ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXAM 1

Answers to the Multiple-Choice Questions

1. А	21. А	41. С	61. С
2. С	22. В	42. D	62. A
3. В	23. Е	43. Е	63. D
4. D	24. D	44. В	64. А
5. Е	25. С	45. А	65. В
6. Е	26. D	46. С	66. Е
7. А	27. В	47. Е	67. С
8. D	28. Е	48. С	68. А
9. В	29. D	49. D	69. D
10. С	30. В	50. В	70. Е
11. С	31. А	51. А	71. В
12. Е	32. С	52. Е	72. D
13. А	33. Е	53. В	73. С
14. Е	34. С	54. D	74. А
15. D	35. D	55. Е	75. В
16. В	36. А	56. D	76. В
17. D	37. Е	57. С	77. A
18. С	38. В	58. В	78. Е
19. A	39. С	59. A	79. В
20. В	40. A	60. Е	80. С

Explanations of Answers to the Multiple-Choice Questions

1. A. The headright system stimulated population growth in colonial Virginia. Planters who helped bring more settlers to the colony received “headrights” of 50 acres. Any planter who imported indentured servants could obtain accumulate sizable tracts of land. The system conferred some political privileges to the holders of large estates.

2. C. Similar to the Truman Doctrine, President Eisenhower’s policies intended to halt the spread of communism and limit the influence of pan-Arab nationalism. In the wake of the Suez crisis, Eisenhower offered economic and military aid to pro-Western governments. American aid and presence helped Jordan’s King Hussein suppress internal strife. In 1958, American marines landed in Lebanon to protect the government of Camile Chamoun.

3. B. Garrison, Douglass, Tubman, and Grimke were antebellum abolitionists. Both Garrison and Douglass established newspapers with wide circulations. Douglass established The North Star; Garrison founded The Liberator.

4. D. Before the twentieth century, the labor movement had yet to build significant public support. Government officials at the state and federal level often sent troops to disperse labor strikes. Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson resided in the White I louse during part of the Progressive era. The United Mine Workers, led by John Mitchell, struck against anthracite mine operators in 1902 for higher wages, an eight-hour work day, and, most importantly, recognition of the union. When mine operators refused to compromise, Roosevelt threatened to send in federal troops. The president’s position forced operators to agree to arbitration.

5. E. Betty Friedan published her attack upon sexism and spurred the modern feminist movement. Gloria Steinem also emerged as one of the principal proponents of women’s rights. A conservative journalist, Phyllis Schlafly campaigned against the Equal Rights Amendment. Shirley Chisolm was the first African-American woman to serve in Congress. Geraldine Ferraro ran as the Democratic vice presidential candidate in 1984.

6.  E. Although many Southerners advocated the annexation of Texas, Jackson was fully aware of the simmering slave controversy. During the last year of his administration, Congress adopted a “gag rule” to prevent discussion of abolitionist petitions. Most Whigs opposed annexation out of fear that it would add another state committed to Jackson, Jackson’s land sales policy promoted westward expansion. He saw merit in promoting both the commercial and agricultural economies.

7. A. The Nineteenth Amendment established women’s suffrage. Prohibition began with the Eighteenth Amendment. The Seventeenth Amendment changed the process for electing senators. The Fourteenth Amendment protected the citizenship rights of African-Americans,

8. D. The Great Railway Strike of 1877 began in West Virginia and rapidly spread to other states cast of the Mississippi. Still feeling the effects of the Panic of 1873, some Americans embraced the workers’ demands for higher wages. However, as union members fought local authorities in a series of highly publicized clashes, public opinion turned against the strikers. Many Americans applauded President Hayes’s use of federal troops to quell the violence in West Virginia,

9. B. In the early nineteenth century, Great Britain and France resumed hostilities. Sailors deserted British ships to escape the low pay and harsh conditions. The British navy soon began to stop and search American ships for escaped sailors. Impressment often forced native- born Americans into service aboard British ships, James Barron, captain of the Chesapeake, refused to allow Admiral Berkley of the HM5 Leopard to search his ship for deserters. Berkley ordered his men to open fire, killing three and wounding eighteen. Barron relented and the British impressed four of his men. The Chesapeake Incident sparked national outrage.

10. C. President Lincoln hoped that a successful strike against Richmond would bring the yearlong war to an end. From the beginning of the campaign, McClelland complained that he lacked sufficient men. At Yorktown, a small detachment of Confederate soldiers (12,000) slowed the advance of McClellan’s force of over 110,000 men. McClellan believed that the men marching behind the Confederate earthworks constituted a much larger force, McClellan’s trudging pace toward Richmond confirmed Lincoln’s assessment that his general “had a bad case of the slows.”

11. C. After passage of the unpopular Stamp Act, many colonists in New England stopped purchasing British goods. The boycott soon spread to other colonies. British merchants and manufacturers lost considerable profits and urged Parliament to repeal the act. Petitions to the king typically fell on deaf ears. Most colonial governors executed British laws in spite of colonial protest. Although the Sons of Liberty intimidated governors and colonists loyal to the Crown, they had little effect upon parliamentary legislation,

12. E. Archibald Cox demanded that President Nixon relinquish the Watergate tapes. Nixon ordered his Attorney General, Elliot Richardson, to fire Cox. Richardson promptly resigned, as did Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus. Nixon’s desperate measures raised public indignation and prompted the House of Representatives to pursue impeachment charges.

13. A. The slave of an army surgeon, Dred Scott had lived with his master in Illinois and Wisconsin, both which banned slavery. As a result, Scott sued for his freedom after his master’s death. Chief Justice Taney wrote one of the majority positions in which he stated that Scott could not sue because he was not a citizen, Taney further ruled that the Missouri Compromise line, imposed by Congress, was “not warranted by the Constitution and is therefore void.”

14. E. Robert LaFollette served as three terms as governor of Wisconsin. Charles Evans Hughes (NY), Woodrow Wilson (NJ), and Hiram Johnson (CA) also instituted progressive reforms as governor. Eugene Debs ran as the Socialist candidate for president in 1912,

15. D. The Constitution granted Congress the sole power to coin money, establish post offices, regulate interstate commerce, and admit new states. While the state government retained the authority to raise a militia, the federal government may nationalize state troops to enforce federal law and maintain order,

16. B. The Charles River Bridge Company held a Massachusetts state charter to operate a toll bridge between Boston and Cambridge. The company asserted that the charter ensured a monopoly over bridge traffic. The Warren Bridge Company applied to the state legislature for permission to construct a second bridge. The Charles River Bridge Company argued that John Marshall’s Dartmouth College decision prevented the state from violating contracts. Nevertheless, Chief Justice Roger Taney sided with the Warren Bridge Company and the state of Massachusetts. He argued that the vagueness of the original charter did not specifically confer monopoly rights. Thus, new charters could be granted to expand economic opportunities for the wider community.

17. D. Americans of the late nineteenth century embraced new forms of leisure and entertainment. Urban dwellers particularly flocked to vaudeville houses and theaters. Working-class Americans often attended these shows. The movie industry thrived during this era.

18. C. The Brown v. Board of Education decision ordered the desegregation of public schools in 1954. In 1957, nine African-American students attempted to integrate Little Rock Central High School. Governor Orval Faubus ordered the state militia to prevent the students from enrolling. He later withdrew the troops, and an angry mob filled the void. President Eisenhower used federal troops to protect the students and enforce the desegregation of Little Rock Central.

19. A. The mass production of the cotton gin increased demand for the Southern staple. Cotton production increased dramatically during the antebellum period. The chilled steel plow and barbed wire helped Great Plains settlers of the late nineteenth century farm and raise cattle.

20. B. In An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (1913), Beard asserted that the framers created a government in order to protect private property and promote commerce. Wealthy Americans, who bought bonds during the Revolutionary War, also had a vested interest in the repayment of the public debt.

21. A. Lincoln advocated the containment of slavery, not immediate abolition. Although some notable figures such as Wendell Phillips and Ralph Waldo Emerson praised Brown, most Northerners and Republicans condemned his attack on the federal arsenal. In his Cooper Union Speech, Lincoln claimed that “John Brown was no Republican” and assured his listeners that no one could “implicate a single Republican in his Harper’s Ferry enterprise.”

22. B. Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, and Reagan presided over years in which the American economy experienced significant growth. Some had to deal with intermittent problems of inflation. During the early 1970s, Nixon had to battle both inflation and a stagnant economy.

23. E. In the late nineteenth century, various state legislatures passed Progressive legislation ranging from child labor regulations to maximum hours. The Fourteenth Amendment forbade states from depriving “any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.” The Supreme Court construed the meaning of the term “person” to include corporations. If state laws appeared to deprive corporations of property, the Court reasoned, then those acts violated the “due process” clause, for example, the Supreme Court struck down a state law regulating railroad rates. The E. C. Knight decision undermined the Sherman Antitrust Act by exempting manufacturing companies from antimonopoly legislation.

24. D. Federalists from the New England States met in Hartford in December 1814 to discuss the impact of the War of 1812 on their section. New England opposed war with England because of its impact on commerce. During the war, Federalists did not support the sale of war bonds or federal use of state militias. Moderates at the convention rejected the extremists’ proposal for secession and a separate peace. The delegates agreed to a list of grievances and constitutional amendments aimed at protecting the power of the states. However, the signing of the Treaty of Ghent and Jackson’s victory at New Orleans turned public opinion against the Federalists.

25. C. President Lyndon B. Johnson waged a “War on Poverty” with his “Great Society” legislation. Johnson attempted to extend health care benefits. Medicare provided federally funded medical insurance for the elderly. Medicaid funded medical care for impoverished Americans of all ages.

26. D. The Whig party emerged in 1836 to challenge Andrew Jackson’s hand-picked successor, Martin Van Buren. Van Buren won the election but soon faced the Panic of 1837. Persistent economic problems affected the next election. The Whigs cast Van Buren as an aristocrat who spent money lavishly while average Americans suffered from the privations of the depression. Furthermore, Whig partisans portrayed their candidate, Indiana Governor William Henry Harrison, as a man of the people. Banners and leaflets pictured Harrison living in a rustic log cabin, consuming hard cider rather than champagne like Van Buren. Harrison defeated Van Buren in the election of 1840.

27. B. Many Republicans hoped that the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower would erode the position of Senator McCarthy. However, McCarthy ensured his own fall in 1954. McCarthy’s accusations against Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens led to a special congressional inquiry. Television stations broadcasted the Army-McCarthy hearings to a national audience. Viewers witnessed the senator’s intimidation tactics. By the end of the year, the Senate censured McCarthy for his conduct.

28. E. After his inauguration in 1801, Jefferson refused to renew the Alien and Sedition Acts but did not move to dismantle many economic measures of his Federalist predecessors. Jefferson did not eliminate the national debt but oversaw significant cuts in military and administrative spending. In 1807 Aaron Burr was arrested for an alleged conspiracy to seize lands in the Southwest. Jefferson helped manage the federal government’s case against Burr and urged a conviction for treason. Jefferson refused to pay bribe money to ensure American commerce in the Mediterranean. Without a declaration of war, he ordered the American navy to protect ships in the region. The Louisiana Purchase represents another example of Jefferson interpreting the Constitution loosely.

29. D. Colonial assemblies often represented the interests of eastern over western counties. Taxes sometimes fell heavily upon those underrepresented in the legislature. In colonial Virginia, Governor Berkeley sought to restrict white expansion in order to avoid bloody conflicts with Indian tribes. After a number of conflicts with the natives, Bacon raised a rebel army composed mainly of former indentured servants and other unemployed men. The rebels twice marched on Jamestown and evoked a lawlessness Berkeley struggled to contain. Bacon’s Rebellion dissipated with the arrival of British troops and Bacon’s death from dysentery. The social unrest alarmed propertied Virginians. The Whiskey Rebellion occurred in 1794. Major slave rebellions occurred in 1739, 1800, 1822, and 1832.

30. B. The Warren Court made a number of landmark decisions protecting the rights of those accused of crimes. In 1961, Clarence Gideon was arrested for a crime he did not commit, Gideon could not afford a lawyer; the presiding judge refused to provide one. Gideon was subsequently sentenced to five years in prison. He petitioned the Supreme Court, claiming that the judge’s refusal to provide a lawyer denied him “due process of law” under the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court’s decision in Gideon v. Wainwright overturned the conviction and ensured legal representation for the impoverished. The Escobedo decision extended access to a lawyer prior to questioning by the authorities. The Miranda decision required the police to inform suspects of these rights. Critics argued that the Court protected the rights of the accused at the expense of law-abiding citizens. The Fourth Amendment protects against “unreasonable search and seizures.”

31. A. Peale and Stuart contributed to emerging cultural nationalism of the early republic. Peale painted several portraits of George Washington and other Revolutionary War heroes. Stuart also produced a wide array of portraits. The “Ashcan school” focused upon the grim realities of urban poverty and city life during the Progressive era.

32. C. Americans embraced isolationism in response to world events in the 1930s. Franklin Roosevelt’s “quarantine speech” met with extremely mixed emotions. Congress passed a series of laws intended to ensure American neutrality. Japanese airplanes attacked the USS Panay and three Standard Oil tankers. Public opinion favored accepting reparations from Japan and removing American ships from foreign waters rather than punitive action. The Neutrality Act of 1935, prohibiting the sale of arms and munitions to belligerent nations, preceded the Panay Incident.

33. E. During the French and Indian War, American colonists continued to trade with Britain’s enemies. Colonial assemblies did not always relinquish control of local militias. However, the colonial governments often failed to cooperate with their neighbors. Parliament began to reexamine its ability to control its North American colonies and passed new regulatory and taxation laws that contributed to the American Revolution, The war weakened France and the Indian tribes. Parliament attempted to check white expansion and limit the colonial trade west of the Appalachians with the Proclamation of 1763. Nevertheless, Indian resistance east of the Mississippi increased as whites migrated across the mountains.

34. C. The settlement house movement emerged to address the unhealthy conditions in industrial cities. Jane Addams established Hull House in Chicago, which served as a model for urban reformers. Workers at Hull House strove to help immigrant families adapt to the language and traditions of the United States, Representative Jeannette Rankin voted against the declaration of war in 1917 and 1941. Rachel Carson published Silent Spring in 1962. Betty Friedan was the founder and first president of the National Organization of Women. Mary Elizabeth Lease gave several speeches supporting Populist reforms.

35. D. President Franklin D. Roosevelt perceived his reelection in 1936 as a popular mandate to extend his New Deal programs. The Supreme Court overturned his Agricultural Adjustment Act and National Industrial Recovery Act in that same year. Roosevelt proposed to raise the number of justices ostensibly to alleviate the workload of older justices. Most people saw the measure as a transparent effort to increase the number of Democrats on the bench. His proposal caused some Democrats to bolt the party and undergirded conservative opposition to the New Deal.

36. A. British settlers in North America established permanent settlements in order to take advantage of economic opportunities. The French attempted to exploit trade but did not found as many settled communities. Thus, British settlers outnumbered the French throughout the colonial period. British farmers continually clashed with natives along the frontier. The French tried to form alliances to promote the fur trade and often married native women. Both French and British missionaries attempted to convert the native tribes.

37. E. Rockefeller, Carnegie, Stanford, and Morgan each forged lucrative business enterprises in the late nineteenth century. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust cornered the refining industry. Carnegie created a vast steel empire. Stanford attempted to monopolize the railroad industry in the West. Morgan dominated the field of banking and investments.

38. B. The gold rush drew thousands of immigrants to the West between 1848 and 1852. Prospectors came from abroad, as well from as Eastern states. Many hoped to strike it rich and return home. Most fortune-seekers decided to remain in the West. Miners often dashed with Indian tribes as they staked claims. Some tried to force the native population to work in the mines; others killed local tribes. The population of mining towns remained predominantly male; few women or families traveled to the West. Crime and violence permeated these communities.

39. C. Industrial expansion in the late nineteenth century drew millions of immigrants to American cities. While many factory owners sought cheap labor, nativists continually urged Congress to preserve opportunities for American workers. Congress responded with a variety of restrictive laws between 1882 and 1921, The Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 established extremely low quotas for certain nationalities, thus barring numerous immigrants from the United States. Congress extended the act in 1929. The Great Depression paralleled a worldwide economic crisis.

40. A. Nationalists and religious fundamentalists forced Shah Reza Pahlevi to flee Iran in January 1979. The deposed Shah sought medical treatment in the United States. An angry mob stormed the American embassy in November, demanding the return of Pahlevi. The militants held 53 American diplomats and service personnel hostage for over a year. A failed rescue attempt exacerbated public frustration with the Carter administration. The United States withdrew from Saigon in 1975. Congress began investigations into the Iran-Contra Affair in 1987. American troops invaded Panama and arrested Manuel Noriega in 1989. Congress ratified the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993.

41. C. In 1786, delegates from five states met in Annapolis to discuss methods to improve interstate commerce. States retained significant power under the Articles of Confederation and often passed high tariffs on each other’s goods. Realizing the weaknesses of the existing political structure, the delegates asked Congress to call a general convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. The Albany Congress attempted to promote intercolonial unity in 1754.

42. D. Enterprises in Lowell and Waltham, Massachusetts, began a trend of employing women in the textile industry in the 1830s. Many women did not enter the fields of education and nursing until after the Civil War. Secretarial work remained a province for men until World War II. Few women made inroads into the law profession until later in the twentieth century.

43. E. Roosevelt adopted a more reform-minded domestic program than his Republican predecessors Harrison and McKinley. In 1906, he signed the Hepburn Act to increase the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The Pure Food and Drug Act passed that same year after public outcry against the food and patent medicine industries.

44. B. The Dawes Severalty Act intended to dissolve the tribal system by dividing reservations into 160-acre homesteads. Indian families were encouraged to live on their own farms and abandon native customs. In reality, much of the reservation land was sold to white speculators. The Dawes Plan (1924) provided loans to enable Germany to repay reparations to France after World War I.

45. A. The return of World War II soldiers and postwar “baby boom” caused a severe housing shortage. The Levitts introduced mass- produced houses to accommodate the demand. Standardized suburban communities sprang up in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Jonas Salk developed a polio vaccine in the 1950s.

46. C. Before the Radical Republicans gained control of Reconstruction, the former Confederate states reentered the Union under the moderate conditions imposed by Lincoln and Johnson. New state legislatures enacted “Black Codes” circumscribing the rights of freedmen. Furthermore, most Southern states rejected the Fourteenth Amendment. As a result, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act of 1867, The act disbanded the governments created under Lincoln’s “Ten Percent Plan” and under Johnson, Military occupation would last until loyal governments ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and registered African-Americans to vote. The act fell short of the hopes of many Radicals by not redistributing land to the freedmen.

47. E. During World War I, German submarines sank ships heading to British ports. The German government announced that U-boats would sink all enemy ships. In 1915, a German submarine sank the British luxury liner Lusitania, killing nearly 1200 people, including 128 Americans. President Wilson, like many Americans, angrily condemned German actions. He warned Germany not to continue unrestricted U-boat warfare. When an attack on the French ship Sussex injured several American passengers, Wilson repeated his warning. In order to keep the United States out of the war, the Germany government gave assurances that it would stop attacking ships without warning.

48. C. The Whigs emerged in the 1830s as an anti-Jackson party. The party absorbed elements of the nativistic American (“Know-Nothing”) party. They supported the maintenance of the Bank of the United States, road construction, and tariffs to protect American industries. The Whigs found adherents in every region. The Whig presidential candidate won the elections of 1840 and 1848, However, the slavery issue troubled the party. By the 1850s, many Southern Whigs supported the expansion of slavery into the territories, while their Northern counterparts opposed expansion.

49. D. After the Civil War, rapid industrial growth created significant demand for labor in American factories. Millions of immigrants, especially from Southern and Eastern Europe, flocked to the cities seeking employment. Nativism increased as Americans feared competition for jobs and the spread of non-Protestant religions.

50. B. In response to Pearl Harbor and long-standing racial prejudice, local authorities in the West urged Roosevelt to address the presence of Japanese-Americans (Nisei), Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which allowed military officials to remove the Nisei to relocation centers. No similar policy was followed for first-generation Americans of German or Italian descent.

51. A. In late 1967, General William Westmoreland assured President Johnson that American victories portended the surrender of the Vietnamese communists. In reality, North Vietnamese leaders were planning a massive invasion of South Vietnam. The communist offensive began in January 1968 during the Tet holiday. North Vietnamese forces struck 41 cities, including Saigon. The Tet Offensive revealed that the United States was no closer to victory than earlier in the war. As a result, the antiwar movement intensified.

52. E. After the French and Indian War, Parliament imposed the Stamp Act to defray the costs of colonial defense. However, the colonists had become accustomed to paying revenue taxes passed by their assemblies. Many believed that Parliament legitimately retained the right to regulate trade but not to raise revenue. Although the tax was not extremely burdensome, it sparked fiery rhetoric and boycotts throughout the colonics. Parliament later rescinded the act but would try to raise revenue with the Townshend Acts in 1767.

53. B. Advertising changed in the lace nineteenth century to expand the markets of American industries. Chain stores challenged small merchants to market mass-produced goods at a lower price. However, farmers often could not obtain similar products in local country stores. Catalogs such as Montgomery Ward and Scars Roebuck made new items available in rural areas. Farmers soon embraced the newest tools, technologies, and fashions displayed in the catalogs.

54. D. The acquisition of new territories in the antebellum period exacerbated the controversy over the expansion of slavery. The Constitutional Convention had banned the further importation of slaves after 1808. Congress established the Missouri Compromise line to limit the expansion of slavery in the Louisiana territory. The Mexican Cession became the target of new debates. Some argued that Congress could extend the Missouri Compromise line to California. Others argued the people residing in a territory should decide the question of slavery. Stephen Douglas and other Democratic politicians promoted “popular sovereignty” as a solution to the slavery question.

55. E. Slaves resisted oppressive conditions in many ways. Although laws did not recognize slave marriages, slaves frequently held their own ceremonies. Staves merged African traditions with Christianity and practiced their own forms of religion. Field songs and religious music challenged the dominance of whites through coded messages. Slaves resisted the pace of work set by masters and drivers by breaking tools or working more slowly. Others ran away from their plantations, especially in the upper South. However, slave revolts did not occur frequently.

56. C. Roosevelt signed the GI Bill in 1944. This act provided loans for purchasing homes and grants for education. Millions of veterans took advantage of government funding to pursue higher education and job training. The GI Bill helped fuel postwar prosperity in the 1940s and 1950s.

57. C. The United States adopted an official policy of neutrality in the conflicts between Spain and its Latin American colonies. Nevertheless, American businesses supplied the rebels in those colonies. The United States became the first nation to recognize the newly independent governments, Wary of European involvement in the Western Hemisphere, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams urged President James Monroe to adopt a more forceful policy. The Monroe Doctrine opposed future European colonization and efforts to undermine existing governments. Furthermore, it reiterated a traditional policy of noninterference in European affairs.

58. B. Congress passed the Homestead Act in 1862. This act offered prospective settlers 160-acre homesteads in the West for a nominal fee if they resided on the land for five years. Thousands of settlers streamed west with hopes of establishing farms on the Great Plains. The Gadsden Purchase provided a potential railroad route in the Southwest. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled a boundary dispute along the Maine border. Congress passed the Reclamation Act (1902) to fund irrigation projects in the West. The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act replaced provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act during the New Deal.

59. A. English, Scotch-Irish, Dutch, and German settlers resided in the Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania). The region sustained a thriving agricultural and commercial economy. Although the Quakers of Pennsylvania opposed slavery, some colonists in the region owned slaves. Virginia produced more tobacco than any other colony.

60. E. The Soviet Union shot down an American U-2 airplane during the last year of the Eisenhower administration. The Soviets captured the pilot and displayed photographic equipment after the administration denied Soviet charges of espionage. Although the plans for an invasion of Cuba began under Eisenhower, the Bay of Pigs affair occurred during the first few months of the Kennedy administration. The Berlin Wall was constructed in 1961. In October 1962, Kennedy sent federal troops to protect James Meredith, the first African- American to attend the University of Mississippi. The 1962 Trade Expansion Act lowered tariffs to promote trade between the United States and European nations.

61. C. In the late nineteenth century, several European nations established “spheres of influence” in China. These nations protected their provincial commerce with discriminatory port duties, tariffs, and railroad rates. Secretary of State John Hay issued the “Open-Door Notes” in order to convince the European powers to provide equal access to Chinese markets.

62. A. The Confederation government passed the Northwest Ordinances to resolve problems with territory ceded by Great Britain at the end of the Revolutionary War. As settlers migrated across the Appalachian Mountains, Congress sought the means to include the region in the new republic. The ordinances established plans for orderly settlement and creation of new state governments.

63. D. Wilson traveled to France to ensure passage of his Fourteen Points. Wilson hoped that the conference would not impose a punitive peace treaty upon Germany. However, Allied leaders agreed only to a few his points. The treaty included the creation of the League of Nations, which Wilson believed would prevent future wars. At the end of World War II, the Potsdam Conference finalized plans to divide Germany into occupation zones.

64. A. Recent immigrants frequently joined the Jeffersonian Republicans at the close of the eighteenth century. During the “quasi-war” with France, Republican newspapers excoriated the policies of John Adams. Federalists in Congress searched for ways to weaken the opposition. The Alien Act made naturalization of immigrants more difficult. The Sedition Act empowered the federal government to arrest those who printed libelous material. The acts alarmed many who saw them as a direct assault on the Constitution.

65. B. The First Great Awakening swept across the colonics in the 1730s and 1740s. Preachers urged people to reestablish a direct relationship with God. Established ministers rejected the message of the evangelicals, splitting denominations between “New Lights” and “Old Lights.” The religious revivals were particularly popular along the frontier. The Great Awakening undermined the authority of established churches by diversifying American religion.

66. E. One of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, the Works Progress Administration expanded relief efforts. It financed diverse activities from road and building construction to projects for writers and artists. The Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) investigated discriminatory hiring practices during World War II.

67. C. Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, the most widely read antebellum novel. Its strident abolitionist message intensified the sectional conflict. However, she did not participate in the organization of the Seneca Falls Convention. Dorothea Dix advocated prison and asylum reform. Harriet Tubman helped other slaves escape to the North. Robert Owen founded New Harmony.

68. A. The Republican party stuck with the Nixon-Agnew ticket in 1972. The president had little difficulty winning the primaries. His conservative “Southern strategy,” emphasizing his opposition to busing, enabled him to win votes in the solidly Democratic South. Nixon’s reelection campaign benefited from lingering divisions within the Democratic party. Nixon won every state except Massachusetts.

69. D. Severe drought contributed to widespread erosion on the Great Plains. Windstorms stripped away the rich topsoil, leaving many hard-pressed farmers few options but to move off their land. This ecological distress spawned new' cultivation and conservation efforts during the New Deal.

70. E. The War of 1812 revealed an array of problems that Republican administrations strove to address. Circulation of state bank notes and fluctuating currency values led Congress to charter the second Bank of the United States. Merchants and manufacturers grew alarmed as Great Britain began to flood American marts with cheap industrial goods. They pleaded with Congress to raise tariffs to protect domestic industries and commerce.

71. B. The sale of public lands had diminished by the early twentieth century. Woodrow Wilson used passage of the national income tax as a springboard for tariff reform. Progressives had long demanded reduction of tariffs, which seemed to enrich only the industrialists. Wilson signed the Underwood Tariff, since the federal government gained a new source of income with the Sixteenth Amendment. The government continued to rely upon loans and war bonds.

72. D. The “Black Codes” passed in the postwar era resembled the antebellum state laws that restricted the freedoms of African slaves. The Ku Klux Klan menaced African-American who challenged the old order during and after Reconstruction. Southern states enacted literacy tests and “grandfather clauses” in order to limit black suffrage. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) legalized segregation.

73. C. The Strategic Defense Initiative escalated Cold War tensions during the Reagan administration. The Soviets argued that it undermined arms control agreements. In the United States and Europe, a “nuclear freeze” movement urged the superpowers to halt the construction of nuclear weapons.

74. A. Sinclair Lewis mocked the material aspirations of society in the 1920s. Tarbell and London were turn-of-the-century muckrakers. Steinbeck’s work addressed the social dislocations of the Great Depression. A prominent advertising executive, Barton published The Man Nobody Knows (1925), which portrayed Jesus as a salesman.

75. B. Great Britain prospered when goods flowed freely between the colonics and the mother country. The seven tee nth-century Navigation Acts attempted to ensure that all colonial trade went to Great Britain. The Woolen Act (1699), Hat Act (1732), and Iron Act (1750) discourage domestic manufacturing so that colonists would purchase British goods.

76. B. Roosevelt attempted to improve relations with Latin American nations by rejecting the policy of sending American troops to resolve internal problems. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress also aimed to improve relations by offering economic aid to Latin American nations. The Eisenhower Doctrine offered economic and military aid to Middle Eastern nations. Eisenhower sent troops to restore order in Lebanon. During the 1960s, the Mann Doctrine led to American military intervention to support a right-wing regime in the Dominican Republic.

77. A. The disaster at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company heightened public awareness of industrial abuses. Triangle employed mostly women workers. Many perished in the blaze or leapt to their deaths trying to avoid the flames. Investigations revealed that locked exits and the collapse of the main fire escape trapped the women inside.

78. E. The rapid increase in California’s population escalated sectional tensions. Southerners in Congress agreed to admit California as a free state and ban the slave trade in Washington, DC as long as Congress imposed no direct ban on slavery in the Mexican Cession. Furthermore, they required the passage of a stricter fugitive slave law. The compromise resolved the boundary dispute between Texas and New Mexico but did not provide funding for railroad construction.

79. B. The Supreme Court overturned a state maximum-hours law in Lochner v. New York, However, the Court supported antitrust legislation by ordering the dissolution of monopolies in the other four decisions.

80. C. Thomas Nast published cartoons in many of the leading journals of the nineteenth century. He criticized Andrew Johnson and the treatment of African-Americans during Reconstruction. No individual figure incurred Nast’s wrath more than Tammany Hall boss William M. Tweed. Nast continually addressed corruption in New York City during the Tweed years.

Summary Response to the Document-Based Question

1. Students might begin the essay with a brief discussion of the Treaty of Paris (1898) and its impact upon Cuba. American military occupation under General Leonard Wood followed ratification of the treaty. Wood oversaw the construction of infrastructure, revamped Cuba’s political administration, and pioneered health reforms. However, the United States violated the Teller Amendment by not affording Cuba complete independence. Congress retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and curbed Cuban autonomy in the Platt Amendment (Document A). Students may note that the United States sent troops into Cuba in 1906 and 1912 to quell rebellions and maintained a naval base at Guantanamo. Students may also refer to “dollar diplomacy” by discussing how American corporations came to dominate the oil, railroad, and, most importantly, sugar industries. Some might compare American involvement in Cuba to a different policy towards Puerto Rico (Foraker Act of 1900, Jones Act of 1917). Students should identify the policies of Theodore Roosevelt, William H. Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. They should examine how the Venezuela crisis (1902) precipitated the announcement of the “Roosevelt Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine (Document D). Students will apply their knowledge of this policy to American intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1905. Some might note that U.S. control of Dominican customs undermined the nation’s independence. Students might speculate on the results of involvement in the internal affairs of nations. A discussion of American interests in constructing an isthmian canal should include Secretary of State John Hay and overtures to Colombia. Students may discuss Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the USS Nashville, and Panamanian Revolution. Students will note how Panama reacted to the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (Document B). Students may interpret Document C as an allegation that the United States orchestrated the Panamanian Revolution. Others might argue that the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty enabled the United States to direct Panamanian affairs. An examination of “dollar diplomacy” under Taft (Document F) may touch upon his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox. Students will note how the growing influence of American mining companies in Nicaragua resulted in military intervention in 1909. Others might note that American banks financed and owned Nicaragua railroads. American troops returned in 1912 to help maintain the government of Adolfo Diaz. Students might state that Document E reflects the belief that the United States used its military to open or preserve economic opportunities. Some might point to future problems with the Sandinistas or Contras. Students may use Document G to indicate that American imperialism did not enjoy universal support in the United States. Students could observe how the United States continued its involvement in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua (Bryan-Chamorro Treaty, 1914) under Wilson. They may also touch upon how intervention in Haiti in 1915 paralleled involvement with its neighbor. Most students will discuss Wilson’s relationship with Mexico. Some might begin with the transfer of power from Porfirio Diaz to Francisco Madero to General Victoriano Huerta and Wilson’s refusal to recognize the Huerta regime. Students might observe that American businesses wanted to promote stability in Mexico in order to establish favorable trade (Document H). Students should examine the instability related to conflicts between Huerta and Venustiano Carranza. Students should discuss the effects of the Tampico affair (Document I) and seizure of Veracruz. Students should also refer to the tenuous relationship between ’Wilson and Carranza and the issue of recognition. Some may touch upon Pancho Villa and raids in the American Southwest that caused Wilson to send General John Pershing and an expeditionary force across the border. Students will note that the United States and Mexico approached war and should speculate about the long-term effects of American policy.

Summary Responses to the Standard Free-Response Questions

2. Students might observe that immigration into the Louisiana Territory raised the issue of the expansion of slavery. When Missouri applied for statehood, New York Representative James Tallmadge Jr. proposed an amendment that banned the future importation of slaves into the state and provided for the gradual emancipation of existing bondsmen. The Tallmadge amendment touched off a rancorous sectional debate. Students may comment that this debate revolved around moral issues, political power, or which economic system (slave versus free labor) would predominate. Maine’s application for statehood complicated the questions over Missouri. Students may touch upon leading political figures: Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Jesse B. Thomas. The Compromise of 1820 admitted Missouri as a slave state, Maine as a free state, and banned slavery north of the 36 30c line. Students might argue that the Missouri Compromise resolved the immediate debate but revealed potential divisions. Domestic tensions over the tariff issue began during Andrew Jackson’s first administration. South Carolinians blamed their economic distress on the “tariff of abominations” (tariff of 1828). Some asserted that secession would provide relief from the despised legislation. John C. Calhoun, Democratic vice presidential candidate, hoped to avert secession by asserting the theory of nullification in his anonymously published South Carolina Exposition and Protest. He believed a strong statement would induce the federal government to reduce tariff rates. Some students might touch upon the Webster-Hayne debate or Jackson’s Jefferson Day dinner speech as evidence of the rift between nationalists and states’ rights advocates. The Tariff of 1832 did little to reduce tariff rates or the frustrations of South Carolinians. The South Carolina legislature passed an “ordinance of nullification” and ordered state officials not to enforce the tariff law, Jackson called nullification treason in his Proclamation to the People of South Carolina and made military preparations to enforce the law. Congress approved a “force bill” empowering Jackson to use the military to achieve compliance. Passage of the Compromise of 1833, which gradually lowered tariff rates, avoided armed conflict between South Carolina and the federal government. Students might discuss the issue of states’ rights versus national supremacy. Electoral irregularities during the election of 1876 raised sectional tensions. Democrat Samuel Tilden held a slight edge in the popular vote over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. However, electoral votes from Oregon, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida remained disputed between both parties. No constitutional provision offered a solution to the problem. Tensions ran high as newspapers and private citizens speculated about the renewal of civil war. Congress appointed a special election commission that awarded the election to Hayes. In exchange, Republicans promised to remove federal troops from the South and made other concessions. Students may observe that the crisis and compromise spelled an end to Reconstruction.

3. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) divided part of the Louisiana territory into two new territories and repealed the congressional ban on slavery above the Missouri Compromise line. Passage of the act sparked bitter sectional debate. Students might discuss the Sumner-Brooks affair to illustrate the rising passions. The Kansas-Nebraska destroyed the Whig party, which could not breach the divide between its antislavery and pro-slavery factions. Some Southern Whigs crossed party lines in support of the act. Others remained opposed to the legislation and ran against Democrats in local elections. The Whig party disintegrated as a national partisan unit. Students should discuss how Northern Whigs organized the sectional Republican party. The act caused some Northern Democrats to bolt the party. However, the Democratic party preserved a tenuous alliance between its Southern faction and some Northern constituents. Pennsylvania Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican John C. Fremont in 1856. Sectional strife over “bleeding Kansas,” the Dred Scott decision, and the Lecompton Constitution stemmed from the act and further unsettled the political atmosphere. Students should discuss how the Democratic party failed to contain sectional tensions during the election of 1860. The nomination of Stephen Douglas caused delegates from the Deep South to leave the national convention and nominate John C, Breckinridge, John Bell won the nomination of the Constitutional Union party, which drew significant support from former Southern Whigs. Students will observe how the division among the Democrats led to the election of Abraham Lincoln, who had opposed the Kansas- Nebraska Act.

4. Students should assess the factors leading to the Great Depression and broaden the discussion beyond the stock market crash. World War I and government policy led to an overproduction that depressed the farm economy early in the 1920s. Many farmers struggled to meet mortgage payments. Over the course of the decade, farmers stopped purchasing industrial goods. The industrial economy would also suffer from overproduction. Students might note how advertising and mass production fostered a consumer mania. Automobiles and construction were the leading industries. Those who could not afford items could purchase them through installment buying. Many people overextended their personal finances. A maldistribution of wealth also contributed to the Depression. Half of all Americans barely made subsistence wages, while 5 percent earned one-third of the nation’s income. The Supreme Court overturned minimum-wage legislation in Adkins v. Children's Hospital in 1923. Students should discuss the importance of money in circulation to maintain the nation’s economy. Government policies contributed to the Depression. Students should touch upon the three Republican presidents (Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover) and their administrations. High tariffs (Fordney-McCumber, Hawley- Smoot) led to retaliatory responses from foreign nations. Some students might discuss reparations policy, particularly in relation to Germany. Europe also began producing its own food at the end of the decade. Students should note that domestic production increased, while foreign markets were constricted, Coolidge (Revenue Act of 1926) and Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon cut taxes on the highest income brackets but not on middle incomes. Banks lowered interest rates, making loans easily available. Consumers and businesses took out loans. Businesses expanded their facilities, but laid off workers if the expansion did not turn a profit. As a result, consumers had less purchasing power by the end of the decade. Many banks kept little reserve as they made loans and speculated on the stock market. When private citizens, farmers, or businesses defaulted on loans, banks closed their doors. The growth of the stock market reflected the false prosperity of the greater economy. Students will observe how overspeculation, reckless investments, and the failure of some investment banks contributed to the stock market crash. Although a large percentage of the population did not invest on the stock market, numerous businesses and banks saw the bulk of their assets disappear. Factories closed; bank failures caused runs on banks. Over a half million people lost their homes. Unemployment rose to over 25 percent of the population.

5. Students might begin a discussion of the early Cold War by examining the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. Yalta seemed to provide for free elections in nations formerly occupied by the Nazis, Potsdam divided Germany into occupation zones with the intent of reuniting the nation at a later date. Some students might refer to George Kennan’s “long telegram” or X Article. Students should focus upon the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine as the foundation of containment policy. The Marshall Plan provided over $13 billion to rebuild European industries, combat inflation, and increase European production. Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands received the largest amount of American grants and loans, but several smaller nations also received aid. Most of those nations did not succumb to internal strife or ally with the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine had a $400 million budget to provide economic or military assistance to “nations facing armed aggression.” Greece received American assistance and suppressed a communist revolt. Turkey solidified its defenses along its border with the Soviet Union. Neither nation fell under Soviet influence during the Truman administration. Stalin perceived a threat to Soviet control of Eastern Europe when the Allies merged their occupation zones in 1948. He imposed a blockade around Berlin in June to force the city to join the Soviet zone. Truman authorized the Berlin Airlift (“Operation Vittlcs”) in order to provide the beleaguered with food and medical supplies. The Soviets lifted the blockade in May 1949. Some students might discuss the formation of NATO. Students might argue that Truman’s efforts at containment achieved more success in Europe than in Asia. A discussion of Asian containment policy should address the Chinese Civil War. Some students might refer to George Marshall's mission to China. Chiang Kai-shek was unable to stop the peasants’ revolt led by Mao Tse-tung. Chiang fled to Formosa (Taiwan); the Truman administration recognized his government as the legitimate Chinese government. Truman refused to recognize Mao's government. NSC-68 followed Truman's call for a reevaluation of American foreign policy. Truman responded to the North Korean invasion and resolution by the U.N. Security Council by sending American forces under General Douglas Mac Arthur. Students might discuss the restrictions of “limited warfare” but that American forces kept South Korea from falling under the control of the communist North.