abolitionist movement
Movement dedicated to the abolition of slavery that existed primarily in the North in years leading up to the Civil War; had both white and black members.
Albany Congress
1754 meeting of representatives of seven colonies to coordinate their efforts against French and Native American threats in the Western frontier regions.
Advertising Age
Term first used to describe America’s consumer culture of the 1920s, when advertising began to influence the choices of purchasers.
affirmative action
Policies that began in the 1970s to make up for past discrimination and give minorities and women advantages in applying for certain jobs and in applying for admission to certain universities.
affluent society
Term used by economist John Kenneth Galbraith to describe the American economy in the 1950s, during which time many Americans became enraptured with appliances and homes in the suburbs.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration
(AAA) Established by the Agricultural Act of 1932, a New Deal bureau designed to restore economic position of farmers by paying them not to farm goods that were being overproduced.
Agricultural Marketing
Act 1929 act championed by Herbert Hoover that authorized the lending of federal money to farmer’s cooperatives to buy crops to keep them from the oversaturated market; program hampered by lack of adequate federal financial support.
Alien and Sedition Acts
Proposed and supported by John Adams, gave the president the power to expel aliens deemed “dangerous to the country’s well-being” and outlawed publication and public pronouncement of “false, scandalous, and malicious” statements about the government
Allied Powers
Coalition of nations that opposed Germany, Italy, and Japan in World War II; led by England, the Soviet Union, and the United States
America First Committee
Isolationist group in America that insisted that America stay out of World War II; held rallies from 1939 to 1941; argued that affairs in Europe should be settled by Europeans and not Americans and stated that the Soviet Union was a greater eventual threat than Nazi Germany.
American Colonization Society
Formed in 1817, stated that the best way to end the slavery problem in the United States was for blacks to emigrate to Africa; by 1822 a few American blacks emigrated to Liberia. Organization’s views were later rejected by most abolitionists.
American Expeditionary Force
Official title of American army sent to Europe to aid England and France after United States entered World War I; army was commanded by General John J. Pershing.
American Federation of Labor (A.F.L.)
National labor union founded by Samuel Gampers in 1886; original goal was to organize skilled workers by craft. Merged with Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1955.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
Native American organization founded in 1968 to protest government policies and injustices suffered by Native Americans; in 1973 organized armed occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota.
American Liberty League
Formed in 1934 by anti-New Deal politicians and business leaders to oppose policies of Franklin Roosevelt; stated that New Deal policies brought America closer to fascism.
American System
Economic plan promoted by Speaker of the House Henry Clay in years following the War of 1812; promoted vigorous growth of the American economy and the use of protective tariffs to encourage Americans to buy more domestic goods.
Anaconda Copper Company
Large mining syndicate typical of many companies involved in mining in the western United States in the 1860s and 1870s; used heavy machinery and professional engineers. Many prospectors who found gold, silver, or copper sold their claims to companies such as this.
Anaconda Plan
Critical component of initial Union plans to win the Civil War; called for capture of critical Southern ports and eventual control of the Mississippi River, which would create major economic and strategic difficulties for the Confederacy.
Antifederalists
Group that opposed the ratification of the proposed Constitution of the United States iii 1787; many feared that strong central government would remove the processes of government “from the people” and replicate the excesses of the British monarchy.
Anti-Imperialist League
Organization formed in 1898 to oppose American annexation of the Philippines and American imperialism in general; focused the public on the potential financial, military, and especially moral costs of imperialism.
Anti-Saloon League
Organization founded in 1893 that increased public awareness of the social effects of alcohol on society; supported politicians who favored prohibition and promoted statewide referendums in Western and Southern stares to ban alcohol.
Appomattox
In the courthouse of this Virginia city Robert E. Lee surrendered his Confederate army to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865.
Army-McCarthy hearings
1954 televised hearings on changes that Senator Joseph McCarthy was unfairly tarnishing the United States Army with changes of communist infiltration into the armed forces; hearings were the beginning of the end for McCarthy, whose bullying tactics were repeatedly demonstrated.
Articles of Confederation
Ratified in 1781, this document established the first official government of the United States; allowed much power to remain in the states, with the federal government possessing only limited powers. Articles replaced by the Constitution in 1788.
Astrolabe
Instrument that enabled navigators to calculate their latitude using the sun and the stars; allowed more accuracy in plotting routes during the Age of Discovery.
Atlantic, Battle of the
Began in spring 1941 with the sinking of an American merchant vessel by a German submarine. Armed conflict between warships of America and Germany took place in September of 1941; American merchant vessels were armed by 1942.
Atlantic Charter
Fall 1941 agreement between Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, stating that America and Great Britain would support a postwar world based on self-determination and would endorse a world body to ensure “general security”; U.S. agreement to convoy merchant ships across part of Atlantic inevitably drew America closer to conflict with Germany.
Aztecs
Advanced Indian society located in central Mexico; conquered by Spanish conquistador Cortes. The defeat of the Aztecs was hastened by smallpox brought to Mexico by the Spanish.
Baby Boom
Large increase in birthrate in United States that began in 1945 and lasted until 1962; new and larger families fueled the move to suburbia that occurred in the 1950s and produced the “youth culture” that would become crucial in the 1960s.
Ballinger-Pinchot Affair
Crisis that occurred when William Howard Taft was president, further distancing him from Progressive supporters of Theodore Roosevelt. Richard Ballinger, Taft’s Secretary of the Interior, allowed private businessmen to purchase large amounts of public land in Alaska; Forest Service head Gifford Pinchot (a Roosevelt supporter) protested to Congress and was fired by Taft.
Bank War
Political battles surrounding the attempt by President Andrew Jackson to greatly reduce the power of the Second Bank of the United States; Jackson claimed the Bank was designed to serve special interests in America and nor the common people.
Bataan Death March
Farced march of 76,000 American and Filipino soldiers captured by the Japanese from the Bataan Peninsula in early May 1942; over 10,000 soldiers died during this one-week ordeal.
Bay of Pigs
Failed 1961 invasion of Cuba by United States-supported anti-Castro refugees designed to topple Castro from power; prestige of the United States, and of the newly elected president, John Kennedy, was damaged by this failed coup attempt.
Bear Flag Republic
Declaring independence from Mexican control, this republic was declared in 1846 by American settlers living in California; this political act was part of a larger American political and military strategy to wrest Texas and California from Mexico.
Beat Generation
Literary movement of the 1950s that criticized the conformity of American society and the ever-present threat of atomic warfare; On the Road by Jack Kerouac, Howl by Allen Ginsberg, and Naked Lunch by William Burroughs were key works of the Beat Generation.
Berlin Airlift
American and British pilots flew in food and fuel to West Berlin during late 1948 and early 1949 because Soviet Union and Hast Germany blockaded other access to West Berlin (which was located in East Germany); Stalin ended this blockade in May 1949, Airlift demonstrated American commitment to protecting Western allies in Europe during the early Cold War period.
Berlin Wall
Concrete structure build in 1961 by Soviets and East Germany physically dividing East and West Berlin; to many in the West, the Wall was symbolic of communist repression in the Cold War era, The wall finally torn down in 1989.
Bessemer steel
First produced in 1856 in converter (furnace) invented by Henry Bessemer; was much more durable and harder than iron. Steel was a critical commodity in the Second Industrial Revolution.
bicameral legislature
A legislative structure consisting of two houses, this was adopted by the authors of the U.S. Constitution; membership of the states in one house (the House of Representatives) is determined by population, while in the other house (the Senate) all states have equal representation.
Bill of Rights
Added to the Constitution in 1791, the first 10 amendments protected freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to bear arms, and other basic rights of American citizens.
Birth of a Nation
Epic movie released in 1915 by director D. W. Griffith; portrayed the Reconstruction as a period when Southern blacks threatened basic American values, which the Ku Klux Klan tried to protect; film was lauded by many, including President Woodrow Wilson.
Black Codes
Laws adopted by the Southern states in the Reconstruction era that greatly limited the freedom of Southern blacks; in several slates blacks could not move, own land, or do anything bur farm.
blacklist
Prevented persons accused of being communists from getting work in entertainment and other industries during the period of anticommunist fervor of the late 1940s and early 1950s; some entertainers waited until the mid-1960s before working publicly again.
black nationalism
Spurred by Malcolm X and other black leaders, a call for black pride and advancement without the help of whites; this appeared to be a repudiation of the calls for peaceful integration urged by Martin Luther King. Race riots in Northern cities in mid-1960s were at least partially fueled by supporters of black nationalism.
Black Panthers Group
originally founded in Oakland, California, to protect blacks from police harassment; promoted militant black power; also ran social programs in several California cities. Founded by Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton.
black power
Movement of black Americans in the mid-1960s that emphasized pride in racial heritage and black economic and political self- reliance; term coined by black civil rights leader Stokely Carmichael.
“Bleeding Kansas”
As a result of Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, residents of Kansas territory could decide if territory would allow slavery or not; as a result, both pro-slavery and antislavery groups flooded settlers into Kansas territory. Much violence followed very disputed elections in 1855.
bonanza farms
Large farms that came to dominate agricultural life in much of the West in the late 1800s; instead of plots farmed by yeoman fanners, large amounts of machinery was used, and workers were hired laborers, often performing only specific casks (similar to work in a factory).
Bonus Army
Group of nearly 17,000 veterans who marched on Washington in May 1932 to demand the military bonuses they had been promised; this group was eventually driven from their camp city by the United States Army. This action increased the public perception that the Hoover administration cared little about the poor.
Boston Massacre
Conflict between British soldiers and Boston civilians on March 5, 1770; after civilians threw rocks and snowballs at the soldiers, the soldiers opened fire, killing five and wounding six.
Boston Tea Party
In response to the Tea Act and additional British taxes on tea, Boston radicals disguised as Native Americans threw nearly 350 chests of tea into Boston harbor an December 16, 1773.
Brown v. Board of Education
1954 Supreme Court decision that threw our the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that schools could be “separate but equal”; ruling and began the long and painful process of school desegregation in the South and other parts of America.
Bulge, Battle of the
December 1944 German attack that was the last major offensive by the Axis powers in World War II; Germans managed to push forward into Belgium but were then driven back. Attack was costly to the Germans in terms of material and manpower.
Bull Moose Party
Name given to the Progressive party in the 1912 presidential campaign; Bull Moose candidate ex-president Theodore Roosevelt ran against incumbent president William Howard Taft and Democrat Woodrow Wilson, with Wilson emerging victorious.
Bull Run, First Battle
of July 21,1861 Confederate victory over Union forces, which ended in Union forces fleeing in disarray toward Washington; this battle convinced Lincoln and others in the North that victory over the Confederates would not be as easy as they initially thought.
Bull Run, Second Battle
of Decisive victory by General Robert E. Lee and Confederate forces over the Union army in August 1862.
Bunker Hill, Battle
of June 1775 British attack on colonial forces at Breed’s Hill outside Boston; despite frightful losses, the British emerged victorious in this battle.
Calvinism
Militant Protestant faith that preached salvation “by faith alone” and predestination; desire by Calvinists in England to create a “pure church” in England was only partially successful, thus causing Calvinist Puritans to come to the New World starting in 1620.
Camp David Accords
Treaty between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Jimmy Carter and signed in early 1979; Israel agreed to give back territory in the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, while Egypt agreed to recognize Israel’s right to exist as a nation.
carpetbaggers
Term used by Southerners to mock Northerners who came to the South to gain either financially or politically during the Reconstruction era.
Central powers
The alliance of Germany, Austria- Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria that opposed England, France, Russia, and later the Untied States in World War I.
Chancellor of the Exchequer
During the era prior to and during the Revolutionary War, this was the head of the department in the British government that issued and collected taxes; many acts issued by the Chancellor of the Exchequer created great resentment in the American colonies.
Chancelorsville, Battle
of Brilliant Confederate attack on Union forces led by Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee on May 2 to 3, 1863; Union defeat led to great pessimism in North and convinced many in the South that victory over North was indeed possible.
Chateau-Thierry, Battle
of One of the first 1918 World War I battles where soldiers of the American Expeditionary Force fought and suffered severe casualties.
Checkers Speech
Speech made by Richard Nixon on national television on September 23, 1952, where he defended himself against charges that rich supporters had set up a special expense account for his use; by the speech Nixon saved his spot on the 1952 Republican ticket (he was running for vice president, with Eisenhower running for president) and saved his political career.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
1831 Supreme Court case in which the Cherokee tribe claimed that Georgia had no right to enforce laws in Cherokee territory, since Cherokees were a sovereign nation; ruling by John Marshall stated that Cherokees were a “domestic dependent nation” and had no right to appeal in federal court.
Church of England
Also called the Anglican Church, this was the Protestant church established by King Henry VIII; religious radicals desired a “purer” church that was allowed by monarchs of the early seventeenth century, causing some to come leave for the Americas.
Circular Letter
In reaction to the 1767 Townshend Acts, the Massachusetts assembly circulated a letter to the other colonies, asking that they work together and jointly issue a petition of protest. Strong-willed response of British authorities to the letter influenced the colonial assemblies to work together on a closer basis.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
New Deal program that began in 1933, putting nearly 3 million young men to work; workers were paid little, but worked on conservation projects and maintaining beaches and parks, CCC program for young women began in 1937.
Civil Rights Act of 1866
Act that struck down Black Codes and defined the rights of all citizens; also stated that federal government could act when civil rights were violated at the state level. Passed by Congress over the veto of President Andrew Johnson.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Key piece of civil rights legislation that made discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion or national origin illegal; segregation in public restrooms, bus stations, and other public facilities also was declared illegal.
Civil Service Commission
Created by the Pendelton Civil Service Act of 1883, this body was in charge of testing applicants and assigning them to appropriate government jobs; filling jobs on the basis of merit replaced the spoils system, in which government jobs were given as rewards for political service.
Clayton Antitrust Act
1914 act designed to strengthen the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890; certain activities previously committed by big businesses, such as not allowing unions in factories and not allowing strikes, were declared illegal.
Cold War
Period between 1945 and 1991 of near- continuous struggle between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies; Cold War tensions were made even more intense by the existence of the atomic bomb.
colonial assemblies
Existed in all of the British colonies in America; House of Burgesses in Virginia was the first one. Members of colonial assemblies were almost always members of the upper classes of colonial society.
Committees of Correspondence
First existed in Massachusetts, and eventually in all of the colonics; leaders of resistance to British rule listed their grievances against the British and circulated them to all of the towns of the colony.
Committee on Public Information
Created by Woodrow Wilson during World War I to mobilize public opinion for the war, this was the most intensive use of propaganda until that time by the United States. The image of “Uncle Sam” was created for this propaganda campaign.
Commun Sense
Very popular 1776 publication in the colonies written by Englishman Thomas Paine, who had come to America in 1774; repudiated the entire concept of government by monarchy. After publication of this document, public sentiment in the colonics turned decisively toward a desire for independence.
Compromise of 1850
Complex agreement that temporarily lessened tensions between Northern and Southern political leaders, and prevented a possible secession crisis; to appease the South, the Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened; to appease the North, California entered the Union as a free State.
Compromise of 1877
Political arrangement that ended the contested presidential election of 1876. Representatives of Southern states agreed not to oppose the official election of Republican Rurherford B. Hayes as president despite massive election irregularities. In return, the Union army stopped enforcing Reconstruction legislation in the South, thus ending Reconstruction.
Concord, Battle of
Occurred on April 19, 1775, between British regulars and Massachusetts militiamen. More than 70 British soldiers died and another 174 were wounded; as a result, a wider conflict between the colonics and the British became much more probable.
Confederate States of America
Eventually made up of 11 former states with Jefferson Davis as its first and only president. Was unable to defeat the North because of lack of railroad lines, lack of industry, and art inability to get European nations to support their cause.
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
Group of unions that broke from the A.F.L. in 1938 and organized effective union drives in automobile and rubber industries; supported sit-down strikes in major rubber plants. Reaffiliated with the A.F.L, in 1955.
conscription
Getting recruits for military service using a draft; this method was used by the American government in all of the wars of the twentieth century. Conscription was viewed most negatively during the Vietnam War, consumer society Many Americans in the 1950s became infatuated with all of the new products produced by technology and went out and purchased more than any prior generation; consumer tastes of the decade were largely dictated by advertising and television.
containment
policy Formulated by George Kennan, a policy whereby the United States would forcibly stop communist aggression whenever and wherever it occurred; containment was the dominant American policy of the Cold War era, and forced America to become involved in foreign conflicts such as Vietnam.
Continentals
Soldiers in the “American” army commanded by George Washington in the Revolutionary War; victory at the Battle of Trenton on December 16, 1776, did much to raise the morale of the soldiers (and convince many of them to reenlist).
Contract with America
1994 pledge by Republican candidates for House of Representatives; led by Newt Gingrich, candidates promised to support term limits, balancing the budget, and lessening the size of the federal government. In 1994 Congressional elections, Republicans won both houses of Congress for first time in 40 years.
convoy system
System used to protect American ships carrying materials to Great Britain in 1940 and 1941; merchant ships were protected by American warships. Firing cook place between these ships and German submarines, with American losses.
Copperheads
Democrats in Congress in the first years of the Civil War who opposed Abraham Lincoln and the North’s attack on the South, claiming that the war would result in massive numbers of freed slaves entering the North and a total disruption of the Northern economy.
Coral Sea, Battle
of the May 1942 American naval victory over the Japanese; prevented Japanese from attacking Australia. First naval battle where losses on both sides came almost exclusively from bombing from airplanes.
counterculture
Youth of the 1960s who espoused a lifestyle encompassing drug use, free love, and a rejection of adult authority; actual “hippies” were never more than a small percentage of young people.
Coxey’s Army
Supporters of Ohio Populist Jacob Coxey who in 1894 marched on Washington, demanded that the government create jobs for the unemployed; although this group had no effect whatsoever on policy, it did demonstrate the social and economic impact of the Panic of 1893.
creationism
Belief in the Biblical account of the origin of the universe and the origin of man; believers in creationism and believers in evolution both had their day in court during the 1925 Scopes Trial.
Crittenden Plan
1860 compromise proposal on the slavery issue designed to defuse tension between North and South; would have allowed slavery to continue in the South and would have denied Congress the power to regulate inters rate slave trade. On the advice of newly elected President Lincoln, Republicans in Congress voted against it.
Crusades
From these attempts to recapture the Holy Land, Europeans acquired an appreciation of the benefits of overseas expansion and an appreciation of the economic benefits of slavery.
Cuban Missile
Crisis 1962 conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles discovered in Cuba; Soviets eventually removed missiles under American pressure. Crisis was perhaps the closest the world came to armed conflict the Cold War era.
Currency Act
1764 British act forbidding the American colonies to issue paper money as legal tender; act was repealed in 1773 by the British as an effort to ease tensions between themselves and the colonies.
dark horse candidate
A candidate for office with little support before the beginning of the nomination process; James K. Polk was the first dark horse candidate for president in 1844.
Dawes Act
1887 act designed to break up Native American tribes, offered Native American families 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of land for grazing. Large amounts of tribal lands were not claimed by Native Americans, and thus were purchased by land speculators.
Declaration of Neutrality
Issued by President Woodrow Wilson after the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, stating that the United States would maintain normal relations with and continue to trade with both sides in the conflict; factors including submarine warfare made it difficult for America to maintain this policy.
Declaration of Rights and Grievances
1774 measure adopted by the First Continental Congress, stating that Parliament had some rights to regulate colonial trade with Britain, but that Parliament did not have the right to rax the colonics without their consent.
Declaratory Act
1766 British law staring that the Parliament had absolute right to tax the colonies as they saw fit and to make laws that would be enacted in the colonies. Ironically, issued at the same time as the repeal of the Stamp Act.
deficit spending
Economic policy where government spends money that it “doesn’t have”, thus creating a budget deficit. Although “conventional” economic theory disapproves of this, it is commonplace during times of crisis or war (c.g. The New Deal; post-September 11, 2001).
Democratic party
Had its birth during the candidacy of Andrew Jackson; originally drew its principles from Thomas Jefferson and advocated limited government. In modern rimes many Democrats favor domestic programs that a larger, more powerful government allows.
Democratic-Republicans
Believed in the ideas of Thomas Jefferson, who wrote of the benefits of a limited government and of a society dominated by the values of the yeoman farmer. Opposed to the Federalists, who wanted a strong national state and a society dominated by commercial interests.
Desert Shield
After Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990, President Bush sent 230,000 American troops to protect Saudi Arabia.
Desert Storm
February 1991 attack on Iraqi forces in Kuwait by United States and other allied forces; although Iraq was driven from Kuwait, Saddam Hussein remained in power in Iraq.
detente
The lessening of tensions between nations. A policy of detente between the United States and the Soviet Union and Communist China began during the presidency of Richard Nixon; the architect of policy was National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger.
Dien Bien Phu
1954 victory of Vietnamese forces over the French, causing the French to leave Vietnam and all of Indochina; Geneva Peace Accords that followed established North and South Vietnam.
direct primary
Progressive-era reform adopted by some states that allowed candidates for state offices to be nominated by the rank-and-file party members in statewide primaries instead of by the party bosses, who had traditionally dominated the nominating process,
“Dollar Diplomacy”
Foreign policy of President William Howard Taft, which favored increased American investment in the world as the major method for instead increasing American influence and stability abroad; in some parts of the world, such as in Latin America, the increased American influence was resented.
domesticity
Social trend of post-World War II America; many Americans turned to family and home life as a source of contentment; emphasis on family as a source of fulfillment forced some women to abandon the workforce and achieve “satisfaction” as homemakers.
Dominion of New England
Instituted by King James II in 1686, Sir Edmund Andros governed as a single entity the colonics of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Plymouth, and New Hampshire without an elective assembly; Andros was finally overthrown by militiamen in Boston in April 1689 (after the Glorious Revolution).
domino theory
Major tenet of Cold War containment policy of the United States held that if one country in a region turned communist, other surrounding countries would soon follow; this theory convinced many that to save all of Southeast Asia, it was necessary to resist communist aggression in Vietnam.
Doable V campaign
World War II “policy” supported by several prominent black newspapers, stating that blacks in America should work for victory over the Axis powers but at the same time work for victory over oppression at home; black leaders remained frustrated during the war by continued segregation of the armed forces.
Dred Scott case
Supreme Court case involving a man who was born a slave but had then lived in both a nonslave state and a nonslave territory and was now petitioning for his legal freedom; in 1857 the Court ruled that slaves were not people but were property, that they could not be citizens of the United States, and thus had no legal right to petition the Court for anything. Ruling also stated that Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in the territories, was unconstitutional.
Dust Bowl
Great Plains region that suffered severe drought and experienced severe dust storms during the 1930s; because of extreme conditions many who lived in the Dust Bowl left their farms and went to California to work as migrant farmers.
Eisenhower Doctrine
Policy established in 1957 that promised military and economic aid to “friendly” nations in the Middle East; policy was established to prevent communism from gaining a foothold in the region. Policy first utilized later that year when United States gave large amounts of aid to King Hussein of Jordan to put down internal rebellion.
Electoral College
Procedure outlined in the Constitution for the election of the president; under this system, votes of electors from each state, and not rhe popular vore, determine who is elected president. As was demonstrated in 2000 presidential election, this system allows a person to be elected president who does not win the nationwide popular vote.
Emancipation Proclamation
Edict by Abraham Lincoln that went into effect on January 1, 1863, abolishing slavery in the Confederate states; proclamation did not affect the four slave states that were still part of the Union (so not to alienate them).
Embargo of 1807
Declaration by President Thomas Jefferson that banned all American trade with Europe, As a result of the war between England and Napoleon's France, America's sea rights as a neutral power were threatened; Jefferson hoped the embargo would force England and France to respect American neutrality.
Emergency Quota Act
Also called the Johnson Act, this 1921 bill limited immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe by stating that in a year, total immigration from any country could only equal 3 percent of the number of immigrations from that country living in the United States in 1910.
Enlightenment
Eighteenth-century European intellectual movement that attempted to discover the natural laws that governed science and society and taught that progress was inevitable in the Western world. Americans were greatly influenced by the Enlightenment, especially by the ideas of John Locke, who stated that government should exist for the benefit of the people living under it.
Enola Gay
The name of the American bomber that on August 6, 1945, dropped the first atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, thus initiating the nuclear age.
Era of Good Feelings
Term used by a newspaper of the period to describe the years between 1816 and 1823, when after the end of the War of 1812 the United! States remained generally free of foreign conflicts and when political strife at home was at a bare minimum (because of the collapse of the Federalist party).
Espionage Act
World War I-era regulation passed in 1917 that ordered severe penalties for citizens who criticized the war effort or the government; mandatory prison sentences were also proclaimed for those who interfered with the draft process. Nearly 700 Americans were arrested for violating this act.
Essex Junto
Group of Massachusetts Federalists who met to voice their displeasure with the policies of Thomas Jefferson during Jefferson’s second term, and proposed that the New England states anti New York secede from the Union.
Exodusters
Large number of Southern blacks who left the South and moved to Kansas for a “better life” after Reconstruction ended in 1877; many failed to find satisfaction in Kansas because of lack of opportunities and open hostility from Kansas residents.
Fair Deal
A series of domestic programs proposed to Congress by President Harry Truman that included a Fair Employment Practices Act, a call for government construction of public housing, an extension of Social Security, and a proposal to ensure employment for all American workers.
Farmer's Alliances
After the decline of Grange organizations, these became the major organizations of farmers in the 1880s; many experimented with cooperative buying and selling. Many local alliances became involved in direct political activity with the growth of the Populist Party in the 1890s.
Federalists
During the period when the Constitution was being ratified, these were the supporters of the larger national government as outlined in the Constitution; the party of Washington and John Adams, it was supported by commercial interests. Federalists were opposed by Jeffersonians, who favored a smaller federal government and a society dominated by agrarian values. Federalist influence in national politics ended with presidential election of 1816.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
Passed during the first Hundred Days of the administration of Franklin Roosevelt, this body insured individual bank deposits up to $2500 and helped to restore confidence in America’s banks.
Federal Reserve System
Established by Federal Reserve Act of 1913, this system established 12 district reserve banks to be controlled by the banks in each district; in addition, a Federal Reserve Board was established to regulate the entire structure. This act improved public confidence in the banking system.
Federal Trade Commission
Authorized after the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, it was established as the major government body in charge of regulating big business. The FTC investigated possible violations of antitrust laws.
Feminine Mystique, The
Betty Friedan's 1963 book that was the Bible of the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Friedan maintained that the post-World War II emphasis on family forced women to think of themselves primarily as housewives and robbed them of much of their creative potential.
feminism
The belief that women should have the same rights and benefits in American society that men do. Feminism gained many supporters during the Progressive era, and in the 1960s drew large numbers of supporters. The National Organization for Women (NOW) was established in 1966 by Betty Friedan and had nearly 200,000 members in 1969.
Fifteenth Amendment
Ratified in 1870, this amendment stated that a persons could not be denied the right to vote because of the color of their skin or whether or not they had been a slave. This extended the rights of blacks to vote to the North (which the Emancipation Proclamation had not done); some in the women's movement opposed the amendment on the grounds that it did nothing for the rights of women.
Final Solution
The plan of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany to eliminate Jewish civilization from Europe; by the end of the war in 1945, nearly 6 million Jews had been executed. The full extent of Germany’s atrocities was not known in Europe and the United States until near the end of World War II.
fireside chats
Broadcasts on the radio by Franklin Roosevelt addressed directly to the American people that made many Americans feel that he personally cared about them; FDR did 16 of these in his first two terms. Many Americans in the 1930s had pictures of Roosevelt in their living rooms; in addition, Roosevelt received more letters from ordinary Americans than any other president in American history.
flapper
A “new woman” of the 1920s, who wore short skirts and bobbed hair and rejected many of the social regulations that controlled women of previous generations.
Food and Drug Act
1906 bill that created a federal Food and Drug Administration; example of consumer protection legislation of the progressive era, it was at least partially passed as a result of Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle.
Force Act
1832 legislation that gave President Andrew Jackson the power to invade any state if that action was necessary to enforce federal law; bill was in response to nullification of federal tariff regulation by the legislature of South Carolina.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff
1922 act that sharply increased tariffs on imported goods; most Republican leaders of the 1920s firmly believed in “protectionist” policies that would increase profits for American businesses.
Fort Sumter
Federal fort located in Charleston, South Carolina, that was fired on by Confederate artillery on April 12, 1861; these were the first shots actually fired in the Civil War. A public outcry immediately followed across the Northern states, and the mobilization of a federal army began.
Fourteen Points
Woodrow Wilson’s view of a post- World War I that he hoped the other Allied powers would endorse during the negotiations for the Treaty of Versailles; Wilson's vision included elimination of secret treaties, arms reduction, national self-determination, and the creation of a League of Nations. After negotiations, only the League of Nations remained (which the United States never became part of).
Fourteenth Amendment
Ratified in 1868, this amendment stated that “all persons born or naturalized in the United States” were citizens. In addition, all former Confederate supporters were prohibited from holding office in the United States.
Franciscans
Missionaries that established settlements in the Southwestern United States in the late 1500s; at their missions Christian conversion was encouraged, but at the same time Native Americans were used as virtual slaves. Rebellions against the missions and the soldiers sent to protect them began in 1598.
Fredericksburg,
Battle of Battle on December 13, 1862, where the Union army commanded by General Ambrose Burnside suffered a major defeat at the hands of Confederate forces.
freed men
Term used for free blacks in the South after the Civil War. Freedman enjoyed some gains in terms of education, the ability to hold office, and economic well-being during the Reconstruction era, although many of these gains were wiped out after the Compromise of 1877.
Freedom Rides
Buses of black and white civil rights workers who in 1961 rode on interstate buses to the Deep South to see if Southern states were abiding by the 1960 Supreme Court ruling banning segregation on interstate buses and waiting rooms and restaurants at bus stations. Buses met mob violence in numerous cities; federal marshals were finally called ro protect the freedom riders.
Freeport Doctrine
Introduced by Stephen Douglas in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, the idea that despite the Dred Scott Supreme Court decision, a territory could still prevent slavery by electing officials who were opposed to it and by creating laws and regulations that would make slavery impossible to enforce.
Free-Soil party
Political party that won 10 percent of the vote in the 1848 presidential election; they were opposed to the spread of slavery into any of the recently acquired American territories. Free-Soil supporters were mainly many former members of the Whig party in the North.
Free Speech Movement
Protests at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964 and 1965 that opposed the control that the university, and “the establishment” in general, had over the lives of university students. Protesters demanded changes in university regulations and also broader changes in American society.
free trade
The philosophy that trade barriers and protective tariffs inhibit long-term economic growth; this philosophy was the basis for the 1994 ratification by the United States of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which removed trade restrictions between the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
French and Indian War
Called the Seven Years War in European textbooks, in this war between the British and the French fought for the right to expand their empire in the Americas. Colonists and Native Americans fought on both sides, and the war eventually spilled to Europe and elsewhere. The English emerged victorious, and in the end received all of French Canada.
Fugitive Slave Act
Part of the Compromise of 1850, this legislation set up special commissions in Northern states to determine if an accused runaway slave really was one; according to regulations, after the verdict, commissioners were given more money if the black was found to be a runaway than if he or she was found not to he one. Some Northern legislatures passed laws attempting to circumvent the Fugitive Slave Act.
Gadsden Purchase
Strip of territory running through Arizona and New Mexico that the United States purchased from Mexico in 1853; President Pierce authorized this purchase to secure that the southern route of the transcontinental railroad (between Texas and California) would be in American territory.
Geneva Accords
After the French were defeated in Vietnam, a series of agreements made in 1954 that temporarily divided Vietnam into a two parts (along the 17th parallel) and promised nationwide elections within two years. To prevent communists from gaining control, the United States installed a friendly government in South Vietnam and saw that the reunification elections never took place.
Gettysburg Address
Speech made by Abraham Lincoln at dedication ceremony for a cemetery for Union soldiers who died at the Battle of Gettysburg; in this November 19, 1863 speech, Lincoln stated that freedom should exist in the United States for all men, and that “government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.“
Gettysburg, Battle of
The most important battle of the Civil War, this July 1863 victory by Union forces prevented General Robert E. Lee from invading the North. Defeat at Gettysburg, along with defeat at the Battle of Vicksburg during the same month, turned the tide of war firmly in the direction of Union forces.
Ghent, Treaty of
1814 treaty between the United States and Great Britain ending the War of 1812; treaty restored diplomatic relations between the two countries but did nothing to address the issues that had initially caused war.
Ghost Dances
Religion practiced by Lakota tribesmen in response to repeated incursions by American settlers. Ghost dancers thought that Native American messiah would come and banish the whites, return the buffalo, and give all former Native American land back to the Native Americans. Worried territorial officials had Sitting Bull arrested the was later killed under uncertain circumstances) and killed another 240 Lakota at Wounded Knee Greek.
GI
Popular term for American servicemen during World War II; refers to the fact that virtually anything they wore or used was ‘’government issued.”
GI Bill
Officially called the Serviceman’s. Readjustment Act of 1944, this legislation gave many benefits to returning World War II veterans, including financial assistance for veterans wanting to go to college or enter other job training programs, special loan programs for veterans wanting to buy homes or businesses, and preferential treatment for veterans who wished to apply for government jobs.
globalization
Belief that the United States should work closely with other nations of the world to solve common problems; this was the foreign policy approach of President Clinton. Policies that supported this approach included the ratification of NAFTA, the United States working more closely with the United Nations, and “nation building” abroad. Many policies of globalization were initially rejected by Clinton’s successor, George W. Bush.
Glorious Revolution
English revolution of 1688 to 1689 where King James II was removed from the throne and his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William began to rule. Reaction to this in the American colonies was varied: There was a revolt against appointed Catholic officials in New York and Maryland, and in Massachusetts the governor was sent back to England with the colonial demand that the Dominion of New England be disbanded.
gold standard
Economic system that bases all currency on gold, meaning that all paper currency could be exchanged at a bank for gold. Business interests of the late nineteenth century supported this; William Jennings Bryan ran for president three times opposing the gold standard, and supported the free coinage of silver instead.
”Gospel of Wealth”
The philosophy of steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, who stated that wealthy industrialists had an obligation to create a “trust fund” from their profits to help their local communities. By the time of his death, Carnegie had given over 90 percent of his wealth to various foundations and philanthropic endeavors.
Grange Initially
formed in 1867, the Grange was an association of farmers chat provided social activities and information about new farming techniques, Some local Grange organizations became involved in cooperative buying and selling.
Great Awakening
A religious revival in the American colonies that lasted from the 1720s through the 1740s; speakers like Jonathan Edwards enraptured speakers with sermons such as “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” Religious splits in the colonies became deeper because of this movement.
Great Compromise
Plan drafted by Roger Sherman of Connecticut that stated one house of the United States Congress would be based on population (the House of Representatives), while in the other house all states would be represented equally (the Senate). This compromise greatly speeded the ratification of the Constitution.
Great Migration
Migration of large numbers of American blacks to Midwestern and Eastern industrial cities than began during World War I and continued throughout the 1920s. Additional workers were needed in the North because of the war and during the 1920s because of immigration restrictions; blacks were willing to leave the South because of continued lynchings there and the fact that their economic situation was not improving.
Great Society
Aggressive program announced by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 to attack the major social problems in America; Great Society programs included the War on Poverty, Medicare and Medicaid programs for elderly Americans, greater protection for and more legislation dealing with civil rights, and greater funding for education. Balancing the Great Society and the war in Vietnam would prove difficult for the Johnson administration.
Greenback party
Political party of the 1870s and early 1880s that stated the government should put more money in circulation and supported an eight-hour workday and female suffrage. The party received support from farmers but never built a national base. The Greenback parry argued into the 1880s that more greenbacks should be put in circulation to help farmers who were in debt and who saw the prices of their products decreasing annually.
”Greenbacks”
Paper money issued by the American government during and immediately after the Civil War that was nor backed up by gold or silver.
gridlock
Situation when the president is a member of one political party and the U.S. Congress is controlled by the cither party, causing a situation where little legislation is actually passed. This is how some describe the situation with President Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress after the 1994 congressional elections.
Guadalcanal, Battle of
Battle over this Pacific island lasted from August 1942 through February 1943; American victory against fierce Japanese resistance was the first major offensive victory for the Americans in the Pacific War.
Guadeloupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of
Treaty ending the war with Mexico that was ratified by the Senate in March 1848 and for $15 million gave the United States Texas territory to the Rio Grande River, New Mexico, and California.
Guilded Age, The
Some historians describe the late nineteenth century in this manner, describing it as an era with a surface of great prosperity hiding deep problems of social inequity and shallowness of culture. The term comes from the title of an 1873 Mark Twain novel.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
1964 Congressional resolution that gave President Johnson the authority to “take all necessary measures to repel” attacks against American military forces stationed in Vietnam. Later, critics would charge this resolution allowed the president to greatly expand the Vietnam War without congressional oversight.
Harlem Renaissance
Black literary and artistic movement centered in Harlem chat lasted from the 1920s into the early 1930s that both celebrated and lamented black life in America; Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston were two famous writers of this movement.
Hartford Convention
Meeting of New England Federalists in the closing months of the War of 1812 where they threatened that New England would secede from the United States unless trade restrictions imposed by President Madison were lifted. American victory in the war made their protests seem pointless.
Hawley-Smoot Tariff
In response to the initial effects of the Great Depression, Congress authorized this tariff in 1930; this established tariff rates on imported goods at the highest level of any point in United States history. Some American companies benefited in the short term, although the effect on world trade was disastrous, as many other countries erected tariff barriers on American imports.
Haymarket Square
Location in Chicago of labor rally called by anarchist and other radical labor leaders on May 2, 1886. A bomb was hurled toward police officials, and police opened fired on the demonstrators; numerous policemen and demonstrators were killed and wounded. Response in the nation’s press was decidedly anti-union.
Head Start
One of Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty programs that gave substantial funding for a nursery school program to prepare children of poor parents for kindergarten.
Heavy industry
The production of steel, iron, and other materials that can be used for building purposes; great increase in heavy industry fueled the massive industrial growth that took place in the last half on the nineteenth century.
Hessians
German troops who fought in the Revolutionary War on the side of Great Britain; Hessian troops were almost all paid mercenaries.
Holding company
A company that existed to gain monopoly control over an industry by buying large numbers of shares of stock in as many companies as possible in that industry. The best example in American history was John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil corporation.
Holocaust
Historical term used for the extermination of 6 million Jewish victims by Nazi Germany during World War II. Much has been written on the reasons for the Holocaust and why it occurred in Germany,
Homestead Act
1862 enactment by Congress that gave 160 acres of publicly owned land to a farmer who lived on the land and farmed it for two years. The provisions of this bill inspired hundreds of thousands of Americans to move westward in the years after the Civil War.
Hoovervilles
Groups of crude houses made of cardboard and spare wood that sprung up on the fringes of many American cities during the first years of the Great Depression. These shacks were occupied by unemployed workers; the name of these communities demonstrated the feeling that President Hoover should have been doing more to help the downtrodden in America.
horizontal integration
The strategy of gaining as much control over an entire single industry as possible, usually by creating trusts and holding companies. The most successful example of horizontal integration was John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil, who had at one point controlled over 92 percent of the oil production in the United States.
HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee)
Committee of the House of Representatives that beginning in 1947 investigated possible communist infiltration of the entertainment industry and, more importantly, of the government. Most famous investigations of the committee were the investigation of the “Hollywood Ten” and the investigation of Alger Hiss, a former high-ranking member of the State Department.
Huguenots
Protestants in France, who by the 1630s were believers in Calvinism. Few Huguenots ended up settling in the Americas, as French officials feared they would disrupt the unity of colonial settlements.
Hull House
Established by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in Chicago in 1889, this was the first settlement house in America. Services such as reading groups, social clubs, an employment bureau, and a “day care center” for working mothers could be found at Hull House. The Hull House model was later copied in many other urban centers.
“Hun”
Term used in allied propaganda during World War I to depict the German soldier; Germans were portrayed as bloodthirsty beasts. World War I was the first war where propaganda was used on a widespread scale.
Hundred Days
The period from March through June of 1933; the first 100 days of the New Deal presidency of Franklin Roosevelt. During this period programs were implemented to assist farmers, the banks, unemployed workers, and businessmen; in addition, prohibition was repealed.
hunter-gatherers
Early civilizations that existed not by farming but by moving from region to region and taking what was necessary at the time from the land; some early Native American tribes in northern New England lived as hunter-gatherers.
hydrogen bomb
Atomic weapons much more powerful than those used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, these were developed and repeatedly tested by both the Untied States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s, increasing dramatically the potential danger of nuclear war.
impeachment
The process of removing an elected public official from office; during the Progressive Era several states adopted measures making it easier to do this. Presidents Andrew Johnson and William Jefferson Clinton were both impeached by the House of Representatives, hut neither was convicted by the U.S. Senate (the procedure outlined in the Constitution of the United States).
impressment
British practice of forcing civilians and ex-sailors back into naval service; during the wars against Napoleon the British seized nearly 7500 sailors from American ships, including some that had actually become American citizens. This practice caused increased tensions between the United States and Great Britain and was one of the causes of the War of 1812.
Inca empire
Advanced and wealthy civilization centered in the Andes mountain region; aided by smallpox, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas in 1533.
indentured servants
Legal arrangement when an individual owed compulsory service (in some cases only 3 years, in others up to 10) for free passage to the American colonies. Many of the early settlers in the Virginia colony came as indentured servants.
Industrial Workers of the World (I.W.W.)
Established in 1905, this union attempted to unionize the unskilled workers who were usually not recruited by the American Federation of Labor. The I.W.W. included blacks, poor sharecroppers, and newly arrived immigrants from Eastern Europe. Members of the union were called “Wobblies,” and leaders of the union were inspired by Marxist principles.
Influence of Sea Power upon History, The
Very influential 1890 book by Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, which argued chat throughout history the most powerful nations have achieved their influence largely because of powerful navies. Mahan called for a large increase in the size of the American navy, the acquisition of American bases in the Pacific, and the building of the Panama Canal.
initiative process
Procedure supported by the Populist party in 1890s where any proposed law could go on the public ballot as long as a petition with an appropriate number of names is submitted beforehand supporting the proposed law.
internment camps
Controversial decision was made after the bombing of Pearl Harbor to place Japanese-Americans living on the West Coast in these camps. President Roosevelt authorized this by Executive Order #9066; this order was validated by the Supreme Court in 1944. In 1988 the U.S. government paid compensation to surviving detainees.
Interstate Commerce Act
Passed in 1887, the bill created America's first regulatory commission, the Interstate Commerce Commission. The task of this commission was to regulate the railroad and railroad rates, and to ensure that rates were “reasonable and just.”
Intolerable Acts
Term used by anti-British speakers across the colonics for the series of bills passed in Great Britain to punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Parry of December 1773. These including the closing of Boston harbor, prohibiting local meetings, and mandatory quarrering of troops in the homes of Massachusetts residents.
Iran-Contra Affair
During the second term of the Reagan administration, government officials sold missiles to Iran (hoping that this would help free American hostages held in Lebanon); money from this sale was used to aid anticommunist Contra forces in Nicaragua. Iran was a country that was supposed to be on the American “no trade” list because of their taking of American hostages, and congressional legislation had been enacted making it illegal to give money to the Contras. A major scandal for the Reagan administration.