ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXAM 2

Answers to the Multiple-Choice Questions

1. B	21. В	41. С	61. А
2. Е	22. D	42. В	62. D
3. В	23. А	43. D	63. В
4. D	24. С	44. Е	64. A
5. С	25. D	45. А	65. Е
6. D	26. С	46. В	66. С
7. A	27. Е	47. D	67. С
8. Е	28. В	48. Е	68. В
9. С	29. Е	49. А	69. А
10. B	30. В	50. С	70. Е
11. A	31. А	51. А	71. В
12. D	32. А	52. D	72. D
13. С	33. D	53. Е	73. Е
14. Е	34. Е	54. D	74. D
15. В	35. С	55. С	75. А
16. А	36. С	56. В	76. С
17. D	37. А	57. В	77. D
18. А	38. Е	58. А	78. В
19. C	39. D	59. С	79. Е
20. Е	40. В	60. Е	80. С

Explanations of Answers to the Multiple-Choice Questions

1. B. During the 1968 campaign, both Nixon and Wallace emerged as spokesmen for conservatives, Wallace railed against protestors and civil unrest, Nixon appealed to “Middle America” and the “silent majority” that wanted stability and the enforcement of laws. Only Nixon had political experience at the federal level. Wallace’s running mate, General Curtis LeMay of Ohio, stated the way to end the Vietnam War was to “bomb them back to the Stone Age.” On the other hand, Nixon called for “peace with honor” and alluded to a plan to end the war. Nixon’s vice presidential candidate, Spiro Agnew, previously served as Governor of Maryland.

2. E. Only Rhode Island did not establish an official church nor tax residents for its maintenance, Roger Williams, a young Separatist minister, argued that the church and state should be separated completely, As a result, the Massachusetts colonial government exiled him. Williams received a parliamentary charter to establish a new colonial government. He founded Rhode Island as a haven where people of all faiths could practice their religions without interference from the colonial government.

3. В. The Kansas-Nebraska Act set off a firestorm of protest in the Midwest and East. The act repealed the prohibition on the expansion of slavery established by the Missouri Compromise. The Wilmot Proviso had attempted to limit the expansion of slavery into territories acquired from Mexico. The Dred Scott decision was not rendered until 1857.

4. D. Cortes began his conquest of the Aztec empire in 1519. By 1521, he controlled most of the Aztec territory, Cortes and his men set the pattern of relations with natives followed by future conquistadores. Father Junipero Serra established the first Franciscan mission in California. Samuel de Champlain explored the Great Lakes region. The Spanish had no contact with the Iroquois confederation.

5. C. The Second Bank of the United States had been chartered in 1816. Although the charter would not elapse until 1 836, the National Republicans, led by Henry Clay, attempted to make the bank a major issue in the 1832 campaign. Andrew Jackson, at the height of his popularity, defeated Clay. He saw this victory as a public mandate to destroy the bank. Jackson instructed his Treasury Secretary, Roger B. Taney, to pay federal expenses from the Bank of United States coffers and place all new deposits in selected state banks.

6. D. In March 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. helped organize a protest in Selma to call national attention to a voting system that denied African-Americans equal access. Local police and state troopers attacked the marchers on the Edmund Pettus Bridge. National outrage spurred the passage of Civil Rights Act of 1965, popularly known as the Voting Rights Act, by Lyndon Johnson.

7. A. By 1775, Massachusetts was a hotbed of colonial discontent. General Thomas Gage commanded the British troops in Boston. Gage marched west to seize weapons amassed by Massachusetts “minutemen” and, if possible, arrest the outspoken Samuel Adams and John Hancock.

8. E. Chiang Kai-shek led the Nationalists against Mao’s Communists in China. Kim Il-Sung was a communist leader in North Korea. The United States supported Ngo Dinh Diem in Vietnam until 1963. Shah Reza Pahlevi, a pro-Western dictator, remained in power in Iran until 1978.

9. C. Western states received a disproportionate number of federal contracts during World War II. Several roads, power plants, and munitions factories were constructed in the West. The aircraft industry flourished through federal patronage. Furthermore, most of the ships launched to fight Japan disembarked from western ports.

10. B. Early opponents of slavery attempted to eliminate slaves from Southern society. The American Colonization Society, organized by a group of wealthy white Virginians, proposed a plan to compensate masters who volunteered to emancipate their slaves. The ACS would then transport the former slaves to Africa. Congress, private donors, and a few state legislatures donated money to the Society. Slaves liberated by the ACS founded Liberia on the western coast of Africa in the 1830s.

11. A. After the Venezuelan crisis (1902), Roosevelt sought to ensure against European involvement in Latin American affairs. The Dominican Republic accumulated over $20 million in debt to several European nations. When those nations threatened action to recover their investments, Roosevelt proclaimed that the United States retained the right to intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American nations. Under pressure from Roosevelt, the Dominican government allowed the United States to assume control of the collection of customs. American supervision of Dominican finances lasted almost 30 years.

12. D. Richard Nixon sought to normalize relations with both communist China and the Soviet Union. He visited China in February 1972. American and Soviet diplomats completed talks on the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) during his administration. Nixon traveled to the Soviet Union in May 1972; Leonid Brezhnev visited the United States the following year.

13. P. William Marbury sued James Madison to induce the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus. The Judiciary Act of 1789 granted the Court the power to issue these writs, which served as court orders. Marshall declared that part of the Judiciary Act was void, since it exceeded the powers granted to the Court under Article III of the Constitution. Thus, Marshall established the principle of “judicial review.” Marshall ruled against the confiscation of Tory estates in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) and protected the sanctity of contracts in Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819).

14. E. African-American artists and authors sparked the cultural movement known as the Harlem Renaissance. Langston Hughes published the poem “I, too” in 1925. Maya Angelou and Richard Wright were African-American authors associated with later time periods. Allen Ginsberg was a Beat poet of the 1950s.

15. B. Various theories explain the introduction of the horse to the tribes of the Great Plains. Some historians believe that Europeans provided the first horses. Others assert that different tribes traded horses to the region’s Indians. By the mid-eighteenth century, the horse had become a permanent fixture of the Great Plains. Domesticated horses allowed some tribes to pursue buffalo herds. However, the local tribes rarely traveled as far as the Pacific Northwest.

16. A. Economist John Maynard Keynes published The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936. Eisenhower cut federal expenditures while restricting credit and raising interest rates. These policies caused a business slump. Eisenhower subsequently adopted a more flexible fiscal policy that allowed for easier credit and deficits. Although initially resistant to an unbalanced budget and deficit spending, Kennedy became a more committed Keynesian than Eisenhower. He occasionally combined tax cuts with federal spending to stimulate growth. Keynesian economics did not propose direct involvement in the affairs of private companies.

17. D. Antisuffragists asserted that women’s suffrage would invert gender roles. They argued women would abandon the role of caretaker while pursuing involvement in politics. Men would then be forced into a more domestic position. Some opponents linked women’s suffrage to contemporary nativism. They asserted that extending the vote to women would swell the ranks of immigrant voters. However, men also supported the temperance and education reform movements and would not want to diminish the number of potential supporters.

18. A. Medicare offered relief to elderly Americans in the form of federal aid for medical expenses. President Ronald Reagan signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981) to lower corporate and individual income tax rates and the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act (1985) to reduce the federal budget.

19. C. Thoreau, Cooper, and Longfellow were antebellum authors who made nature a central theme in their works. Cooper first introduced “Natty Bumppo” in Pioneers (1823). Bumppo played a central role in ensuing Cooper novels, representing the archetype of American individualism. Turner formulated his “frontier thesis” at the end of the nineteenth century. Weld wrote abolitionist tracts,

20. E. Rolfe began to experiment with a local breed of tobacco in Virginia in 1612, He quickly produced sellable crops and found a ready market in Great Britain. As Virginia planters sought more land to cultivate tobacco, they inevitably clashed with the local tribes. However, the Iroquois resided further north. Peter Hasenclever founded a successful ironworks in New Jersey in the mid-eighteenth century.

21. B. Two white women accused nine black youths of rape in 1931. Little evidence indicated that the women had been assaulted. Nevertheless, an all-white jury convicted the nine young men and sentenced eight to death. Although the Supreme Court overturned the convictions in 1932, five would serve jail terms. The Sacco-Vanzetti trial revealed the nativism associated with the 1920s.

22. D. Tense relations with the Soviet Union seemed to be improving by the end of the 1950s. Nikita Khrushchev visited the United States in 1959, Eisenhower and the Soviet premier planned a summit conference in Paris for the following year. The president intended to visit Moscow. On May 1, 1960, the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane. The Eisenhower administration attempted to cover up the plane’s mission until the Soviets produced the pilot and wreckage of the plane. Khrushchev rescinded Eisenhower’s invitation and withdrew from the summit meeting. The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred two years later. Both the Berlin airlift and Suez Crisis took place before 1957.

23. A. British scientists noted that intentional exposure to mild cases of smallpox immunized people against contracting the disease. After an outbreak of smallpox struck Boston in 1720, Puritan theologian Cotton Mather encouraged the city’s residents to be inoculated. Many residents resisted the practice initially. Nevertheless, theologians and physicians continued to urge the procedure. Inoculations became a standard medical practice by 1750. The steam engine was developed in the early nineteenth century. Commercial fertilizers came into common use in the late 1800s. Antibiotics emerged in 1928. Scientists and physicians attacked pellagra after World War I.

24. C. During his debates with Lincoln in the Illinois senate race, Stephen A. Douglas enunciated the Freeport Doctrine. Douglas hoped to defuse potential national strife by trying to reconcile “popular sovereignty” with the Kansas-Nebraska Act. He asserted that slavery could not survive in a territory where residents passed “unfriendly legislation.” Douglas’s failure to endorse the Kansas-Nebraska Act unequivocally cost him Southern votes in 1860.

25. D. Overspeculation in western land sales only affected the Panic of 1837. A standardized currency had been used for many decades before the onset of the Great Depression. Overspeculation on the stock market contributed to the Great Depression but not the Panic of 1837. However, banking problems contributed to both economic crises. “Runs on banks” resulted in lost savings and the stagnation of industrial and agricultural development.

26. C. Although the British army suffered significant casualties at Bunker Hill, the Americans eventually retreated. The victory at Trenton did not convince France that the rebels could sustain a protracted war with Great Britain. Washington’s army had been severely defeated in a series of battles in New York during the previous summer and fall. However, Horatio Gates defeated the depleted forces of General Johnny Burgoyne at Saratoga in October 1777. Over 5000 British soldiers surrendered to the Continental Army. American diplomats used the victory as a springboard to hasten a treaty of alliance in 1778.

27. E. Many people feared the return of Depression-level unemployment at the end of World War II. The demobilization of hundreds of thousands of soldiers, the immediate end of wartime production, and significant cuts in federal spending portended dire economic consequences. However, pent-up consumer demand, kept in check by wartime rationing and price controls, provided the economic boost to forestall depression. Inflation soon became a greater concern than depression or unemployment. Labor strife escalated after the war, including major strikes in the mining and railroad industries. After Republican victories in the elections of 1946, Congress moved to cut spending for aid to education, Social Security increases, and conservation projects in the West.

28. B. In the election of 1800, both Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr received 73 electoral votes. Congress broke the deadlock by choosing Jefferson on the 36 ballot. Popular votes were not yet tallied in presidential races. The election of 1796 produced a Federalist president (John Adams) and Republican vice president (Jefferson). In 1840, William Henry Harrison was elected the first Whig president.

29. E. In the antebellum period, debtors, the mentally ill, and criminals were often lumped together in prisons. After witnessing these conditions, Dorothea Dix led a nationwide campaign to give the mentally ill better treatment. Mott and Stanton were women’s rights advocates who organized the Seneca Falls Convention. Beecher and Dow urged temperance,

30. B. Progressives had long been calling for a graduated income tax to equalize the tax burden. The Sixteenth Amendment empowered Congress to levy an income tax. The Seventeenth Amendment changed the process of electing senators. Popular election replaced election by the state legislatures.

31. A. The most significant slave uprising of the eighteenth century occurred in South Carolina in 1739. Several slaves met near the Stono River, seized weapons, and attacked local whites before fleeing toward Spanish Florida. Nearly 100 slaves joined the revolt. White planters on horseback caught up with the rebels, and a brief gun battle ensued. Approximately 30 slaves died; most of those captured were executed for their participation. In 1677, Carolinians led by John Culpeper resisted the collection of customs by local proprietors, Jacob Leisler raised a militia to unseat an unpopular New York governor in 1689. In 1783, Continental officers stationed near Newburgh, New York, threatened to mutiny if Congress did not issue back pay and fund pensions. Only George Washington’s intercession avoided a crisis. The Dorr Rebellion reflected tensions over the issue of the expansion of voting rights in Rhode Island in 1842.

32. A. In response to labor stridency, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. The law prohibited the “closed shop,” which kept nonunion workers out of certain factories. It also allowed state legislatures to pass “right-to-work” laws, which further undermined the power of organized labor. The McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) was intended to limit the activities of communist organizations. President Truman’s Executive Order 983.5 established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program. His Executive Order 9981 began the integration of the armed services.

33. D. Jackson’s Indian policy forced tribes in the South to move west along the “Trail of Tears,” Under duress, some Seminoles agreed to move to the Indian territory. However, Osceola led a band of his tribe against white troops. The Seminole War continued after Osceola’s capture in 1837. The federal government halted its pursuit of the Seminoles in 1842. Pontiac fought white expansion into the Great Lakes region in 1763. Black Hawk led an uprising of Sauk and Fox against white settlers in Illinois in 1832. Sequoyah established an alphabet for the Cherokee.

34. E. In February 1917, British intelligence agents intercepted a telegram from German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann. The note instructed a German envoy to offer the Mexicans the opportunity to regain territory lost to the United States if Mexico allied with Germany against the Americans. The Zimmermann telegram outraged an American public already incensed by the resumption of unrestricted U-boat warfare. The de Lome note angered Americans in 1898 by insulting President McKinley and heightened the war fever against Spain.

35. C. The French and Indian War vastly expanded the British empire. American colonists sought to expand into the territory acquired from France. Concerned with the financial burdens of protecting new lands, British officials sought to minimize administrative and defensive costs. American expansion required protection against Indian attacks along the frontier. As a result. Parliament issued the Proclamation of 1763, which forbade colonial migration across the Appalachian Mountains. It had limited effects as colonists streamed across the mountains to establish new settlements.

36. C. Both J. D. Salinger (The Catcher in the Rye) and Ralph Ellison (Invisible Man) created characters alienated from the strict conformity of their era, Dreiser, London, Jackson, and Wells-Barnett wrote during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, McKay and Cullen penned works associated with the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. Dos Passos and Steinbeck described American society during the Great Depression,

37. A. The Populist party emerged from various farmers’ organizations of the late nineteenth century. Most farmers bristled at the high rates charged for transportation of crops by the railroad companies. Others urged the monetization of silver to expand the currency and alleviate debts. In the late 1890s, they emerged as a political force to challenge the Republican and Democratic parties. Populists elected some state officials and representatives to Congress. However, they failed to attract significant support from the labor unions.

38. E. In late 1861, Charles Wilkes, commander of the USS San Jacinto, stopped the British vessel Trent off the coast of Cuba. Wilkes seized two Confederate diplomats, John Slidell and James M. Mason, and sailed to Boston, President Lincoln realized Wilkes had violated international maritime law. The British government irately demanded the release of the prisoners, payment of reparations, and a public apology. Lincoln averted a crisis by releasing Slidell and Mason with a vague apology.

39. D. Thirty-nine delegates signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787, Supporters of ratification called themselves “Federalists” and set out to win public approval. Opponents of centralization (“Anti- federalists”) also attempted to marshal support. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote a series of essays known as The Federalist Papers. These documents extolled the virtues of a constitutional government.

40. B. The Liberty party fed off the rising tide of antislavery sentiment in the 1830s. Few opponents of slavery advocated immediate abolition. Most favored halting the expansion of the institution into new territories. In April 1840, delegates met in Albany, New York, and nominated Kentuckian James G. Birney for president. Birney believed the party could raise public awareness of the antislavery cause. Although he won only 7000 votes in 1840, Birney polled over 60,000 four years later. Some members of the Liberty party joined the Free-Soil party in 1848.

41. C. The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers organized workers in Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead steel plant near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Henry Frick, manager of the Homestead Plant, announced a scries of wage cuts beginning in 1890. In 1892, the Amalgamated Association went on strike. Frick closed the plant and hired 300 Pinkerton guards to break the strike. The arrival of the Pinkertons sparked a violent response from the strikers. Steel workers fought and defeated the guards. Three Pinkertons and 10 strikers died in the melee. Governor Robert E. Pattison sent over 8000 National Guardsmen to quell the strike. Production resumed at Homestead as troops protected replacement workers.

42. B. The Eisenhower Doctrine aimed at restricting the communist influence in the Middle East, Some policymakers perceived pan-Arab nationalism as equally threatening. General Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt led the pan-Arab movement. In 1958, forces linked to Nasser threatened to topple the government in Lebanon. Eisenhower responded by dispatching 5000 marines to support the Lebanese government.

43. D. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the federal and state governments from denying freedmen the right to vote. A number of Northern states refused to ratify the amendment. It passed only as a condition of readmission for Southern states. However, the amendment did not apply to women of any race. Reconstruction governments consistently resisted calls for the redistribution of the lands of former slave masters.

44. E. Progressives urged a reduction of tariff rates. Taft called a special session of Congress to consider their appeal. However, the president provided little support as conservatives diluted the tariff bill. Passage of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff damaged the president’s standing with the reform wing of the Republican party, Taft further alienated reformers by not opposing “Old Guard” Speaker of the House Joe Cannon who had been frustrating progressive legislation. In 1912, many progressive Republicans bolted the party to support the candidacy of Theodore Roosevelt.

45. A. The Civilian Conservation Corps hired young men between the ages of 18 and 25 to work in national parks and forests. CCC workers planted trees and constructed irrigation projects. Although the young men wore uniforms and lived in barracks, they were not drafted into the army. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) financed various artistic projects. The Federal Emergency Relief Agency (FERA) supported local relief agencies with cash grants.

46. B. Railroad construction expanded rapidly in the antebellum period. The vast majority of lines linked western agricultural states with industrial centers in the East. The federal government promoted track construction by offering land grants to railroad companies. Differing track gauges inhibited the construction of a national railway system.

47. D. The Union defeat at First Manassas occurred in 1861. Lincoln suspended habeas corpus in Maryland early in the war. Lincoln’s passage of a draft law caused widespread opposition. Immigrants and factory workers objected most strenuously to conscription. Many feared that free blacks would take their jobs. The Conscription Act seemed to confirm their belief that the war was being fought for the benefit of African-Americans. In New York City in July 1863, demonstrations against the draft became violent. Demonstrators attacked free blacks and burned African-American homes and businesses.

48. E. Monroe did not run for president in 1824. The election involved four candidates: John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, William Crawford, and Henry Clay. No candidate polled an electoral majority. Jackson received the most votes of any single candidate (99). Adams followed with 84. Popular votes were not yet tallied in every state. The Constitution required the House of Representatives to decide elections that did not yield an electoral majority. Clay had received the fewest electoral votes (37). Nevertheless, as Speaker of the House, he wielded significant influence. Clay cast his lot with Adams, who won the vote in the House. When Adams subsequently named Clay his Secretary of State, a position often leading to the White House, Jackson’s supporters became convinced that the two men had conspired to deny their candidate the election. Accusations of a “corrupt bargain” would haunt the Adams administration.

49. A. King Philip (Metacomet) led the Wampanoag tribe against white settlers in Massachusetts. Well-organized and armed with guns, King Philip and the Wampanoag raided over 20 towns along the colony’s frontier. The British settlers joined forces with the Mohawks, longtime rivals of King Philip’s tribe. The war ended when Mohawks ambushed and killed the Wampanoag chieftain.

50. C. Unlike its nineteenth-century antecedent, the Ku Klux Klan expanded its activities across the nation in the 1920s. The Klan continued to terrorize African-Americans. The new Klan also responded to changes in the twentieth century. Its members, frequently from rural areas, supported Prohibition because they associated alcohol with the evils of city of life. In the same vein, they advocated immigration restriction in response to the influx of Southern and Eastern Europeans in the preceding decades.

51. A. Ronald Reagan’s 1980 campaign promised to alleviate the economic problems caused by the stagnation of the 1970s. Reagan believed that high taxes limited the amount of capital that could be used to expand the economy. “Supply-side” economics, commonly called Reaganomics, proposed to cut taxation on corporations and the wealthy who, in turn, would stimulate growth by investing in the economy. Tax cuts also implied a significant reduction in federal spending.

52. D. The New Deal strengthened labor unions through favorable legislation such as the Wagner and Fair Labor Standards Acts. After World War II, Congress moved to limit union power in the Taft- Hartley Act. The federal investigations of the Teamsters and United Mine Workers unions revealed corruption and other scandals. Nevertheless, the labor movement achieved some successes. The AFL and CIO merged in 1955. Some unions, particularly the steelworkers, bargained for higher wages. However, the CIO’s efforts to organize Southern mass-production workers yielded minimal results.

53. E. Mahan asserted that a nation’s wealth and influence stemmed from sea power. Industrialization enabled American factories to construct large, steel ships. The development of steam engines required coaling stations if fleets were to reach distant lands. Mahan, Theodore Roosevelt, and Henry Cabot Lodge advocated a “large policy” in which the United States would become more involved in world affairs. Mahan publicized his views in a number of popular journals, which contributed to public support of imperialistic ventures.

54. D. President James K. Polk sent ambassador John Slidell to Mexico City to negotiate a new border at the Rio Grande River, as well as to purchase New Mexico and California. However, many Mexican nationalists continued to resent the American response to the Texas revolution. The Mexican government rejected Slidell’s offer. Incensed at the Mexican response to Slidell, the Polk administration seized on an incident between Mexican troops and forces under General Zachary Taylor as a pretext for a declaration of war. The Gaspee Incident occurred in 1772 when colonists raided a British merchant ship. The Olive Branch Petition (1775) sought to avert war with Great Britain. The Cherokee ceded millions of acres of land to the federal government in the Treaty of New Echota (1835). The Ostend Manifesto (1854) implied that the United States may use force if Spain refused to sell Cuba.

55. C. King Charles II granted Penn a vast proprietary colony in North America. Penn promoted the sale of land in his colony by advertising throughout Europe. Pennsylvania attracted settlers from a variety of nations. A Quaker, Penn did not seek to establish any official religion. Settlers practiced several faiths without interference from the colonial assembly. Church leaders in Massachusetts expelled Roger Williams for insisting on separation of church and state. Williams founded Rhode Island, which also extended a significant degree of religious freedom.

56. B. African-Americans that could vote generally cast ballots for Republican candidates, having joined the Republican party during Reconstruction. Beginning with the New Deal, African-Americans increasingly supported Democratic candidates. Richard Nixon made inroads into the Southern electorate in 1968. He would carry the former '‘Solid South” in 1972.

57. B. The Union Pacific Railroad Company hired Credit Mobilier, a construction company, to build its transcontinental route. Some members of Credit Mobilier served on the board of directors of Union Pacific. They subsequently used their positions to shift sizable contracts to the construction company. In the process, they defrauded Union Pacific and the federal government, which had been subsidizing the railroad construction, of millions of dollars. To impede a federal investigation, the directors of Credit Mobilier bribed congressmen and Vice President Schuyler Colfax with stock.

58. A. In 1941, A. Philip Randolph, head of the railroad porters' union, began pressuring President Roosevelt to integrate the workforces of companies receiving federal defense contracts. When Randolph planned a massive demonstration for integration in Washington, DC, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC). The committee was empowered to examine the treatment of African- Americans in war industries.

59. C. A religious revival among the several tribes swept across the Great Plains before 1890. Participants practiced the “Ghost Dance,” which they believed foretold the return of the buffalo and exodus of whites. White reservation agents worried that the widespread practice of the “Ghost Dance” indicated an impending rebellion. During an attempt to arrest Sitting Bull, soldiers killed the Sioux chief. In December 1890, a regiment of cavalry attempted to disperse a group of Sioux at Wounded Knee. When fighting ensued, nearly 200 Indians and 40 soldiers died. Wounded Knee represented the end of resistance by the tribes of the Great Plains.

60. E. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) acted as a loose bargaining agent for Third World nations that sold oil. During the Yom Kippur War (1973), Arab members of OPEC announced a boycott of oil to those nations that supported Israel. The United States and some Western European nations had recognized and aided Israel since its founding in 1948. OPEC also raised oil prices by 400 percent. A massive fuel shortage struck the United States and contributed to skyrocketing inflation in the 1970s.

61. A. Scottish industrialist Robert Owen founded a utopian community at New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825. Owen argued against harsh factory conditions and sought to create a community based on socialistic principles. Although New Harmony failed as an economic unit, it inspired others to try to form communities free from the abuses of competitive, capitalistic society. The Lowell mills employed a predominantly female workforce early in the antebellum period. Lowell attempted to create a moral atmosphere and required workers to live in supervised dormitories.

62. D. By the end of the Civil War, Lincoln sought to readmit former Confederate states to the Union rapidly. His plan offered amnesty to all Southerners, except high Confederate officials, that swore allegiance to the Union and agreed to abolish slavery. When 10 percent of the 1860 electorate affirmed their allegiance, voters could establish a state government within the Union. Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas reestablished state governments before Lincoln’s assassination.

63. B. The Tea Act of 1773 exempted the British East India Company from taxes imposed on other colonial merchants. This act gave the company a virtual monopoly of the tea trade and threatened a number of colonial businesses. Furthermore, many colonists perceived the act as another example of taxation without representation. As a result, colonists boycotted British goods. In December 1773, Bostonians disguised as Indians boarded British ships and dumped the tea into the harbor. In response, Parliament enacted the Coercive Acts, which included closing the port of Boston until the colonists repaid the company for the costs of the tea.

64. A. Sanger pioneered the birth control movement of the 1920s. She published The Birth Control Review to disseminate information about contraception. It sold nearly 10,000 copies per issue in 1922. She founded the American Birth Control League and promoted contraception as a cure for urban poverty. Sanger established the first clinic for counseling the public on the advantages of contraception. By the end of the 1920s, she helped found over 800 birth control clinics.

65. E. President Ronald Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) to control illegal immigration into the United States, Johnson sponsored the other four measures. The Economic Opportunity Act created agencies such as the OEO to combat poverty. Medicaid extended federally sponsored medical insurance for impoverished Americans. The Appalachian Regional Development Act included a $1 billion budget for road construction and other projects in rural areas. The Higher Education Act expanded federal financial aid for college students.

66. C. After the signing of the Constitution in 1787, intense ratification battles in the states determined if a new government would be created. Henry and Monroe championed the antiratification forces in Virginia. They believed that the Constitution did not offer the people sufficient protection from the centralized power of the federal government. No provision of the Constitution specifically created a national bank. The debate over creation of a federal bank began after ratification.

67. C. The “Jim Crow” system emerged after Reconstruction. White Southerners attempted restrain black freedom after the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, Various state laws imposed segregation and limited black suffrage. The Supreme Court’s decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) validated the state legislation, which would not be lifted until the 1950s and 1960s.

68. B. Roosevelt was elected as William McKinley’s vice president in 1900. Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency after McKinley’s assassination in 1901. He won the election of 1904 but chose not to campaign in 1908, Roosevelt threw his support behind the candidacy of William Howard Taft. However, Taft departed from a number of Roosevelt’s reform policies, inducing the former president to seek the Republican nomination in 1912. The Republican convention, dominated by the conservative wing of the party, gave the nomination to Taft. Progressive Republicans joined Roosevelt in bolting the party. Roosevelt ran on the Progressive ('‘Bull Moose”) ticket in 1912. The split between conservative and liberal Republicans contributed to Democrat Woodrow Wilson’s election as president in 1912.

69. A. Hamilton designed a fiscal program to establish the new nation on a solid financial foundation. The Assumption Act addressed the outstanding debts accumulated by states fighting in the Revolutionary War. Some states had repaid most of their debts. Others, such as Massachusetts, still owed a significant amount of money. The Assumption Act empowered the federal government to tax all states to repay the remaining state debts. Although some objected to the new tax burdens, the federal government asserted its authority over the states. The new government would also pass a funding bill that would repay, at face value, all bonds held by creditors.

70. E. Senator Gerald P. Nye chaired a committee that examined American entry into World War I. The committee alleged that munitions companies made exorbitant profits during the war. Although the committee produced little proof, it convinced many Americans that bankers persuaded President Wilson to involve the United States in the European conflict. The Nye report fostered strong public support for isolationism prior to World War II.

71. B. The Treaty of Paris ended the Revolutionary War. Great Britain recognized the independence of the American states and surrendered the territory from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River. Jay’s Treaty (1794) attempted to improve commerce between Great Britain and the states. In the Treaty of New Echota, the Cherokee ceded millions of acres of land to the federal government. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican War. The Treaty of Tordesillas settled territorial claims between Spain and Portugal.

72. D. The federal government encouraged production of food products during World War I. Farmers enjoyed high prices and steady demand. However, production did not slow after the end of the war. New technology, such as mechanical tractors and fertilizers, enabled farmers to grow more crops. Overproduction depressed agricultural prices during the 1920s. The drought that created the “Dust Bowl” began in 1930.

73. E. A heated economic rivalry touched off a war between Japan and Russia in 1904. Japan believed the Russians menaced their interests in China and Korea. The Japanese navy inflicted serious damage upon the Russian fleet. Japan seized Korea and forced the Russian army to retreat into Manchuria. Roosevelt appealed to both powers to end the conflict. Although the peace treaty heavily favored Japan, Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize for ending the war.

74. D. Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. The act established 12 regional banks, owned and operated by local banks in the district. The regional banks held a percentage of the assets of member banks in reserve. Banks would issue federal reserve notes that served as the nation’s currency. A Federal Reserve system would regulate the banking system.

75. A. At the beginning of the Progressive era, Henry George published Progress and Poverty. His book blamed poverty on the vast amount of property owned by a few wealthy industrialists. Rising land values only enriched the few. As a result, George proposed a “single tax” in place of other forms of taxation. This tax would fall most heavily on industrialists and would redistribute the wealth more equitably. Single-tax associations were established in several cities. In 1886, George nearly won the race for mayor of New York City. Tarbell exposed the monopolistic practices of Standard Oil Company. Riis

published How the Other Half Lives based upon his photographs of urban poverty, Steffens attacked urban corruption in The Shame of the Cities.

76. C. The Emancipation Proclamation only affected those areas of the nation still in rebellion after January 1, 1863. It did not affect the border states. By issuing the proclamation, Lincoln shifted the Union’s war goals. The war would now restore the Union without slavery. Great Britain, which had abolished slavery, would not recognize the independence of the Confederacy and would not fight on its behalf. Opposition to the proclamation seemed to favor the Democrats in 1864. No large-scale rebellions followed the issuance of the proclamation,

77. D. The McNary-Haugen bill proposed to create parity prices for agricultural products. It required the federal government to purchase surplus crops and sell them abroad in an effort to raise domestic prices. Coolidge vetoed the bill because he believed the federal government did not have the authority to fix prices.

78. B. The American Revolution unleashed new forces that called into question the position of women in society. Emphasis on liberty and the rights of men naturally turned to discussions about women. Abigail Adams wrote a letter to her husband John to remind him “to remember the ladies” in the new laws written for the emerging republic. While Abigail Adams did not call for absolute equality, she did seek protection of the rights of women against abusive husbands.

79. E. Although the CIA began training Cuban exiles during the Eisenhower administration, Kennedy approved the plan to invade Cuba. The plan was intended to land a small force, with American air support, on Cuba and foment a popular revolt against Castro, However, the United States failed to provide aerial support. All of the exiles were either killed or captured by Castro’s army,

80. C. Few traditional sources of credit existed in the South after the Civil War, Black and white farmers relied upon local merchants for all of their needs, including seeds, tools, and household items. Short on cash, these farmers would mortgage their crops to the local merchants as collateral for necessary items. These liens established an inescapable cycle of debt for farmers who experienced a poor crop yield.

Summary Response to the Document-Based Question

1. Students should begin with a discussion of the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). The Interstate Commerce Act attempted to regulate railroad companies. It required railroads to submit their fare schedules with the federal government and publicize

their rates. The act created an Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to monitor the industry. The Sherman Act declared illegal all combinations “in restraint of free trade.” It empowered the Justice Department to bring suit and break up such monopolies. However, these acts would have to pass the scrutiny of the Supreme Court. Students might comment upon the composition of the Court during the period. They might explain how a conservative Court could thwart the efforts of reformers. Students should discuss the labor movement during the Progressive era. Several strikes occurred in this period, including the Great Railway Strike (1877), Haymarket Affair (1886), or the Homestead Strike (1892). Students must examine the Pullman Strike (1894), in which railroad workers and the American Railway Union, led by Eugene Debs, crippled traffic in several states and territories. Many governors sided with the railroad companies by employing state troops to disperse the strikers. One notable exception was John Peter Altgeld, governor of Illinois. Railroad operators in Chicago appealed to President Cleveland and Attorney-General Richard Olney to intercede on their behalf. The president ordered 2000 federal troops to break up the strike. The Supreme Court further solidified the position of the railroad corporations by applying the Sherman Antitrust Act against unions that threatened free trade (Document A). In E. C. Knight Company v. U.S., the Court further inhibited efforts to regulate corporations by putting manufacturing companies outside the purview of the Sherman Act (Document B). Thus, companies continued to form monopolies in various industries that fixed prices without competition. The Court undermined the Interstate Commerce Commission’s authority to determine fair railroad rates by applying the “due process’’ clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to corporations (Document D). Progressives seeking to limit the hours of labor met with mixed results. In Holden v. Hardy (1898) the Court affirmed the right of state legislatures to regulate maximum hours in the interests of workers’ health (Document C). Seven years later, the Court again reinterpreted the Fourteenth Amendment to cast aside a state law. The Lochner decision asserted that legislation not directly related to health concerns violated the rights of workers (Document E). However, reformers gained a partial victory in Muller v. Oregon (1908), which sustained the legislature’s authority to pass regulatory legislation to protect women’s health (Document F). Students might comment upon the double standard applied to men and women in the early twentieth century. Students might refer to the Elkins (1903) and Hepburn (1906) Acts, which intended to further the federal government’s ability to regulate railroads. Others might explain how presidential leadership advanced the cause of reform by briefly discussing Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, or Woodrow Wilson. Some students might touch upon how the Roosevelt administration implemented the Sherman Act in Northern Securities Company v. United States (1904) to set the stage for an examination of the decentralization of monopolies. The Court furthered its position by ordering the Standard Oil Company to break up its monopoly of the oil refining industry (Document G). Students may compare the decision with the Court’s response to Swift and American Tobacco. To conclude the essay, students might discuss how the Court endorsed the Adamson Act, which established an eight-hour day for interstate railway workers (Document H).

Summary Responses to the Standard Free-Response Questions

2. Students should begin their responses with a discussion of Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state and vice president. During the Washington administration, Jefferson opposed the nationalistic financial program of Alexander Hamilton. He argued that the Constitution did not expressly permit the creation of a federal bank. He opposed excise taxes and the increase in federal debt. Jefferson expanded his conservative approach to federal power when he penned the Kentucky Resolutions in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798). However, the exigencies of his two terms as president contributed to Jefferson’s departure from a strict interpretation of the Constitution. Students might begin by noting how Jefferson adhered to his perception of a limited government by cutting spending and abolition of internal taxes. Jefferson reduced the size of the armed forces. However, Jefferson would fight an undeclared war with the Barbary pirates from 1801 to 1805. When Jefferson refused to pay the pirates “tribute” money for use of the Mediterranean Sea, the raiders seized American ships and seized prisoners. Jefferson ordered the naval fleet to the region without a congressional declaration of war. He justified his actions under the principle that he was protecting American lives and ships. Students should also discuss the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson faced a constitutional dilemma; the Constitution did not directly permit the government to purchase land. Furthermore, the treaty seemed to abridge the naturalization powers of Congress. Nevertheless, Jefferson justified the acquisition of the Louisiana territory through his treaty-making powers. Some students might touch upon Jefferson’s involvement in the Burr conspiracy trial, his efforts to remove Federalist judges, or the Embargo Act (1807) as further evidence of his departure from a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

3. Students should begin by defining manifest destiny and discuss its racial, religious, and nationalistic overtones. Some students might mention John L. O’Sullivan, the Democratic newspaper editor who promoted expansionism. The theory rested upon the idea that the United States was destined by God to expand its boundaries for the purpose of extending the blessings of liberty. It implied the superiority of white civilization and government over the native tribes and Mexicans in the West. Nonwhites would be excluded from this rapidly expanding republic. Newspapers attracted public support for westward expansion. Americans moved westward during the early 1840s. Students should discuss migration to Oregon and the Pacific Coast. Missionaries and farmers encouraged settlement in the region in spite of conflicting British claims on the location of borders. Students should also discuss how Americans debated the annexation of Texas. Generally, Northerners and Whigs opposed annexation, as it seemed to favor the Democratic party and Southern states. As a result, manifest destiny significantly influenced the election of 1844. Whig candidate Henry Clay did not firmly endorse expansionism. Some students might mention his “Raleigh letter.” Democrat James K. Polk, a dark-horse candidate, won popular support by calling for “the re- occupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas.” Polk easily carried the election. Not long after his inauguration, Polk faced the possibility of war with both Great Britain and Mexico. The Polk administration began negotiations for the 49th parallel as the border between British and American territory. When the British rejected Polk's first offer, some Americans cried “54 40' or fight,” seeming to support war for all of the Oregon territory. Both nations averted armed conflict when the British government finally relented and agreed on the 49th parallel. However, manifest destiny did lead to war with Mexico. Students might begin by discussing how annexationists perceived Mexicans. Students should touch upon the causes of the war (Slidell mission, the “attack” upon Zachary Taylor’s troops south of the Nueces River). Some students may touch upon the “All Mexico” movement in their examination of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Students might conclude by linking manifest destiny to the explosive issue of the expansion of slavery.

4. To introduce the Social Security Act, students might begin by discussing Huey Long and Dr. Francis Townsend. Senator Long promoted the “Share Our Wealth” movement, which would address the needs of the indigent through confiscatory taxation on the wealthy. Under this plan, the federal government would be able to offer families a guaranteed annual wage. Townsend advocated providing federal pensions to the elderly. He believed that the pensions would allow older Americans to retire, thus opening jobs for the unemployed. While Congress endorsed neither plan, these proposals rallied support for the Social Security Act (1935). This act established a pension system for the elderly. Both employers and employees contributed to the pension fund. Although payments would not begin until 1940, recipients could receive up to $85 dollars per month. The act also implemented a program of unemployment insurance funded by contributions from employers. Recipients received temporary federal assistance if they were laid off from their jobs. Supporters perceived the act as a means for correcting the vagaries of a capitalist economy. The act was intended to provide a system of insurance rather than welfare. Workers who fell victim to periodic economic downturns now had a “safety net” to temper the blow of depressions. Nevertheless, the act also granted direct assistance to the needy, including the disabled and dependent children. In Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States (1935), the Supreme Court overturned the National Industrial Recovery Act. Section 7A of this act allowed workers to form unions and to bargain collectively. The invalidation threatened to undermine gains made by unions. The Wagner Act (1935) guaranteed workers the right to join unions and outlawed interference by employers. It created a National Labor Relations Board, which retained the authority to force employers to recognize and negotiate with unions. The Wagner Act protected the rights of workers to join unions. Union membership increased rapidly as workers sought to address their working conditions. The Fair Labor Standards Act resulted from labor agitation. Students might examine the growing militancy of unions in the 1930s. They could discuss strikes by the UAW or steelworkers that called attention to workers’ grievances. Some might also refer to the Walsh-Healy Act (1936), which established minimum wage and maximum hours standards for workers in companies receiving government contracts. The Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) established a national minimum wage (25 cents/hour) and maximum hours (40/week). It also imposed regulations on child labor. The act implemented standards championed by reformers since the nineteenth century.

5. Students might begin this essay with a brief discussion of World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution. Both events heightened a fear of radicalism in the United States. This fear increased as racial violence and strikes among steelworkers, the Boston police, and other laborers erupted across the nation. A series of bombings in 1919 were attributed to a radical conspiracy. Widespread nativism reinforced this emerging antiradicalism. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, whose house was damaged by a bomb, led the charge to purge the nation of radicals. Palmer ordered the investigation of subversives. Over 6000 people were arrested; socialists, IWW members, and feminists became the targets of harassment. Although the “Palmer Raids” intended to discover the source of the bombings, they revealed no nationwide conspiracy. The Red Scare began to subside by the end of 1920 but had lingering effects. Students should discuss the impact of antiradicalism and nativism on the Sacco-Vanzetti case. In spite of circumstantial evidence, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti received death sentences. Students might discuss the end of World War II and Soviet influence in Eastern Europe to provide some context for the emergence of anticommunism. Students might compare perceptions of radicals and liberals after World War II with their counterparts during the First Red Scare. Students should examine HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee) and its investigations of the State Department, motion picture industry, and other liberals. Some students might refer to the rise of Richard Nixon. Unsubstantiated allegations of espionage resulted in the conviction of former State Department official Alger Hiss, The Truman administration implemented a federal employee loyalty program to root out subversives. Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) to inhibit the activities of communist or other radical organizations. Soviet nuclear testing in 1949 seemed to confirm fears of espionage in the United States. The conviction and execution of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg intensified the pervasive hysteria gripping the nation. Students might link the Rosenberg case with Sacco-Vanzetti. Local communities also became concerned that subversives had infiltrated their neighborhoods. Students might compare Joseph McCarthy to A. Mitchell Palmer. McCarthy boldly asserted that he possessed the names of 205 communists working in the State Department. The public believed his unsubstantiated claims, boosting McCarthy to national prominence. Students should discuss McCarthy’s Senate subcommittee that harangued witnesses and ruined careers in public service. McCarthy intimidated members of the federal government who might oppose him. McCarthyism fostered an atmosphere of accusation that influenced elections and employment practices. McCarthy’s influence diminished rapidly after his hearings with the Army finally destroyed his credibility. Nevertheless, the impact of McCarthyism lingered for several years. Students might discuss the impact of McCarthyism upon domestic policy and foreign diplomacy.