetto as a teaching aid. This kind of adjustment cannot be joined to the full voice, is unacceptable in artistic singing, and should not be used.

The vocal bands in this adjustment are quite thinned out and do not vibrate along their entire length. Sometimes, a chink is opened up in the vocal folds, and wild air is mixed with the tone. In the lower reaches of this adjustment, the tone is very weak because the closing mechanisms of the vocal cords offer little resistance to increased air pressure. In the upper range, increased airflow will cause the tone to be quite loud but still “hooty” and thin.

Douglas Stanley and, later, Cornelius Reid and Oren Brown advocated exercising this vocal adjustment upward vigorously while alternately pulling the chest register downward (taking the registers apart), as a way of strengthening the pull of the crico-thyroid and crico-arytenoid muscle groups. This is very seductive because, at first, the uncoordinated chest voice sounds very impressive. Lyric singers may be persuaded that they can develop into dramatics. However, after some time passes, a coordinated top voice becomes very difficult to produce. The voice becomes thick and heavy and one has to resort to the uncoordinated falsetto sound for piano effects. I have not been able to join this sound to the coordinated voice without a register break and see no gain whatever in singing high, loud tones in this “unloaded” adjustment. This method is still in use in many vocal studios throughout the country. Berton Coffin stated that he was opposed to the use of this technique.

The second type of falsetto adjustment is also produced with thinned-out vocal folds, but the interior laryngeal musculature is engaged and the glottis is closed more tightly. The male alto or countertenor (falsettist) must cultivate this coordinated adjustment because, without it, he will be forced to use extrinsic musculature to produce a clear tone. This constriction, which Garcia called the “guttural timbre,” is one of the most serious vocal faults.

I believe the coordinated falsetto was sometimes called voce finta or “feigned voice,” described by earlier authorities as the voice from afar. The use of this device is very helpful in the training of high notes in the male voice. Giovanni Sbriglia used the falsetto to train male voices. He said, “Nobody seems to realize that a tenor’s high notes are falsetto with breath under them. Jean de Reszke was a baritone. I made him the greatest tenor of his time.”¹⁶

This type of falsetto can be joined to the full voice and can become the piano end of the messa di voce, another cornerstone of Bel Canto. The messa di voce is the swelling and diminishing of the tone from the softest pianissimo to the loudest fortissimo and back again. This ornament is the hallmark of the great singer’s art and involves the entire system—breath control, intrinsic and extrinsic laryngeal coordination, and control of the acoustical registers.

The vocal masters of the past were unanimously concerned with integrating the falsetto into the normal voice, promoting more coordination, never less. Garcia’s first exercise was intended to unite the registers. It should be said that Stanley and Reid advocated blending the registers after individual strengthening but in many cases this does not happen.

Lloyd W. Hanson names the Mixed Voice (voix mixte or voce misto) as a third species of falsetto in his excellent article,¹⁷ but I do not include it here because it is comprised of the full-length, thicker vocal cord vibration and the balanced resonance of the first two harmonics.

The cultivation of the clear ringing sound in the middle of women’s voices is not an easy task and can come about only with good training and hard work. This has always been the case with sopranos and altos from the beginning, but, of course, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries these voices mostly belonged to male castrati. Every age learns what it has to and then forgets that precious information, so hard won. It is then up to subsequent generations to rediscover this forgotten lore. When Baldassare Ferri, the first of the famous castrati, came upon the scene, his singing must have been softer, sweeter, and more veiled than that of his successors. Manuel Garcia’s emphasis probably goes back to the teachings of the Bologna school of Antonio Pistocchi (1659–1726), who emphasized a good strong clear quality in the middle of the voice. Some mystery arose as to how this clear middle sound was produced, and contemporary accounts spoke of singing “divisions from the chest.” Apparently, Antonio Bernacchi (c.1690–1756) was a great exemplar of this technique, having previously exhibited a weak middle voice. Farinelli and Giovanni Carestini (c.1705–c.1759) then began to use this more “engaged” singing to great applause. Henry Pleasants says that Caffarelli was a spinto (pushed) type of singer, excelling in music of vehement passions. In our own era, Joan Sutherland and Marilyn Home are great talents developed to the utmost by application of the principles laid down by the Bel Canto masters such as Garcia. Both feature very strong middle voices. Ms. Home states that she pored over Hints on Singing.

THE WHISTLE VOICE

There is yet another specialized type of vibration to consider—the Whistle Voice. This unique sound has many names, such as Alt register, Flageolet register, and Bell register. Rossini did not like this kind of sound, which he called la voce di capelli (the voice of the hair). This vibration may be produced without the vocal cords even touching—literally a whistling across the glottal space. Some of the castrati were able to extend their voices to improbable heights by the use of this device. Mozart wrote an aria for Aloysia Weber, Popoli di Tessaglia, K 316, which contains a high G⁶, a note that must have been delivered in whistle voice. Much later, Emma Calvé consulted the elderly musico Mustafà (1829–1912), the next to last castrato in the Sistine choir, to learn to produce this ethereal sound. The result can be heard on Calvé’s recording of Ma Lisette. The whistle voice has been used mostly by coloratura sopranos to produce the notes above the high E-flat, but is also useful in the training of the Head register in female voices.

FUNCTIONAL BALANCE

The coordination between the closing and tensing functions of the vocal cords becomes a major goal in the training of fine singers. The resulting tone, which is functionally balanced, is said to have squillo, or a “ring.” The ability to control the interrelationship of the breath and the tensing function is one of the hallmarks of great singers. One thinks of the finesse and power of such artists as Adelina Patti, Nellie Melba, Enrico Caruso, Rosa Ponselle, Zinka Milanov, Jussi Björling, and Beniamino Gigli. All were able to sing the softest tones without losing clarity and to swell smoothly to fortissimo and back again. This takes a miracle of coordination.

It is in the split second when the breath “stands still” that the perfect coordination of the breath and the closure of the glottis is achieved. There should be no pressure on the glottis whatsoever. There is enough air pressure in the trachea to begin the tone. Then, and only then, is the air allowed to leave the lungs to replenish this “reservoir.” This principle is like the carburetor on an automobile engine. There is a small float chamber (trachea) in the carburetor. The fuel pump (expiratory muscles) steadily replenishes this chamber as the fuel is metered into the engine by the carburetor jets (glottis) under the control of the throttle (inspiratory muscles). If this is a fiction, it is a useful fiction, because it keeps the thought that the breath must not be pressed into the throat. Bel Canto teachers would often have their pupils vocalize before a candle flame or a mirror held close to the mouth. If the flame flickered or the mirror clouded, there was too much air in the attack.

Many young singers disengage and sing “off the voice” (breathy, voce velata), having been told not to sing loudly. Loud singing is not injurious to the voice unless we force the tone. The early masters all recommended training at the forte level. Forcing and forte are two different things. Adelina Patti, Jenny Lind, Henriette Sontag, Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, and, in our own time, Roberta Peters were all singing major roles in opera houses before they were 19 years old. Of course, all received excellent training very early and the taste of the times accepted a more youthful, girlish sound than we are accustomed to hearing these days, but the point is made that they were physically able to perform these roles at an early age.

Most young female singers have little trouble with their high notes. This is why so many are persuaded that they are ready for careers. The thrilling high note seems to be the only requisite for success. Not many people seem to be able to distinguish the difference between talent and skill these days. The singers previously mentioned and many others in the last three centuries were trained by the same techniques as the castrati. One of the central tenets was the development of the even scale, likened to “pearls on a string.” This has been translated by many to mean that the voice is to sound the same from top to bottom, but that is not what was meant. The seamless passage between registers gives the appearance of the voice being the same from top to bottom, but this is an illusion produced by the skillful artist.

The weakness of the middle voice in many women has several possible causes. One is yelling or screaming (cheerleaders are notorious voice abusers). Belting is a term that has its origins in musical theater. This is a thick yelling sound that is obtained by driving the chest voice up to compensate for weakness in the middle. Belting has no place in a serious consideration of great singing, and I am sorry that some teachers seek to legitimatize its use. This kind of yelling often leads only to the throat doctor’s office. Belting is not new; Garcia mentions that the abuse of the chest voice destroys the middle. This lack of coordination can be clearly heard on some records made during the Verismo and the Bayreuth Sprechgesang periods. The gap between the chest and middle registers is really very noticeable in some of these singers. The remedy for the problem of the intrusion of the chest voice up into the middle is to bring the exercise for correcting veiled sounds down as low as possible to overlap the chest voice. None of the early masters suggest the elimination of the chest voice—how else can one sing the low A’s in “Come scoglio” or even “Deh vieni, non tardar”?

Sometimes, there is simply a lack of development in the middle voice, especially by those who are afraid of the use of the chest voice. The increased activity of the Tensors also produces a heightened engagement of the suspensory network to stabilize the larynx. All of this is produced in response to the increased demands for loudness made upon the singer. As usual, there is a price to pay for extravagance. When excessive breath force is employed for extended periods of time, the Tensors are obliged to do double duty and can gradually take over the function of the Closers. This is a great pity because the singer then produces a muscle-bound tone that only functions at the forte level or breaks when required to sing piano. As Franz Proschowsky observed, “Even the gods struggle in vain with stupidity!” The most glorious voice still must be under the control of a mind that has judgment, taste, and common sense. Berton Coffin quotes Paola Novikova his teacher: “Rossini—voce, voce, voce. Novikova—brains, brains, brains!”

SINGING AND SPEECH

Singing is a form of stylized speech, differing from ordinary speech only in modulation (pitch) and duration. This fact was brought home to me some years ago while attending a performance of Cyrano de Bergerac starring Derek Jacobi. In the duel scene, Mr. Jacobi spoke Cyrano’s line, “I shall strike as I end the refrain,” on a pitch somewhere in the vicinity of high B flats with great ease and grace. In ordinary speech we usually stay on a very narrow range of pitches corresponding to the natural pitch of our vocal tract. Sometimes people attempt to alter this range (usually lower) by depressing the larynx with usually disastrous results. Actors are notorious for this. Dr. Morton Cooper describes the way to find the natural speech pitch of your instrument: If someone asks you a question and you answer in the affirmative “uh-huh” without thinking, you will usually be on the pitch that is natural to you. My natural pitch (I am a tenor) is about F sharp below middle C. Jerome Hines relates that Dr. Cooper saved his career by pointing out that he was trying to speak at a pitch too low for his instrument, thereby straining his voice. When one spoke with Jerry, his voice had a very pleasant relaxed sound, but not that of someone trying to impress with the basso quality that made him world famous.

Duration is not something we usually think of concerning speech. Most speech is of relatively short duration and the speaker has complete control of the time frame—extending, shortening, or even pausing during a speech. This is not so for singing. We have some control of duration by the use of rubato or tempo, but often we exte—nd syllables, or we may be singing a whole page of music on a single syllable, as in a Baroque aria.

It is useful, as an exercise, to connect the concepts of singing and speaking in the singer’s mind. We find that, with a little practice, we can speak, or intone, a phrase in a song somewhere near the average pitch of that phrase. We must do this with the appropriate attack (reed or flute) and in the appropriate register (more on registration in the next chapter). When we become more proficient, we begin to see that we use much less breath than we usually do when singing these pitches, and usually the intoning is easier than the singing.

DYNAMICS

At this point we must consider dynamics. Before the middle of the nineteenth century this subject was not as important as it is now. Loudness was just another component in the singer’s toolbox, along with improvisational skill, prowess in the execution of the “graces,” and the ability of some, like Pacchierotti, to affect the audience emotionally. Since that time, beginning with Rossini, the orchestra has grown to gargantuan proportions. In the works of Wagner, Strauss, Verdi, and the Verismo composers, despite the undeniable beauty of the orchestral “accompaniments,” singing has become a battle for survival. Raising the pitch, which increases the brilliance of the orchestra, has not helped our cause either. Some of our great contemporary singers, like Marilyn Home and Joan Sutherland, have made a concerted effort to have the pitch lowered to the standard in place at the time of the composition of their repertoire, but so far these efforts have fallen on “deaf” ears.

Loudness, intensity, and resonance are three elements of the singer’s art that should be clarified. We are especially interested in the first two in this chapter, since we are discussing the primary vibration—the initial sound produced by the larynx.

Loudness

Go into any chorus room of an opera company, or the opera department of any school, and you will hear discussions among the singers about the “big voice” of this singer or that, or how the singer is working to acquire the “big sound.” The goal, as the Italian masters would say, is to “far stupire” (cause astonishment). Of course, the rest of the saying is that the object of great singing is not to cause amazement, but to “move the heart.”

What is loudness? It is amplitude—the energy necessary to move the vocal cords up and down in a wide arc on each vibration. This results in the increased movement of the air molecules between the singer and the ear of the listener. The voice is vibration, not air, and old time singers would say, “Do not release any air that they don’t pay you for!” This is governed by a good attack, control of the breath, and the increased resistance of the Tensors as loudness is increased. This fine control must be striven for unceasingly. How much loudness is possible without forcing is a matter of the innate physiology of the singer, combined with temperament, intelligence, and common sense. If it hurts, it’s wrong! Forcing the voice will result in vocal damage, not glory!

The higher reaches of the voice are somewhat different. First of all, the ear perceives the higher pitches as louder, since it is more sensitive to higher frequencies. Most singers will increase the loudness of an ascending scale and diminish a descending scale because they are conditioned to imitate what they believe to be the practice of other singers. The resplendent high note is, after all, what the public pays the money for!

Sometimes, in an ascending passage, the voice will tend to “stick.” As the Stretchers contract, the medial compression will also increase, thereby offering more resistance to the airflow. At this point, the speed of the airflow must also be increased, so that another mode of vibration, the flute vibration, is gradually introduced. Therefore, the decrease in the pinch of the glottis and the increase in the speed of the air in the top voice translate into an increase in loudness. This can be clearly heard in early recordings of great sopranos such as Melba, Sembrich, and especially Tetrazzini. “Having ears, hear ye not?” (Mark 8:18)

Intensity

Scientists use loudness and intensity synonymously, but I will use the word intensity as singers do, which is as a reflection of the clarity of the tone plus loudness. A breathy tone is not intense. A constricted tone is intense, but usually not very loud. When a tone has intensity, it will carry to the back of the house, even if it is not very loud. As previously stated, there must be a perfect balance between the closure of the glottis and the action of the breath, which results in the intense tone said to have squillo, or “singer’s formant.”

Resonance

Any discussion of resonance properly belongs to our chapter on registration, but we must connect this to our understanding of loudness in practical singing. Resonance is a most misused term, and Vennard made a resolution never to use the word at all except in its scientific context. When we use the term resonance, we frequently mean timbre. Here is how the dictionary defines these terms:

Resonance, Phys. The property of a mechanical system enabling it to vibrate sympathetically in response to vibrations of a particular frequency from another body; the prolongation or increase of sound by the sympathetic vibration of other bodies. Phon. An increase in the audibility of spoken sounds; the combination of resonances from various cavities, as the mouth or sinuses, which are characteristic of a phoneme. [Italics mine]

Timbre. That distinctive quality having to do with the mixture and intensity of harmonics in a sound which sets it apart from another sound of the same pitch and volume, as between vocal and instrumental tones in music or voiced sounds in speech.¹⁸

If we reflect upon the meaning of these words, we will get a clearer picture of what we are trying to do. Often, if we confuse timbre with loudness, we will attempt to produce tones, especially in the top, which are of an inappropriate timbre, such as a tenor who tries to have a baritonal timbre or a soprano who, in singers’ jargon, “tries to take too much weight up into the top.” Consider the beginning of the first act of The Marriage of Figaro. Susanna (a lyric-coloratura soprano) and Figaro, (usually a bass-baritone) have a scene together. Very often, the soprano will project much better than the bass, although she is certainly not as physically powerful, and her voice is much less complex harmonically.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOICES

The classification of voices should be done with the utmost care. It is a matter of nature, not nurture. The size of the vocal organs and the physical constitution of the singer are the governing factors. The psychological aspect also must not be overlooked. In general a move up is more difficult than the opposite. The experienced teacher makes these judgments based on the timbre of the voice, the pitch of the natural transition from the chest voice, and the perceived range, both high and low. The pitch and timbre of the speaking voice are also helpful to determine the correct category for a voice. Categories are sometimes a matter of development and maturity, but common sense should play a large part. Real dramatic voices are rare and they belong to mostly large robust people. This does not mean that obesity is a necessary component of great singing, but physical strength is.

THE FACH SYSTEM

The German love of order has engendered a system of vocal classification called the Fach System in German opera houses. Most of the time these categories make sense, and a perusal of the roles in the appropriate Fach helps the singer to understand the range of roles that make up that category. However, a rigid adherence to this system is not in the Italian (or American) tradition. For example, Caruso sang Nemorino (Lyrischer Tenor) until the end of his career along with his most famous role, Canio (Heldentenor). Lillian Nordica in 1903 sang the Brünnhildes (Hochdramatischer Sopran) of Die Walküre and Götterdämmerung on February 12th and 14th and Marguerite (Dramatischer Koloratursopran) in Faust on February 18th. Lilli Lehmann sang over 170 major roles ranging from Zerlina (Koloratur Soubrette) to Isolde (Hochdramatischer Sopran). The best thing is to remember Giovanni Martinelli’s advice: “Do not sing any role that is unsuitable for your voice.”

CONCLUSIONS

The central issue in singing technique is coordination between the breath and the vibration of the vocal cords. Vibrations of the vocal cords, which are altered and controlled by the resonators—the throat, mouth and nose—produce the sounds of singing or speaking. The onset or attack of the tone is very important and worthy of great attention. There are two types of onsets—the “reed attack” (called coupe de la glotte by Garcia) for tones in the middle and bottom of the voice and the “flute attack” for tones begun in the top of the voice. The falsetto or falsettone is an adjustment of the vocal cords that utilizes a shorter, thinner adjustment with less medial compression. Garcia called the middle register in the female voice Falsetto; he later called it the Medium. This middle part of the female voice tends to be weak and uncoordinated. Incidentally, this was also a problem for the male sopranos and altos of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The development of a strong, clear middle voice became a priority. The weakness of the middle voice must not be compensated for by driving the chest voice up into the middle (“belting”). All the masters universally condemned this practice. Training with the coordinated falsetto (called voce finta) helps in the development of high notes in the male voice. Another type of specialized vibration, the whistle voice, is for the extreme top notes of the female voice and helps in the training of the head voice. The coordination between the closing and tensing functions of the vocal cords along with mastery of the breath is crucial in the control of dynamics.

Singing is a form of stylized speech, differing from ordinary speech only in modulation and duration. Intoning the text at a pitch near the average pitch of a phrase can help to integrate the singing and speaking voices to the benefit of both. Switching from singing to speech and back again within the phrase is helpful in preventing undue pressure upon the glottis.

In considering dynamics, we must understand the concepts of loudness, intensity, and resonance in the singing voice. Loudness is amplitude, produced with more energy from the breath. Intensity is a measure of the clarity of the tone plus loudness. The resonance of a tone is its prolongation or increase of sound by the interplay of the vibrations of two or more vibrating bodies. This term is often confused with timbre, which is the harmonic pattern (or color) of the tone that distinguishes it from another sound on the same pitch and volume.

Voices, especially young voices, must be classified with great care. Classification must be done according to the nature of the instrument and not by the desire of the singer to be trained as something different. The German Fach System codifies the classification of voices and can sometimes help the singer in repertoire choices. However, too rigid an adherence to one’s Fach list can cause problems.

NOTES

1. Mathilde Marchesi, Bel Canto: A Theoretical and Practical Vocal Method (New York: Dover, 1970) 14.

2. Berton Coffin, Overtones of Bel Canto (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1980) 52.

3. Giovanni Ansani, also spelled Anzani and Ansoni (1744–1826), a tenor, was a part of the Porpora tradition and may have studied with the master himself. Dr. Burney reported that Ansani’s voice was one of the sweetest and most powerful that he ever heard. Gervasoni said that Ansani was very expressive and had the most perfect method both of producing the voice and of vocalization. It is possible that Manuel Garcia II may have taken some lessons with Ansani when he was ten years old.

4. Paola Novikova (1896–1967). Novikova was the teacher of Niccolai Gedda and George London.

5. Giovanni Battista Velluti (1781–1861). Meyerbeer wrote Il crociato in Egitto for Velluti, and the cast also included Maria Malibran, still known at that time as Garcia. Rossini was enraged by Velluti’s over-embellishment of his music, but the two later became fast friends.

6. Manuel Garcia II, The Art of Singing, Part I (Boston: Ditson, c.1855) 11.

7. Carlo Bassini (1812–1870) stated that he was a pupil of Crescentini and Zingarelli and had applied himself to the system of Garcia.

8. Garcia, The Art of Singing, Part I 11.

9. Herman Klein (1856–1934) was a critic and teacher of singing, himself a pupil of Manuel Garcia II.

10. Garcia, Hints on Singing (London: Ascherberg; New York: Schuberth, 1894) 13.

11. Marchesi, Bel Canto: A Theoretical and Practical Vocal Method 12

12. Daniel Bernoulli (1744–1807) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist who made contributions to the science of hydrodynamics, the kinetic theory of gases, calculus, and the theory of probability.

13. William Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Technique, 5th edition (New York: Fisher, 1968) 38–41.

14. Coffin, Overtones of Bel Canto 44.

15. Carlo Bassini, Art of Singing (Boston: Ditson, 1857) 6.

16. Margaret Byers, “Sbriglia’s Method of Singing,” The Etude 60 (May 1942): 338.

17. Lloyd W. Hanson, “A Survey of Research on Vocal Falsetto,” NATS Journal 43, Jan./Feb. (1987): 9–13.

18. Grolier Webster International Dictionary (New York: Grolier, 1973, 1972, 1971) 817, 1030.