Iranian Hostage Crisis

 On November 4, 1979, Islamic fundamentalists seized the American embassy in Tehran, Iran, and took all Americans working there hostage. This was a major humiliation for the United States, as diplomatic and military efforts to free the hostages failed. The hostages were finally freed on January 20, 1981, immediately after the inauguration of Ronald Reagan.

ironclad ship

 Civil War-era ships that were totally encased in iron, thus making them very difficult to damage; the ironclad of the Confederate army was the Virginia (it had been the Merrimac when it was captured from the Union), whereas the Union ship was the Monitor. The two ships battled each other in March 1862, with both being badly damaged.

Iron Curtain

 In a March 5, 1946 speech in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill used this term to describe the division that the Soviet Union had created between itself and its Eastern European allies and Western Europe and the United States. Churchill emphasized the need for the United States to stand up to potential Soviet aggression in the future.

“Irreconcilable”

 After World War I, a group of U.S. senators who were opposed to a continued U.S. presence in Europe in any form. This group was influential in preventing the passage of the Versailles Treaty in the Senate.

island-hopping

 A successful American military tactic in the Pacific in 1942 and 1943 of taking strategic islands that could used as staging points for continued military offensives. Increasing American dominance in air power made this tactic possible.

isolationism

 A policy of disengaging the United States from major world commitments and concentrating on the U.S. domestic issues. This was the dominant foreign policy of the United States for much of the 1920s and the 1930s.

Jay’s Treaty

 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain designed to ease increasing tensions between the two nations; the British did make some concessions to the Americans, including abandoning the forts they occupied in the interior of the continent. However, Britain refused to make concessions to America over the rights of American ships; tensions over this issue would eventually he a cause of the War of 1812.

Jazz Age

 Term used to describe the image of the liberated, urbanized 1920s, with a flapper as a dominant symbol of that era. Many rural, fundamentalist Americans deeply resented the changes in American culture that occurred in the “Roaring 20s.”

Jazz Singer, The

 1927 film starring Al Jolson that was the first movie with sound. Story of the film deals with young Jewish man who has to choose between the “modern” and his Jewish past.

Jesuits Missionary

 group who established settlements in Florida, New Mexico, Paraguay, and in several areas within French territory in North America. Jesuits were organized with military precision and order.

jingoism

 American foreign policy based on a strident nationalism, a firm belief in American world superiority, and a belief that military solutions were, in almost every case, the best ones. Jingoism was most evident in America during the months leading up to and during the Spanish- American War.

Judiciary Act

 1801 bill passed by the Federalist Congress just before the inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson; Federalists in this bill attempted to maintain control of the judiciary by reducing the number of Supreme Court judges (so Jefferson probably wouldn't be able to name a replacement) and by increasing the number of federal judges (who President Adams appointed before he left office). Bill was repealed by new Congress in 1802.

Judicial Review

 In the 1803 Marbury v. Madison decision, Chief Justice John C. Marshall stated that the U.S. Supreme Court ultimately had the power to decide on the constitutionality of any law passed by the U.S. Congress or by the legislature of any state. Many had argued that individual stares should have the power to do this; the Marbury decision increased the power of the federal government.

Justice Reorganization

 Bill Franklin Roosevelt's 1937 plan to increase the number of Supreme Court justices. He claimed that this was because many of the judges were older and needed help keeping up with the work; in reality he wanted to “pack the court” because the Court had made several rulings outlawing New Deal legislation. Many Democrats and Republicans opposed this plan, so it was finally dropped by Roosevelt.

kamikaze pilots

1945 tactic of Japanese air force where pilots flew at American ships at full speed and crashed into them, in several cases causing ships to sink. This tactic showed the desperate nature of the Japanese military situation at this time; by July 1945, kamikaze attacks were no longer utilized, as Japan was running out of airplanes and pilots.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

 1854 compromise legislation crafted by Stephen Douglas that allowed the settlers in the Kansas and Nebraska territories to decide if those territories would be slave or free. Bill caused controversy and bloodshed throughout these territories; in the months before the vote in Kansas, large numbers of “settlers'’ moved in to influence the vote, and after the vote (won by pro-slavery forces), violence between the two sides intensified.

Kent State University

 Site of May 1970 antiwar protest where Ohio National Guardsmen fired on protesters, killing four. To many, this event was symbolic of the extreme political tensions that permeated American society in this era.

Kentucky and Virginia Resolves

 Passed by the legislatures in these two states, these resolutions maintained that the Alien and Sedition Acts championed through Congress by John Adams went beyond the powers that the Constitution stated belonged to the federal government. These resolves predated that later Southern argument that individual states could “nullify” federal laws deemed unconstitutional by the states.

Kerner Commission

Established in 1967 to study the reason for urban riots, the commission spoke at length about the impact of poverty and racism on the lives of urban blacks in America, and emphasized that white institutions created and condoned the ghettoes of America.

King William’s War

 Colonial war against the French that lasted from 1689 to 1697; army from New England colonies attacked Quebec, but were forced to retreat because of the lack of strong colonial leadership and an outbreak of smallpox among colonial forces.

Kitchen Cabinet

 An informal group of advisors, with no official titles, who the president relics on for advice. The most famous Kitchen Cabinet was that of Andrew Jackson, who met with several old political friends and two journalists for advice on many occasions.

Knights of Labor

 The major labor union of the 1880s; was nor a single large union, hut a federation of the unions of many industries. The Knights of Labor accepted unskilled workers; publicity against the organization was intense after the Haymarket Square riot of 1886.

Know-Nothing party

 Political party that developed in the 1850s that claimed that the other political parties and the entire political process was corrupt, that immigrants were destroying the economic base of American by working for low wages, and that Catholics in America were intent on destroying American democracy. Know- Nothings were similar in many ways to other nativist groups that developed at various points in America’s history.

Korean War

 1950 to 1953 war where American and other United Nations forces fought to stop communist aggression against South Korea. U.S. entry into Korean War was totally consistent with the U.S. Cold War policy of containment. Negotiated settlement divided Korea along the 38th parallel, a division that remains today.

Ku Klux Klan

 Organization founded in the South during the Reconstruction era by whites that wanted to maintain white supremacy in the region. KKK used terror tactics, including murder, The Klan was revitalized in the 1920s; members of the 1920s Klan also opposed Catholics and Southern and Eastern European immigrants. The KKK exists to this day, with recent efforts to make the Klan appear to be “respectable.”

tabor movement

 The drive that began in the second half of the nineteenth century to have workers join labor unions. Divisions existed in nineteenth- century unions on whether unions should focus their energies on political gains for workers or on “bread and butter” issues important to workers. In the twentieth century, unions have broad political powers, as most endorse and financially support candidates in national and statewide elections.

Laissez-faire economic principles

 Economic theory derived from eighteenth-century economist Adam Smith, who stated that for the economy to run soundly the government should take a hands-off role in economic matters. Those who have favored policies such as high import tariffs do not follow laissez-faire policies; a policy like NAFTA has more support amongst the “free market” supporters of Adam Smith.

land speculation

 The practice of buying up land with the intent of selling it off in the future for a profit. Land speculation existed in the Kentucky territory in the 1780s, throughout the West after the Homestead Act, and in Florida in the 1920s, when hundreds bought Florida swampland hoping to later sell it for a profit.

League of Nations

 International body of nations that was proposed by Woodrow Wilson and was adopted at the Versailles Peace Conference ending World War I. The League was never an effective body in reducing international tensions, at least partially because the United States was never a member of it.

Lend-Lease Act

 Legislation proposed by Franklin Roosevelt and adopted by Congress in 1941, stating that the United States could cither sell or lease arms and other equipment to any country whose security was vital to America’s interest. After the passage of this bill, military equipment to help the British war effort began to be shipped from the United States.

Letters from a Fanner in Pennsylvania

 A 1767 pamphlet by Pennsylvania attorney and land- owner John Dickinson, in which he eloquently stated the “taxation without representation” argument, and also stated that the only way that the House of Commons could represent the colonies in a meaningful way would be for actual colonists to be members of it.

Lever Food and Fuel Control Act

 August 1917 measure that gave President Wilson the power to regulate the production and consumption of food and fuels during wartime. Some in his administration argued for price controls and rationing; instead, Wilson instituted voluntary controls.

Levittown

 After World War II, the first “suburban” neighborhood; located in Hempstead, Long Island, houses in this development were small, looked the same, but were perfect for the postwar family that wanted to escape urban life. Levittown would become a symbol of the post-World War II flight to suburbia taken by millions.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

 1803 to 1806 mission sent by Thomas Jefferson to explore and map the newly acquired Louisiana territory and to create good relations with various Native American tribes within the territory. Reports brought back indicated that settlement was possible in much of the region, and that the Louisiana territory was well worth what had been paid for it.

Lexington Massachusetts

 town where the first skirmish between British troops and colonial militiamen took place; during this April 19, 1775 “battle,” eight colonists were killed and another nine were wounded.

Liberator, The

 The radical abolitionist journal of William Lloyd Garrison that was first published in 1831; Garrison and his journal presented the most extreme abolitionist views during the period leading up to the Civil War.

Liberty Bonds

 Sold to United States civilians during World War I; a holder who paid $10 for a bond could get $13 back if the holder held onto the bond until it matured. Bonds were important in financing the war effort, and celebrities such as Charlie Chaplin made short films encouraging Americans to buy them.

Little Bighorn, Battle of the

 1676 Montana battle where Colonel George Custer and 300 of his men were killed by a group of Cheyenne and Lakota warriors. This was the last major victory by Native American forces over a U.S. army unit.

London Company

 In 1603 King James I gave the London Company a charter to settle the Virginia territory. In April 1607, the first settlers from this company settled at Jamestown.

“Lost Generation"

 Group of American intellectuals who viewed America in the 1920s as bigoted, intellectually shallow, and consumed by the quest for the dollar; many became extremely disillusioned with American life and went to Paris, Ernest Hemingway wrote of this group in The Sun Also Rises.

Louisiana Purchase

 The 1803 purchase of the huge Louisiana territory (from the Mississippi River out to the Rocky Mountains) from Napoleon for & 15 million. This purchase made eventual westward movement possible for vast numbers of Americans.

Lowell System

 Developed in the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, in the 1820s, in these factories as much machinery as possible was used, so that few skilled workers were needed in the process, and the workers were almost all single young farm women, who worked for a few years and then returned home to be housewives. Managers found these young women were the perfect workers for this type of factory life.

Loyalists

 Individuals who remained loyal to Great Britain during the years up to and during the Revolutionary War. Many who were Loyalists were from the higher strata of colonial society; when war actually broke out and it became apparent that the British were not going to quickly win, almost all went to Canada, the West Indies, or back to Great Britain.

Loyalty Review Boards

 These were established in 1947 in an effort to control possible communist influence in the American government. These boards were created to investigate the possibility of “security risks” working for the American government, and to determine if those “security risks” should lose their jobs. Some employees were released because of their affiliation with “unacceptable” political organizations or because of their sexual orientation.

Lusitania

 British passenger liner with 128 Americans on board that was sunk of the coast of Ireland by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915. This sinker caused outrage in the United States and was one of a series of events that drew the United States closer to war with Germany. Manhattan Project Program begun in 1941 to develop an atomic weapon for the United States; project was aided by German scientists added to the research team who had been working on a similar bomb in Germany. First rest of the bomb took place in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. manifest destiny Term first used in the 1840s, the concept that America’s expansion westward was as journalist John O’Sullivan said, “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.”

Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, The

 Early 1950s hook and movie that compares the sterility, sameness, and lack of excitement of postwar work and family life with the vitality felt by many World War II veterans during their wartime experiences.

Marbury v. Madison

 1803 decision of this case written by Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, meaning that the Supreme Court ultimately has the power to decide if any federal or state law is unconstitutional.

March on Washington

 Over 200,000 came to Washington for this August 1963 event demanding civil rights for blacks. A key moment of the proceedings was Martin Luther King's “I have a dream speech”; the power of the civil rights movement was not lost on Lyndon Johnson, who pushed for civil rights legislation when he became president the following year.

Marshall Plan

 Plan announced in 1947 whereby the United States would help to economically rebuild Europe after the war; 17 Western European nations became part of the plan. The United States introduced the plan so that communism would not spread across war-torn Europe and bring other European countries into the communist camp.

Massacre at Wounded Knee

 December 28, 1890 “battle” that was the last military resistance of Native Americans of the Great Plains against American encroachment. Minneconjou Indians were at Wounded Knee creek. American soldiers attempted to take their arms from them; after shooting began, 25 American soldiers died, along with 150 men, women, and children of the Indian tribe.

martial law

During a state of emergency, when rule of law may be suspended and government is controlled by military or police authorities. During the Civil War, Kentucky was placed under martial law by President Lincoln, massive retaliation Foreign policy officials in the Eisenhower administration believed the best way to stop communism was to convince the communists that every time they advanced, there would be massive retaliation against them. This policy explains the desire in this era to increase the nuclear arsenal of the United States.

McCarran Internal Security Act

 Congressional act enacted in 1950 that stated all members of the Communist party bad to register with the office of the Attorney General and that it was a crime to conspire to foster communism in the United States.

McCarran-Walter Act

 1952 bill that limited immigration from everywhere except Northern and Western Europe and stated that immigration officials could turn any immigrant away that they thought might threaten the national security of the United States.

McCarthyism

 Named after Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin, the title given for the movement that took place during the late 1940s and early 1950s in American politics to root out potential communist influence in the government, the military, and the entertainment industry. Harsh tactics were often used by congressional investigations, with few actual communists ever discovered. This period is seen by many today as an era of intolerance and paranoia. Meat Inspection Act Inspired by Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, this 1906 bill established a government commission that would monitor the quality of all meat sold in America and inspect the meatpacking houses for safety and cleanliness.

Medicare

 Part of Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society program, this program acted as a form of health insurance for retired Americans (and disabled ones as well). Through Medicare, the federal government would pay for services received by elderly patients at doctor’s offices and hospitals.

mercantilism

 Economic policy practiced by most European states in the late seventeenth century that stated the power of any state depended largely on its wealth; thus it was the state’s duty to do all that it could to build up wealth. A mercantilist country would not want to import raw materials from other countries; instead, it would be best to have colonies from which these raw materials could be imported.

Merrimack

 Union ironclad ship captured by Confederates during the Civil War and renamed the Virginia.

Meuse-Argonne Offensive

 American forces played a decisive role in this September 1918 Allied offensive, which was the last major offensive of the war and which convinced the German general staff that victory in World War I was impossible.

Middle Parage

 The voyage across the Atlantic Ocean taken by slaves on their way to the Americas. Sickness, diseases, and death were rampant as slave ships crossed the Atlantic; on some ships over 20 percent of slaves who began the journey were dead by the time the ship landed.

”midnight appointments”

 Judicial or other appointments made by an outgoing president or governor in the last hours before he or she leaves office. The most famous were the judicial appointments made by John Adams in the hours before Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated as president.

Midway, Battle of

 June 4, 1942 naval battle that crippled Japanese offensive capabilities in the Pacific; American airplanes destroyed four aircraft carriers and 245 Japanese planes. After Midway, Japanese military operations were mainly defensive.

Missouri Compromise

 In a continued effort to maintain a balance between free and slave states, Henry Clay proposed this 1820 compromise, which admitted Maine to the Union as a free state, Missouri to the Union as a slave state, and stated that any part of the Louisiana Territory north of 36 degrees, 30 inches would be non slave territory.

Model T

 Automobile produced by Ford Motor Company using assembly line techniques. The first Model Ts were produced in 1907; using the assembly line, Ford produced half of the automobiles made in the world between 1907 and 1926.

Molasses Act

 In the early 1700s colonists traded for molasses with the French West Indies. British traders wanted to reduce trade between the colonics and the French; in 1733 they pressured Parliament to pass this act, which pur prohibitively high duties on imported molasses. Colonists continued to smuggle French molasses in the Americas in spite of British efforts to prevent this.

Monitor

 Union ironclad ship utilized during the Civil War; fought one battle against the Virginia, the South's ironclad ship, and never left port again.

Monroe Doctrine

 President James Monroe’s 1823 statement that an attack by a European state on any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be considered an attack on the United States; Monroe stated that the Western Hemisphere was the hemisphere of the United States and not of Europe. Monroe’s statement was scoffed al by certain European political leaders, especially chose in Great Britain.

Montgomery bus boycott

 Yearlong refusal by blacks to ride city buses in Montgomery, Alabama, because of their segregation policies. Boycott began in December 1955; Supreme Court finally ruled that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional. Rosa Parks began the protest when she was arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white man, and Martin Luther King was a young minister involved in organizing the boycott.

Morrill Land Grant Act

 1862 federal act designed to fund state “land-grant” colleges. State governments were given large amounts of land in the western territories; this land was sold to individual settlers, land speculators, and others, and the profits of these land sales could he used to establish the colleges.

Ms.

 Founded in 1972 by Gloria Steinem, this glossy magazine was aimed at feminist readers, muckrakers Journalists of the Progressive era who attempted to expose the evils of government and hig business. Many muckrakers wrote of the corruption of city and state political machines. Factory conditions and the living and working condition of workers were other topics that some muckrakers wrote about.

My Lai Massacre

 In 1968 a unit under the command of Lieutenant William Called killed over 300 men, women, and children in this small Vietnamese village. The antiwar movement took the attack as a symbol of the “immorality” of United States efforts in Vietnam.

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

Ratified in 1994 by the U.S. Senate, this agreement established a free trade zone between the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Critics of the agreement claim that many jobs have been lost in the United States because of it, napalm Jellylike substance dropped from American planes during the Vietnam conflict that horribly burned the skin of anyone that came into contact with it. On several occasions, napalm was accidentally dropped on “friendly” villages. National American Woman’s Suffrage Association The major organization for suffrage for women, it was founded in 1890 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Supported the Wilson administration during World War I and split with the more radical National Woman’s Party, who in 1917 began to picket the White House because Wilson had not forcefully stated chat women should get the vote.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

 Formed in 1909, this organization fought for and continues to fight for the right of blacks in America. The NAACP originally went to court for the plaintiff in the Brown v. Board of Education case, and Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP’s chief counsel and later a Supreme Court justice, was the main attorney in the case.

National Bank

 Planned by Alexander Hamilton to be similar to the Bank of England, this bank was funded by government and private sources. Hamilton felt a National Bank would give economic security and confidence to the new nation; Republicans who had originally opposed the bank felt the same way in 1815 when they supported Henry Clay’s American System.

National Consumers League

 Formed in 1890, this organization was concerned with improving the working and living conditions of women in the workplace.

national culture

 When a general unity of tastes and a commonality of cultural experience exist in a nation; in a general sense, when a country starts to “think the same.” This occurred in America for the first time in the 1920s; as many people saw the same movies, read the same magazines, and heard the same things on the radio, a national culture was born.

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)

 1933 New Deal legislation that created the Works Progress Administration (WPA) that created jobs to put people back to work right away and the National Recovery Administration (NRA), who worked in con function with industry to bolster the industrial sector and create more long-lasting jobs.

National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)

 Part of the 1935 Wagner Act, which was a huge victory for organized labor. The NLRB ensured that factory owners did not harass union organizers, ensured that collective bargaining was fairly practiced in labor disputes, and supervised union elections. The NLRB was given the legal “teeth” to force employers to comply with all of the above.

National Origins Act

 Very restrictive immigration legislation passed in 1924, which lowered immigration to 2 percent of each nationality as found in the 1890 census. This lowered immigration dramatically and, quite intentionally, almost eliminated immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe.

National Security League

 Organization founded in 1914 that preached patriotism and preparation for war; in 1915 they successfully lobbied government officials to set up camps to prepare men for military life and combat. The patriotism of this group became more strident as the war progressed; in 1917 they lobbied Congress to greatly limit immigration into the country.

National Woman's Party

 Formed by Alice Paul after women got the vote, this group lobbied unsuccessfully in the 1920s to get an Equal Rights Amendment for women added to the Constitution. Desire for this amendment would return among some feminist groups in the 1970s.

Nation of Islam

 Supporters were called Black Muslims; this group was founded by Elijah Muhammad and preached Islamic principles along with black pride and black separatism. Malcolm X was a member of the Nation of Islam.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Collective alliance of the United States and most of the Western European nations that was founded in 1949; an attack of one member of NATO was to he considered an attack on all. Many United States troops served in Europe during the Cold War era because of the NATO alliance. To counter NATO, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact in 1955.

Naval Act of 1900

 Legislation that authorized a large increase in the building of ships to be used for offensive purposes; this measure helped ensure the creation of a world-class American navy.

Navigation Acts

 1660 measures passed by Charles EE chat were designed to increase the dependence of the colonies on England for trade, Charles mandated that certain goods produced in the colonics, such as tobacco, should be sold only to England, that if the colonies wanted to sell anything to other countries it had to come through England first, and that all trade by the colonies to other countries would have to be done in English ships. These measures could have been devastating to the colonies; however, British officials in the colonics did not enforce them carefully.

nativism

 Nativism states that immigration should be greatly limited or banned altogether, since immigrants hurt the United States economically and also threaten the social well-being of the country. Nativist groups and parties have developed on several occasions in both the nineteenth and the twentieth century; nativist sentiment was especially strong in the 1920s.

Neutrality Act of 1935

 To prevent the United States from being drawn into potential European conflicts, this bill said that America would not trade arms with any country at war, and that any American citizen traveling on a ship of a country at war was doing so at his or her own risk.

Neutrality Act of

1939 Franklin Roosevelt got Congress to amend the Neutrality Act of 1935; new legislation stated that England and France could buy arms from the United States as long as there was cash “up front” for these weapons. This was the first military assistance that the United 5tates gave the Allied countries.

New Deal

 Series of policies instituted by Franklin Roosevelt and his advisors from 1933-1941 that attempted to offset the effects of the Great Depression on American society. Many New Deal policies were clearly experimental; in the end it was the onset of World War II, and not the policies of the New Deal, that pulled the United States out of the Great Depression.

New Deal Coalition

 The coalition of labor unions and industrial workers, minorities, much of the middle class, and the Solid South that carried Franklin Roosevelt to victories in 1936 and 1940 and that was the basis of Democratic victories on a national level until this coalition started to break up in the late 1960s and early 1970s. A sizable number of this group voted for Ronald Reagan in the presidential elections of 1980 and 1984.

New Democrat

 Term used to describe Bill Clinton and his congressional supporters during his two terms in office. A New Democrat was pragmatic, and not tied to the old Democratic belief in big government; New Democrats took both Democratic and Republican ideas as they crafted their policies. Some in the Democratic party maintained that Clinton had actually sold out the principles of the party.

New Federalism

 A series of policies during the administration of Richard Nixon that began to give some power back to the stares that had always been held by the federal government. Some tax dollars were returned to state and local governments іn the form of “block grants”; the state and local governments could then spend this money as they thought best.

New Freedom policy

 An approach favored by Southern and Midwestern Democrats, this policy stated that economic and political preparation for World War I should be done in a decentralized manner; this would prevent coo much power falling into the hands of the federal government. President Wilson first favored this approach, but then established federal agencies to organize mobilization.

New Frontier

 The program of President John Kennedy to revitalize America at home and to reenergize America for continued battles against the Soviet Union, Kennedy asked young Americans to volunteer for programs such as the Peace Corps; as he said in his inaugural speech; “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”

“new immigrants”

 Immigrants that came from Southern and Eastern Europe, who made up the majority of immigrants coming into the United States after 1900. Earlier immigrants from Britain, Ireland, and Scandinavia appeared to be “like” the groups that were already settled in the United States; the “new іmmigrants” were very different. As a result, resentment and nativist sentiment developed against this group, especially in the 1920s.

New Jersey Plan

 As the U.S. Constitution was being debated and drafted, large states and small states each offered proposals on how the legislature should be structured. The New Jersey Plan stated that the legislature should have a great deal of power to regulate trade, and that it should consist of one legislative house, with each state having one vote.

New Nationalism

 The series of progressive reforms supported by Theodore Roosevelt as he ran for president on the Progressive or “Bull Moose” ticket in 1912. Roosevelt said that more had to he done to regulate big business and that neither of his opponents were committed to conservation.

New Right

The conservative movement that began in the 1960s and triumphed with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. The New Right was able to attract many middle-class and Southern voters to the Republican party by emphasizing the themes of patriotism, a smaller government, and a return to “traditional values.”

“New South”

 Concept promoted by Southerners in the late 1 800s chat the South had changed dramatically and was now interested in industrial growth and becoming a part of the national economy. A large textile industry did develop in the South beginning in the 1880s.

Nez Perce

 Plains Native American tribe that attempted to resist reservation life by traveling 1500 miles with American military forces in pursuit. After being tracked and suffering cold and hardship, the Nez Perce finally surrendered and were forced onto a reservation in 1877.

Non-Intercourse Act

 In response to the failure of France and Britain to respect the rights of American ships at sea, President Madison supported this legislation in 1809, which authorized trade with all countries except Britain and France, and stated that trade exist with those countries as soon as they respected America’s rights as a neutral power. The British and the French largely ignored this act.

Northwest Ordinances

 Bills passed in 1784, 1785, and 1787 that authorized the sale of lands in the Northwest Territory to raise money for the federal government; these bills also carefully laid our the procedures for eventual statehood for parts of these territories.

NOW (National Organization for Women)

 Formed in 1966, with Betty Friedan as its first president. NOW was at first interested in publicizing inequalities for women in the workplace; focus of the organization later turned to social issues and eventually the unsuccessful effort to pass an Equal Rights Amendment for women.

nuclear proliferation

 The massive buildup of nuclear weapons by the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and into the 1960s; in the United States this was fostered in the belief that the threat of “massive retaliation” was the best way to keep the Soviet Union under control. The psychological effects of the atomic bomb on the populations of the Soviet Union and the United States were also profound.

nullification

 The belief that an individual state has the right to “nullify” any federal law that the state felt was unjust. Andrew Jackson was able to resolve a Nullification Crisis in 1832, but the concept of nullification was still accepted by many Southerners, and controversy over this was a cause of the Civil War.

Ocala Platform

 Platform of the Farmer’s Alliance, formulated at an 1890 convention held in Ocala, Florida, This farmer’s organization favored a graduated income tax, government control of the railroad, the unlimited coinage of silver, and the direct election of United States senators. Candidates supporting the farmers called themselves Populists and ran for public offices in the 1890s.

Old Age Revolving

 Pension Plan Conceived by California doctor Francis Townsend in 1934, this plan would give every retired American $200 a month, with the stipulation that it would have to be spent by the end of the month; Townsend claimed this would revitalize the economy by putting more money in circulation, A national tax of 2 percent on all business transactions was supposed to finance this plan. A large number of Townsend clubs were formed to support this plan.

“on the margin”

The practice in the late 1920s of buying stock and only paying in cash 10 percent of the value of chat stock; the buyer could easily borrow the rest from his or her stockbroker or investment banker. This system worked well as long as investors could sell their stocks at a profit and repay their loans; after the 1929 stock market crash, investors had to pay these loans back in cash.

OPEC

 Acronym for Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, this organization sets the price for crude oil and determines how much of it will be produced. The decision of OPEC to raise oil prices in 1973 had a dramatic economic impact in both the United States and the rest of the world.

Open-Door policy

 The policy that China should be open to trade with all of the major powers, and that all, including the United States, should have equal right to trade there. This was the official American position toward China as announced by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899.

Oregon Trail

 Trail that took settlers from the Ohio River Valley through the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains to Oregon, Settlers began moving westward along this trail in 1842; by 1860 over 325,000 Americans had traveled westward along the trail.

Oregon Treaty

 Both the United States and Great Britain claimed the Oregon Territory; in 1815 they agreed to jointly control the region. In 1843 the settlers of Oregon declared that their territory would become an independent republic.

Palmer Raids

 Part of the Red Scare, these were measures to hunt out political radicals and immigrants who were potential threats to American security. Organized by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in 1919 and 1920 (and carried out by J. Edgar Hoover), these raids led to the arrest of nearly 5500 people and the deportation of nearly four hundred.

Panama Canal

 Crucial for American economic growth, the building of this canal was begun by American builders in 1904 and completed in 1914; the United States had to first engineer a Panamanian revolt against Colombia to guarantee a friendly government in Panama that would support the building of the canal. In 1978 the U.S. Senate voted the return the Panama Canal to Panamanian control.

Panic of 1837

 The American economy suffered a deep depression when Great Britain reduced the amount of credit it offered to the United States; American merchants and industrialists had to use their available cash to pay off debts, thus causing businesses to cut production and lay off workers.

Paris, Treaty of

 The treaty ending the Revolutionary War, and signed in 1783; by the terms of this treaty the United States received the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The British did keep their Canadian territories.

Pendleton Civil

 Service Act 1883 act that established a civil service system; there were a number of government jobs that were filled by civil service examinations and not by the president appointing one of his political cronies. Some states also started to develop professional civil service systems in the 1880s.

Pentagon Papers

 A government study of American involvement in Vietnam that outlined in detail many of the mistakes that America had made there; in 1971 a former analyst for the Defense Department, Daniel Ellsberg released these to the York Times.

Platt Amendment

 For Cuba to receive its independence from the United States after the Spanish-American war, it had to agree to the Platt Amendment, which stated that the United States had the right to intervene in Cuban affairs if the Cuban government could not maintain control or if the independence of Cuba was threatened by external or internal forces.

Plumbers

 A group of intelligence officials who worked for the committee to reelect Richard Nixon in 1972; the job of this group was to stop leaks of information and perform “dirty tricks” on political opponents of the president. The Plumbers broke into the office of Daniel Ellsberg’s psychiatrist, looking for damaging information against him and totally discredited the campaign of Democratic hopeful Edmund Muskie.

pocket veto

 A method a president can use to “kill” congressional legislation at the end of a congressional term. Instead of vetoing the bill, the president may simply not sign it; once the congressional term is over, the bill will then die.

political machine

 An organization that controls the politics of a city, a state, or even the country, sometimes by illegal or quasi-legal means; a machine employs a large number of people to do its “dirty work,” for which they are either given some government job or are allowed to pocket government bribes or kickbacks. The “best” example of a political machine was the Tammany Hall organization that controlled New York City in the late nineteenth century.

Populist party

 Parry that represented the farmers that scored major electoral victories in the 1890s, including the election of several members of the U.S. House of Representatives and the election of one U.S. senator. Populist candidates spoke against monopolies, wanted government to become “more democratic,” and wanted more direct government action to help the working classes.

Port Huron Statement

 The manifesto of Students for a Democratic Society, a radical student group formed in 1962. The Port Huron Statement called for a greater role for university students in the nation's affairs, rejected the traditional role of the university, and rejected the foreign policy goals that America was embracing at the time.

Potsdam Conference

 July 1945 conference between new president Harry Truman, Stalin, and Clement Atlee, who had replaced Churchill. Truman rook a much tougher stance toward Stalin than Franklin Roosevelt had; little substantive agreement took place at this conference, Truman expressed reservations about the future role of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe at this conference.

Powhatan

Confederacy Alliance of Native American tribes living in the region of the initial Virginia settlement, Powhatan, leader of this alliance, tried to live in peace with the English settlers when they arrived in 1607.

professional bureaucracy

 Government officials that receive their positions after taking competitive civil service tests; they are nor appointed in return for political favors. Many government jobs at the state and national level are filled in this manner beginning in the 1880s.

progressivism

 A movement that desired political and social reform, and was most influential in America from the 1890s up until World War I. Most popular progressive causes included reforming city government, better conditions for urban workers, the education of newly arrived immigrants, and the regulation of big businesses.

proportional representation

 The belief that representation in a legislature should he based on population; the states with the largest populations should have the most representatives. When the Constitution was being formulated, the larger states wanted this; the smaller states favored “one vote per state.” The eventual compromise, termed the Connecticut plan, created a two-house legislature.

proprietorships

 Settlements in America that were given to individuals, who could govern and regulate the territory in any manner they desire. Charles I, for example, gave the Maryland territory to Lord Baltimore as a proprietorship.

Puritans

 Group of religious dissidents who came to the New World so they would have a location to establish a “purer” church than the one that existed in England. The Puritans began to settle the Plymouth Colony in 1620 and settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony beginning in 1630. Puritans were heavily influenced by John Calvin and his concept of predestination.

putting-out system

 The first textile production system in England, where merchants gave wool to families, who in their homes created yarn and then cloth; the merchants would then buy the cloth from the families and sell the finished product. Textile mills made this procedure more efficient.

Quartering Act

 1765 British edict staring that to help defend the empire, colonial governments had to provide accommodations and food for British troops. Many colonists considered this act to be the ultimate insult; they perceived that they were paying for the troops that were there to control the colonies.

Queen Anne’s War

 1702 to 1713 war, called the War of the Spanish Succession in European texts, pitted England against France and Spain. Spanish Florida was attacked by the English in the early part of this war, and Native Americans fought for both sides in the conflict. The British emerged victorious and in the end received Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia from the French.

Radical Republicans

 Group of Republicans after the Civil War who favored harsh treatment of the defeated South and a dramatic restructuring of the economic and social systems in the South; favored a decisive elevation of the political, social, and economic position of former slaves.

ratifying conventions

 In late 1787 and in 1788 these were held in all states for the purpose of ratifying the new Constitution of the United States. In many states, approval of the Constitution was only approved by a small margin; in Rhode Island ratification was defeated. The Founding Fathers made an intelligent decision in calling for ratifying conventions to approve the Constitution instead of having state legislatures do it, since the under the system proposed by the Constitution, some of the powers state legislatures had at the time would be turned over to the federal government.

ration cards

 Held by Americans during World War II, these recorded the amount of rationed goods such as automobile tires, gasoline, meat, butter, and other materials an individual bad purchased. Where regulation in World War I had been voluntary, consumption in World War II was regulated by government agencies.

realpolitik

 Pragmatic policy of leadership, in which the leader “does what he or she has to do” in order to be successful. Morality has no place in the mind-set of a leader practicing realpolitik. The late nineteenth-century German chancellor Otto von Bismarck is the best modern example of a leader practicing realpolitik.

Rebel Without a Cause

 1955 film starring James Dean exploring the difficulties of family life and the alienation that many teenagers felt in the 1950s. Juvenile delinquency, and the reasons for it, was the subtext of this film, as well as the source of countless other 1950s-era movies aimed at the youth market.

recall

 One of a number of reforms of the governmental system proposed by progressive-era thinkers; by the process of recall, the citizens of a city or state could remove an unpopular elected official from office in midterm. Recall was adapted in only a small number of communities.

reconcentration

 1896 Spanish policy designed to control the Cuban people by forcing them to live in fortified camps; American outrage over this leads some politicians to call for war against Spain, Reconstruction Act Plan of Radical Republicans to control the former area of the Confederacy and approved by Congress in March 1867; former Confederacy was divided into five military districts, with each controlled by a military commander (Tennessee was exempt from this). Conventions were to be called to create new state governments (former Confederate officials could not hold office in these governments).

Reconstruction era

 The era following the Civil War where Radical Republicans initiated changes in the South that gave newly freed slaves additional economic, social, and political rights. These changes were greatly resented by many Southerners, causing the creation of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

 Established in 1932 by Herberr Hoover to offset the effects of the Great Depression; the RFC was authorized to give federal credit to banks so that they could operate efficiently. Banks receiving these loans were expected to extend loans to businesses providing jobs or building low-cost housing.

Red Scare

 Vigorous repression of radicals, “political subversives,” and “undesirable” immigrants groups in the years immediately following World War I. Nearly 6500 “radicals” were arrested and sent to jail; some sat in jail without every being changed with a crime, while nearly 500 immigrants were deported.

referendum

 one of a series of progressive-era reforms designed to improve the political system; with the referendum, certain issues would be decided not by elected representatives as voters are called upon to approve or disapprove specific government programs. Consistent with populist and progressive era desire to return government “to the people.”

religious right

 Primarily Protestant movement that greatly grew beginning in the 1970s and pushed to return “morality” to the forefront in American life. The religious right has been especially active in opposing abortion, and since the 1980s has extended its influence in the political sphere by endorsing and campaigning for specific candidates.

Removal Act of 1830

 Part of the effort to remove Native Americans from “Western” lands so that American settlement could continue westward, this legislation gave the president the authorization (and the money) to purchase from Native Americans all of their lands cast of the Mississippi, and gave him the money to purchase lands west of the Mississippi for Native Americans to move to.

Report on the Public Credit

 1790 report by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, in which he proposed that the federal government assume the entire amount of the nation's debt (including state debt), and that the federal government should have an increased role in the nation’s economy. Many of America's early leaders vigorously opposed the expansion of federal economic power in the new republic and the expansion of American industry that Hamilton also promoted.

Republican party

 Formed in 1854 during the death of the Whig party, this party attracted former members of the Free-Soil party and some in the Democratic party who were uncomfortable with the Democratic position on slavery. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. For much of the twentieth century, the party was saddled with the label of being “the party of big business,” although Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and others did much to pull middle class and Southern voters into the party.

“Reservationists”

 This group in the United States Senate was led by Henry Cabot Lodge and was opposed to sections of the Versailles Treaty when it was brought home from Paris by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919. Reservationists were especially concerned that if the United States joined the League of Nations, American troops would be used to conduct League of Nations military operations without the approval of the Congress.

Resettlement Administration

 In an attempt to address the problems of Dust Bowlers and other poor farmers, this 1935 New Deal program attempted to provide aid to the poorest farmers, resettle some farmers from the Dust Bowl, and establish farm cooperatives. This program never received the funding it needed to be even partially successfully, and in 1937 the Farm Security Administration was created to replace it.

Revenue Act of 1935

 Tax legislation championed by Franklin Roosevelt that was called a “soak the rich” plan by his opponents. Under this bill, corporate, inheritance, and gift taxes went up dramatically; income raxes for the upper brackets also rose. By proposing this, Roosevelt may have been attempting to diffuse the popularity of Huey Long and others with more radical plans to redistribute wealth.

Revenue Act of 1942

 Designed to raise money for the war, this bill dramatically increased the number of Americans required to pay income tax. Until this point, roughly 4 million Americans paid income tax; as a result of this legislation, nearly 45 million did.

“revisionist”

 history A historical interpretation not found in “standard”' history hooks or supported by most historians. A revisionist history of the origins of the Cold War, for example, would maintain that the aggressive actions of the United States forced the Soviet Union to seize the territories of Eastern Europe for protection. Historical interpretations that may originally be revisionist may, in rime, become standard historical interpretation.

revival meetings

 Religious meetings consisting of soul-searching, preaching, and prayer that cook place during the Second Great Awakening at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Some revival meetings lasted aver one week.

Rio Pact

 1947 treaty signed by the United States and most Latin American countries, stating that the region would work together on economic and defense matters and creating the Organization of American States to facilitate this cooperation.

Roe v. Wade

 1973 Supreme Court decision that made abortion legal (except in the last months of pregnancy). Justices voting in the majority in this 5-to-2 decision stared that a woman’s right to privacy gave her the legal freedom to choose to have an abortion. Abortion has remained as one of the most hotly debated social issues in America.

Roosevelt Corollary

 An extension of the Monroe Doctrine, this policy was announced in 1904 by Theodore Roosevelt; it firmly warned European nations against intervening in the affairs of nations in the Western Hemisphere, and stated that the United States had the right to take action against any nation in Latin America if “chronic wrongdoing” was taking place. The Roosevelt Corollary was used to justify several American “interventions” in Central America in the twentieth century.

Rosie the Riveter

 Image of a woman factory worker drawn by Norman Rockwell for the Saturday Evening Post during World War II. Women were needed to take on factory jobs that had been held by departing soldiers; by 1945 women made up nearly 37 percent of the entire domestic workforce.

“Rough Riders”

 A special unit of soldiers recruited by Theodore Roosevelt to do battle in the Spanish-American War; this unit was composed of men from many backgrounds, with the commanding officer of the unit being Roosevelt (after he resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy). The most publicized event of the war was the charge of the Rough Riders up San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898.

Salem Witch Trials

 120 men, women, and children were arrested for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692; 19 of these were executed. A new governor appointed by the Grown stopped additional trails and executions; several historians note the class nature of the witch trials, as many of those accused were associated with the business and/or commercial interests in Salem, while most of the accusers were members of the farming class.

SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)

1972 treaty signed by Richard Nixon and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev limiting the development of additional nuclear weapon systems and defense systems to stop them. SALT I was only partially effective in preventing, continued development of nuclear weaponry.

salutary neglect

 British policy announced at the beginning of the eighteenth century stating that as long as the American colonics remained politically loyal and continued their trade with Great Britain, the British government would relax enforcement of various measures restricting colonial activity that were enacted in the 1600s. Tensions between the colonics and Britain continued over British policies concerning colonial trade and the power of colonial legislatures.

satellite countries

 Eastern European countries that remained under the control of the Soviet Union during the Cold War era. Most were drawn together militarily by the Warsaw Pact; satellite nations that attempted political or cultural rebellion, such as Hungary in 1956 or Czechoslovakia in 1968, faced invasion by Soviet forces.

“Saturday Night Massacre”

 October 20, 1973 event when Richard Nixon ordered the firing of Archibald Cox, the special investigator in charge of the Watergate investigation. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and several others in the Justice Department refused to carry out this order and resigned. This event greatly damaged Nixon’s popularity, both in the eyes of the public and in the Congress.

scalawags

 Term used by Southerners in the Reconstruction era for fellow Southerners who either supported Republican Reconstruction policies or gained economically as a result of these policies.

Scopes Trial

 1925 Tennessee trail where teacher John Scopes was charged with teaching evolution, a violation of state status. The American Civil Liberties Union hired Clarence Darrow to defend Scopes, while the chief attorney for the prosecution was three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. While Scopes was convicted and ordered to pay a small fine, Darrow was able to poke holes in the theory of creationism as expressed by Bryan.

Scottsboro Boys

Nine black young men who were accused of raping two white women in a railway boxcar in Scottsboro, Arizona in 1931. Quick trials, suppressed evidence, and inadequate legal council made them symbols of the discrimination that faced blacks on a daily basis during this era.

Scramble for Africa

 The competition between the major European powers to gain colonial territories in Africa that took place between the 1870s and the outbreak of World War I. Conflicts created by competing visions of colonial expansion increased tensions between the European powers and were a factor in the animosities that led to World War I.

secession

 A single state or a group of states leaving the United States of America. New England Federalists threatened to do this during first administration of Thomas Jefferson; Southern states did this in the period prior to the Civil War.

Second Continental Congress

 Meeting of delegates from the American colonics in May 1775; during the sessions some delegates expressed hope that the differences between the colonics and Britain could be reconciled, although the Congress authorized that the Continental Army be created and that George Washington be named commander of that army.

Second Great Awakening

 Religious revival movement that began at the beginning of the nineteenth century; revivalist ministers asked thousands of worshippers at revival meetings to save their own souls. This reflected the move away from predestination in Protestant thinking of the era.

Second Industrial Revolution

 The massive economic growth that took place in American from 1865 until the end of the century that was largely based on the expansion of the railroad, the introduction of electric power, and the production of steel for building. By the 1890s America had replaced Germany as the major industrial producer in the world.

Second National Bank

 Bank established by Congress in 1816; President Madison had called for the Second Bank in 1815 as a way to spur national economic growth after the War of 1812. After an economic downturn in 1818, the bank shrunk the amount of currency available for loans, an act that helped to create the economic collapse of 1819.

Second New Deal

 Beginning in 1935 the New Deal did more to help the poor and attack the wealthy; one reason Roosevelt took this path was to turn the American people away from those who said the New Deal wasn't going far enough to Help the average person. Two key legislative acts of this era were the Social Security Act of May 1935 and the June 1935 National Labor Relations Act (also called the Wagner Act), which gave all Americans the right to join labor unions. The Wealth Tax Act increased the tax rates for the wealthiest Americans.

settlement houses

 Centers set up by progressive-era reformers in the poorest sections of American cities; at these centers workers and their children might receive lessons in the English language or citizenship, while for women lessons in sewing and cooking were oftentimes held. The first settlement house was Hull House in Chicago, established by jane Addams in 1889.

Seventeenth Amendment

 Ratified in 1913, this amendment allowed voters to directly elect United States senators. Senators had previously been elected by state legislatures; this change perfectly reflected the spirit of progressive-era political reformers who wanted to do all they could to put political power in the hands of the citizenry.

Sherman Antitrust Act

 1890 congressional legislation designed to break up industrial trusts such as the one created by John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil. The bill stated that any combination of businesses that was “in the restraint of trade” was illegal. Because of the vagueness of the legislation and the lack of enforcement tools in the hands of the federal government, few trusts were actually prosecuted as a result of this bill.

Shiloh, Battle of Fierce

 Civil War battle in Tennessee in April 1862; although the Union emerged victorious, both sides suffered a large number of casualties in this battle. Total casualties in this battle were nearly 25,000. General U.S. Grant commanded the Union forces at Shiloh.

Sioux

 Plains tribe that tried to resist American westward expansion; after two wars the Sioux were resettled in South Dakota. In 1876 Sioux fighters defeated the forces of General Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn. In 1890 almost 225 Sioux men, women, and children were killed by federal troops at the Massacre at Wounded Knee.

sit-down strikes

 A labor tactic where workers refuse to leave their factory until management meets their demands. The most famous sit-down strike occurred at the General Motors plant in Flint, Michigan, beginning in November, 1936; despite efforts by company guards to end the strike by force, the workers finally saw their demands met after 44 days.

sit-in

 Tactic used by the civil rights movement in the early 1960s; a group of civil rights workers would typically occupy a lunch counter in a segregated establishment in the South and refuse to leave, thus disrupting normal business (and profits) for the segregated establishment. During sit-ins civil rights workers often suffered physical and emotional abuse. The first sit-in was at the Woolworth’s score in Greensboro, North Carolina, on February 1, 1960.

Sixteenth Amendment

 1913 amendment that instituted a federal income tax. In debate over this measure in the Congress, most felt that this would be a fairer tax than a national sales tax, which was proposed by some.

Smith-Connally Act

 1943 legislation that limited the nature of labor action possible for the rest of the war. Many in America felt that strikes, especially those organized in the coal mines by the United Mine Workers, were detrimental to the war effort.

Social Darwinism

 Philosophy that evolved from the writings of Charles Darwin on evolution that stated people inevitably compete with each other, as do societies; in the end the “survival of the fittest” would naturally occur. Social Darwinism was used to justify the vast differences between the rich and the poor in the late nineteenth century, as well as the control that the United States and Europe maintained aver other parts of the world.

Social Gospel movement

 Late nineteenth-century Protestant movement preaching that all true Christians should be concerned with the plight of immigrants and other poor residents of American cities and should financially support efforts to improve the lives of these poor urban dwellers. Progressive-era settlement houses were oftentimes financed by funds raised by ministers of the Social Gospel movement.

Social Security Act

 Considered by many to be the most important act passed during the entire New Deal, this 1935 bill established a system that would give payments to Americans after they reached retirement age; provisions for unemployment and disability insurance were also found in this bill. Political leaders of recent years have wrestled with the problem of keeping the Social Security system solvent.

Sons of Liberty

 Men who organized opposition to British policies during the late 1760s and 1770s. The Sons of Liberty were founded in and were most active in Boston, where in response to the Stamp Act they burned the local tax collector in effigy and burned a building that he owned. The Sons of Liberty also organized the Boston Tea Party. Samuel Adams was one of the leaders of this group.

“Southern Strategy”

 Plan begun by Richard Nixon that has made the Republican party dominant in many areas of the South that had previously voted Democratic. Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and countless Republican congressional candidates have emphasized law and order and traditional values in their campaigns, thus winning over numerous voters. Support from the South had been pan of the New Deal Democratic coalition crafted by Franklin Roosevelt.

Spanish-American War

 War that began in 1898 and stemmed from furor in America over treatment of Cubans by Spanish troops that controlled the island. During the war the American navy led by Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Pacific, the American ship the Maine was sunk in Havana harbor, and Teddy Roosevelt led the Rough Riders up San Juan Hill. A major result of the war was the acquisition by the United States of the Philippines, which made America a major power in the Pacific.

speakeasies

 Urban clubs that existed in the 1920s where alcohol was illegally sold to patrons. The sheer number of speakeasies in a city such as New York demonstrated the difficulty of enforcing a law such as prohibition.

special prosecutor

 An official appointed to investigate specific governmental wrongdoing. Archibald Cox was the special prosecutor assigned to investigate Watergate, while Kenneth Starr was the special prosecutor assigned to investigate the connections between President Clinton and Whitewater. President Nixon’s order to fire Cox was the beginning of the famous 1973 “Saturday Night Massacre.”

speculation

 The practice of purchasing either land or stocks with the intent of selling them for a higher price later. After the Homestead Act and other acts opened up the western United States for settlement, many speculators purchased land with no intent of ever settling on it; their goal was to later sell the land for profit.

spoils system

 Also called the patronage system, in which the president, governor, or mayor is allowed to fill government jobs with political allies and former campaign workers. Political reformers of the 1880s and 1890s introduced legislation calling for large numbers of these jobs to be filled by the merit system, in which candidates for jobs had to take competitive examinations. President Andrew Jackson began the spoils system.

Sputnik

 First man-made satellite sent into space, this 1957 scientific breakthrough by Soviet Union caused great concern in the United States. The thought that the United States was “behind” the Soviet Union in anything worried many, and science and mathematics requirements in universities across the country increased as a result.

Square Deal

 The philosophy of President Theodore Roosevelt; included in this was the desire to treat both sides fairly in any dispute. In the coal miner’s strike of 1902 he treated the United Mine Workers representatives and company bosses as equals; this approach continued during his efforts to regulate the railroads and other businesses during his second term.

stagflation

 A unique economic situation faced political leaders in the early 1970s, where inflation and signs of economic recession occurred at the same time. Previously, in times of inflation, the economy was improving, and vice versa. Nixon utilized wage and price controls and increased government spending to end this problem.

Stamp Act

 To help pay for the British army in North America, Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765, under which all legal documents in the colonics had to be issued on officially stamped paper. A tax was imposed on all of these documents, as well as on all colonial newspapers. The resistance to the Stamp Act was severe in the colonies, and it was eventually repealed.

Stamp Act Congress

 Representatives of nine colonies went to this meeting held in New York in October 1765; the document produced by this congress maintained the loyalty of the colonies to the Crown but strongly condemned the Stamp Act. Within one year the Stamp Act was repealed.

state’s rights

 The concept that the individual states, and not the federal government, have the power to decide whether federal legislation or regulations are to be enforced within the individual states. The mantle of state's rights would be taken up by New England Federalists during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson, by many Southern states in the years leading up to the Civil War, and by some Southern states again in response to federal legislation during the civil rights era of the 1960s.

Stono Rebellion

 1739 slave rebellion in South Carolina where over 75 slaves killed white citizens and marched through the countryside with captured guns. After the rebellion was quashed, discipline imposed by many slave owners was much harsher. This was the largest slave rebellion of the 1700s in the colonies.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

 Founded in 1962, this group was part of the “New Left” movement of the 1960s. SDS believed in a more participatory society, in a society that was less materialistic, and in university reform that would give students more power. By 1966 SDS concentrated much of its efforts on organizing opposition to the war in Vietnam. The Port Huron Statement was the original manifesto of SDS and was written by SDS founder Tom Hayden.

suburbia

 The area outside of the cities where massive number of families flocked to in the 1950s and 1960s. Suburban parents oftentimes still worked in the cities, but the suburban lifestyle shared little with urban life. Critics of 1950s suburbia point to the sameness and lack of vitality noted by some suburban residents and to the fact that suburban women oftentimes had to forget past dreams to accept the role of “housewife.”

Sugar Act

 Another effort to pay for the British army located in North America, this 1764 measure taxed sugar and other imports. The British had previously attempted to hall the flow of sugar from French colonics to the colonics: By the Sugar Act they attempted to make money off this trade. Another provision of the act harshly punished smugglers of sugar who didn’t pay the import duty imposed by the British.

Suffolk Resolves

 These were sent from Suffolk Country, Massachusetts, to the meeting of the First Continental Congress in September 1774 and called for the citizens of all of the colonics to prepare to take up arms against the British. After much debate, the First Continental Congress adopted the Suffolk Resolves.

supply-side economics

 Economic theory adopted by Ronald Reagan stating that economic growth would be best encouraged by lowering the taxes on wealthy businessmen and investors; this would give them more cash, which they would use to start more businesses, make more investments, and in general stimulate the economy. This theory of “Reaganomics” went against economic theories going back to the New Deal that claimed to efficiently stimulate the economy, more money needed to held by consumers (who would rum and spend it).

Sussex Pledge

 A torpedo from a German submarine hit the French passenger liner the Sussex in March 1916, killing and injuring many (including six Americans). In a strongly worded statement. President Wilson demanded that the Germans refrain from attacking passenger ships; in the Sussex Pledge the Germans said that they would temporarily stop these attacks, but that they might have to resume them in the future if the British continued their blockade of German ports.

Taft-Hartley Act

 1947 congressional legislation that aided the owners in potential labor disputes. In key industries the president could declare an 80- day cooling off period before a strike could actually take place; the bill also allowed owners to sue unions over broken contracts, and forced union leaders to sign anticommunist oaths. The bill was passed over President Truman’s veto; Truman only vetoed the bill for political reasons.

Tammany Hall

 Political machine that ran New York City Democratic and city politics beginning in 1870, and a “model” for the political machines that dominated politics in many American cities well into the twentieth century. William Marcy “Boss” Tweed was the head of Tammany Hall for several years and was the most notorious of all of the political bosses.

Tariff of 1816

 An extremely protectionist tariff designed to assist new American industries in the aftermath of the War of 1812; this tariff raised import duties by nearly 25 percent.

Tax Reform Act of 1986

 The biggest lax cut in American history, this measure cut taxes by $750 billion over five years and cut personal income taxes by 25 percent. Tax cuts were consistent with President Reagan's belief that more money in the hands of the wealthy would stimulate the economy. Critics of this tax cut would argue that the wealthy were the ones that benefited from it, as little of the money that went to the hands of the rich actually “trickled down” to help the rest of the economy. Critics would also argue that the national deficits of the late 1980s and early 1990s were caused by these tax cuts.

Taylorism

 Following the management practices of Frederick Winslow Taylor, the belief practiced by many factory owners beginning in 1911 (when Taylor published his first book) that factories should be managed in a scientific manner, with everything done to increase the efficiency of the individual worker and of the factory process as a whole. Taylor describes the movements of workers as if they were machines; workers in many factories resisted being seen in this light.

Tea Act

 1773 act by Parliament that would provide the American colonies with cheap tea, but at the same rime would force the colonists to admit that Parliament had a right to tax them. The Sons of Liberty acted against this measure in several colonies, with the most dramatic being the Boston Tea Parry. Parliament responded with the harsh Coercive Acts.

Teapot Dome Scandal

 One of many scandals that took place during the presidency of Warren G. Harding. The Secretary of the Interior accepted bribes from oil companies for access to government oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming; other Cabinet members were later convicted of accepting bribes and using their influence to make millions. The Harding administration was perhaps the most corrupt administration in American political history.

Teller Amendment

 As Americans were preparing for war with Spain over Cuba in 1898, this Senate measure stated that under no circumstances would the United States annex Cuba. The amendment was passed as many in the muckraking press were suggesting that the Cuban people would be better off “under the protection” of the United States.

temperance movement

 Movement that developed in America before the Civil War that lamented the effect that alcohol had on American society. After the Civil War members of this movement would become especially concerned about the effect of alcohol on immigrants and other members of the urban poor; out of the temperance movement came the drive for nationwide prohibition.

tenant farmers

 In the Reconstruction South, a step up from sharecropping; the tenant farmer rented his land from the landowner, freeing him from the harsh supervision that sharecroppers suffered under.

Tennessee

 Valley Authority Ambitious New Deal program char for the first time provided electricity to residents of the Tennessee Valley; the TVA also promoted agricultural and industrial growth land prevented flooding) in the region. In all, residents of seven states benefited from the TVA.

Ten Percent Plan

 Abraham Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction, which would have offered full pardons to persons living in Confederate states who would take an oath of allegiance to the United States (former Confederate military officers and civilian authorities would not be offered this possibility); once 10 percent of the citizens of a state had taken such an oath, the state could take steps to rejoin the Union. Radical Republicans in the U.S. Senate felt that this plan was much too lenient to the South.

Tenure of Office Act

 1867 congressional act designed to limit the influence of President Andrew Johnson. The act took away the president’s role as commander in chief of American military forces and stated that Congress had to approve the removal of government officials made by the president. In 1868 Johnson attempted to fire Secretary of War Stanton without congressional approval, thus helping set the stage for his impeachment hearings later that year.

Ter Offensive

 January 1968 attack launched on American and South Vietnamese forces by North Vietnamese and Viectong soldiers. Although Vietcong troops actually occupied the American embassy in Vietnam for several hours, the end result was a crushing defeat for the anti-American forces. However, the psychological effect of Tet was exactly the reverse: Vietcong forces were convinced they could decisively strike at South Vietnamese and American targets, and many in America ceased to believe that victory was “just around the corner.” Thirteenth Amendment 1865 amendment abolishing slavery in the United States and all of its territories (the Emancipation Proclamation had only ended slavery in the Confederate stares). Final approval of this amendment depended on ratification by newly constructed legislatures in eight states that were former members of the Confederacy.

Thirty-Eighth Parallel

 The dividing line between Soviet-supported North Korea and U.S.-backed South Korea both before and as a result of the Korean War; American forces have been stationed on the southern side of this border continually since the Korean War ended in 1953.

Three-Fifths Compromise

 As the new Constitution was being debated in 1787, great controversy developed over how slaves should be counted in determining membership in the House of Representatives. To increase their representation, Southern states argued that slaves should be counted as people; Northerners argued that they should not count, since they could not vote or own property. The compromise arrived at was that each slave would could as three-fifths of a free person.

"right money”

 Governmental policy utilized to offset the effects of inflation; on numerous occasions the Federal Reserve Board has increased the interest rate on money it loans to member banks; these higher interest rates are passed on to customers of member hanks. With higher interest rates, there are fewer loans and other business activity, which “slows the economy down” and lowers inflation.

Timber and Stone Act

 1878 bill that allowed private citizens to purchase forest territory in Oregon, Washington, California, and Nevada. Although the intent of the bill was to encourage settlement in these areas, lumber companies purchased large amounts of these land claims from the individuals who had originally purchased them.

Townshend Acts

 1767 Parliamentary act that forced colonists to pay duties on most goods coming from England, including tea and paper, and increased the power of custom boards in the colonics to ensure that these duties were paid. These duties were despised and fiercely resisted in many of the colonics; in Boston resistance was so fierce that the British were forced to occupy Boston with troops. The acts were finally repealed in 1770.

Trail of Tears

 Forced march of 20,000 members of Cherokee tribe to their newly designated “homeland” in Oklahoma, Federal troops forced the Cherokees westward in this 1838 event, with one out every five Native Americans dying from hunger, disease, or exhaustion along the way.

Trenton, Battle of

December 26, 1776 surprise attack by forces commanded by George Washington on Hessian forces outside of Trenton, New Jersey, Nearly 950 Hessians were captured and another 30 were killed by Washington’s forces; three Americans were wounded in the attack. The battle was a tremendous psychological boost for the American war effort.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

 March 1911 fire in New York factory that trapped young women workers inside locked exit doors; nearly 50 ended up lumping to their death, while 100 died inside the factory. Many factory reforms, including increasing safety precautions for workers, came from the investigation of this incident.

triangular trade system

 The complex trading relationship that developed in the late seventeenth century between the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Europeans purchased slaves from Africa to he resold in the Americas, raw materials from the Americas were exported to European states, while manufactured products in Europe were sold throughout the Americas.

Truman Doctrine

 Created in response to 1947 requests by Greece and Turkey for American assistance to defend themselves against potentially pro-Soviet elements in their countries, this policy stated that the United States would he ready to assist any free nation trying to defend itself against “armed minorities or ... outside pressures.” This would become the major American foreign policy goal throughout the Gold War.

trust

 Late nineteenth-century legal arrangement that allowed owners of one company to own stock in other companies in the same industry. By this arrangement, John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil were able to buy enough stock to control other oil companies in existence as well. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act and the Clayton Anti- Trust Act were efforts to “break up” the numerous trusts that were created during this period.

Turner Thesis

 Published by Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, “The Significance of the West in American History” stated that western expansion had played a fundamental role in defining the American character, and that the American tendencies toward democracy and individualism were created by the frontier experience.

Twelfth Amendment

 1804 amendment that established separate balloting in the Electoral College for president and vice president. This amendment was passed as a result of the electoral deadlock of the 1800 presidential election, when Thomas Jefferson and his “running mate” Aaron Burr ended up with the same number of votes in the Electoral College; the House of Representatives finally decided the election in favor of Jefferson. U-2 American reconnaissance aircraft shot down over the Soviet Union in May 1960. President Eisenhower initially refused to acknowledge that this was a spy flight; the Soviets finally produced pilot Francis Gary Powers, who admitted the purpose of the flight. This incident created an increase in Cold War tensions at the end of the Eisenhower presidency.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

 1852 novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that depicted all of the horrors of Southern slavery in great detail. The book went through several printings in the 1850s and early 1860s and helped to fuel abolitionist sentiment in the North.

unicameral legislature

 A governmental structure with a one-house legislature. As written in the Articles of Confederation, the United States would have a unicameral legislature, with all states having equal representation.

United Farm Workers

 Organized by Cesar Chavez in 1961, this union represented Mexican- Americans engaged in the lowest levels of agricultural work. In 1965 Chavez organized a strike against grape growers that hired Mexican- Amcrican workers in California, eventually winning the promise of benefits and minimum wage guarantees for the workers.

United States Forest Service

 Created during the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, this body increased and protected the number of national forests and encouraged through numerous progress the efficient use of America's natural resources.

Universal Negro Improvement Association

 Black organization of the early 1920s founded by Marcus Garvey, who argued that however possible blacks should disassociate themselves from the “evils” of white society. This group organized a “back to Africa” movement, encouraging blacks of African descent to move back there; independent black businesses were encouraged (and sometimes funded) by Garvey’s organization.

unrestricted submarine warfare

 The German policy announced in early 1917 of having their U-boats attack all ships attempting to land at British or French ports, despite their origin or purpose; because of this policy, the rights of the United States as a neutral power were being violated, stated Woodrow Wilson in 1917, and America was forced to declare war on Germany.

USS Marine

 American ship sent to Havana harbor in early 1898 to protect American interests in period of increased tension between Spanish troops and native Cubans; on February 15 an explosion took place on the ship, killing nearly 275 sailors. Later investigations pointed to an internal explosion on board, but all of the muckraking journals of rhe time in the United States blamed the explosion on the Spanish, which helped to develop intense anti- Spanish sentiment in the United States.

Valley Forge

 Location where General Washington stationed his troops for the winter of 1777 to 1778. Soldiers suffered hunger, cold, and disease: Nearly 1300 deserted over the course of the winter. Morale of the remaining troops was raised by the drilling and discipline instilled by Baron von Steuben, a former Prussian officer who had volunteered to aid the colonial army.

vertical integration

 Type of industrial organisation practiced in the late nineteenth century and pioneered by Andrew Carnegie and U.S. Steel; under this system all of the various business activities needed to produce and sell a finished product (procuring the raw materials, preparing them, producing them, marketing them, and then selling them) would be done by the same company.

Vicksburg, Battle of

 After a lengthy siege, this Confederate city along the Mississippi River was finally taken by Union forces in July 1863; this victory gave the Union virtual control of the Mississippi River and was a serious psychological blow to the Confederacy.

Viet Cong

 During the Vietnam war, forces that existed within South Vietnam that were fighting for the victory of the North Vietnamese. Vietcong forces were pivotal in the initial successes of the Tet Offensive, which did much to make many in America question the American war effort in Vietnam and played a crucial role in the eventual defeat of the South Vietnamese government.

Vietnamization

 The process begun by Richard Nixon of removing American troops from Vietnam and turning more of the fighting of the Vietnam war over to the South Vietnamese. Nixon continued to use intense bombing to aid the South Vietnamese efforts as more American troops were being pulled out of Vietnam; in 1973 a peace treaty was finally signed with North Vietnam, allowing American troops to leave the country and all American POWs to be released. In March 1975, North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces captured Saigon and emerged victorious in the war.

Virginia Plan

 A concept of government crafted by James Madison and adopted by delegates to the convention that created the United States Constitution, this plan proposed a stronger central government than had existed under the Articles of Confederation; to prevent too much power being placed in the hands of one person or persons, the plan proposed that the powers of the federal government be divided amongst officials of executive, judicial, and legislative branches.

VISTA (Volunteer in Service to America)

 Program instituted in 1964 that sent volunteers to help poor Americans living in both urban and rural settings; this program was sometimes described as a domestic peace corps. This was one of many initiatives that were parr of Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty program.

voluntarism

The concept that Americans should sacrifice either time or money for the well-being of their country; a sense of voluntarism has permeated America during much of its history, especially during the progressive era and during the administration of John Kennedy ("ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country”). President George W. Bush called for a renewed sense of voluntarism in the aftermath of the attacks of September 11, 2001.

Wade-Davis Act

 Congress passed this bill in 1861 in response to the “10 Percent Plan” of Abraham Lincoln; this legislation set out much more difficult conditions than had been proposed by Lincoln for Southern states to reenter the Union. According to Wade-Davis, all former officers of the Confederacy would be denied citizenship; to vote, a person would have to take an oath that he had never helped the Confederacy in any way, and half of all white males in a state would have to swear loyalty to the Union before statehood could be considered. Lincoln prevented this from becoming law by using the pocket veto.

Wagner Act

 Also called the National Labor Relations Act, this July 1935 act established major gains for organized labor. It guaranteed collective bargaining, prevented harassment by owners or union activities, and established a National Labor Relations Board to guarantee enforcement of its provisions.

war bonds

 Also called Liberty Bonds, these were sold by the United States government in both World War I and World War I1 and used by the government to finance the war effort. A person purchasing a war bond can make money if he or she cashes it in after 5 or 10 years; in the meantime, the government can use the money to help pay its bills. In both wars, movie stars and other celebrities encouraged Americans to purchase war bonds.

War Industries Board

 Authorized in 1917, the jab of this board was to mobilize American industries for the war effort. The board was headed by Wall Street investor Bernard Baruch, who used his influence to get American industries to produce materials useful for the war effort. Baruch was able to increase American production by a staggering 22 percent before the end of the war.

Warren Commission

 The group that carefully investigated the assassination of John F. Kennedy. After hearing much testimony, the commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acred alone in killing the president. Even today many conspiracy theorists question the findings of the Warren Commission, claiming that Oswald was part of a larger group who wanted to assassinate the president.

Warsaw Pact

 Defensive military alliance created in 1955 by the Soviet Union and all of the Eastern European satellite nations loyal to the Soviet Union; the Warsaw Pact was formed as a reaction against NATO and NATO’s 1955 decision to invite West Germany to join the organization.

Washington Conference

 1922 conference where the United States, Japan, and the major European powers agreed to build no more warships for 10 years; in addition, the nations agreed not to attack each other's territories in the Pacific. This treaty came from strong post-World War I sentiment that it was important to avoid conflicts between nations that might lead to war.

Watergate Affair

 The break-in into Democratic campaign headquarters was one of a series of dirty tricks carried out by individuals associated with the effort to reelect Richard Nixon president in 1972. Extensive efforts were also made to cover up these activities. In the end, numerous government and campaign officials spent time in jail for their role in the Watergate Affair, and President Nixon was forced to resign in disgrace.

Webb Alien Land Law

 1913 California law that prohibited Japanese who were nor American citizens from owning farmland in California. This law demonstrates the nativist sentiment found in much of American society in the first decades of the twentieth century.

Webster-Hayne Debate

 1830 Senate debate between Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts and Senator Robert Hayne of South Carolina over the issue of state's rights and whether an individual state has the right to nullify federal legislation. Webster skillfully outlined the dangers to the United States that would be caused by the practice of nullification; this debate perfectly captured many of the political divisions between North and South that would increase in the 1830s through the 1860s.

Whig party

 Political party that came into being in 1834 in opposition to the presidency of Andrew Jackson. Whigs opposed Jackson’s use of the spoils system and the extensive power held by President Jackson; for much of their existence, however, the Whigs favored an activist federal government (while their opponents, the Democrats, favored limited government), William Henry Harrison and Zachary Taylor were the two Whigs elected president. The Whig party dissolved in the 1850s.

Whiskey Rebellion

 Many settlers in Western frontier territory in the early 1790s questioned the power that the federal power had over them. In 1793 settlers in the Ohio territory refused to pay federal excise taxes on whiskey and attacked tax officials who were supposed to collect these taxes; large numbers of “whiskey rebels” threatened to attack Pittsburgh and other cities. In 1794 President Washington was forced to send in federal troops to put down the rebellion.

“White Man’s Burden”

 From the poem of the same name by Rudyard Kipling, this view justified imperialism by the “white man” around the world, but also emphasized the duty of the Europeans and Americans who were occupying new territories to improve the lives of chose living in the newly acquired regions.

Whitewater

 The name of the scandal that got President Bill Clinton impeached but not convicted, Whitewater was the name of real-estate deal in Arkansas that Clinton and his wife Hillary Rodham Clinton were both involved in; opponents claimed the actions of the Clintons concerning Whitewater were illegal, unethical, or both. Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr expanded the investigation to include the suicide of Clinton aide Vincent Foster, missing files in the White House, and the relationship of President Clinton with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky.

Wilmont Proviso

 In the aftermath of the war with Mexico, in 1846 Representative David Wilmont proposed in an amendment to a military bill that slavery should be prohibited in all territories gained in the treaty ending that war. This never went into law, but in the debate over it in both houses, Southern representatives spoke passionately in defense of slavery; John C, Calhoun even suggested that the federal government had no legal jurisdiction to stop the existence of slavery in any new territory.

Woodstock Music Festival

 1969 event that some perceive as the pinnacle of the 1960s counterculture. 400,000 young people came together for a weekend of music and a relative lack of hassles or conflict. The difficulty of mixing the 1960s counterculture with the radical politics of the era was demonstrated when Peter Townshend of the Who kicked Abbie Hoffman off of the Woodstock stage.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

 New Deal program established in 1935 whose goal was to give out jobs as quickly as possible, even though the wages paid by the WPA were relatively low. Roads and public buildings were constructed by WPA work crews; at the same time, WPA authors wrote state guidebooks, artists painted murals in newly constructed public buildings, and musicians performed in large cities and small towns across the country.

writ of habeas corpus

 Allows a person suspected of a crime not to simply sit in jail indefinitely; such a suspect must be brought to court and charged with something, or he or she must be released from jail. Abraham Lincoln suspended the right of habeas corpus during the Civil War so that opponents of his policies could be contained.

Yalta Conference

 Meeting between Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt held two months before the fall of Nazi Germany in February of 1945. At this meeting Stalin agreed to assist the Americans against the Japanese after the Germans were defeated; it was decided that Germany would be divided into zones leach controlled by one of the victors), and Stalin promised to hold free elections in the Eastern European nations the Soviet army had liberated from the Nazis. Critics of the Yalta agreement maintain that Roosevelt was naïve in his dealings with Stalin at this meeting (he was only months from his own death), and that Churchill and Roosevelt essentially handed over control of Eastern Europe to Stalin.

yellow journalism

 This method uses accounts and illustrations of lurid and sensational events to sell newspapers. Newspapers using this strategy covered the events in Cuba leading up to the Spanish- American War, and did much to shift American opinion toward desiring war with Spain; some critics maintain that many tactics of yellow journalism were used during the press coverage of the Whitewater investigation of Bill Clinton.

Yorktown, Battle of

 The defeat of the forces of General Cornwallis in this battle in October of 1781 essentially ended the hopes of the British for Winning the Revolutionary War, American and French troops hemmed the British in on the peninsula of Yorktown, while the French navy located in Chesapeake Bay made rescue of the British troops by sea impossible.

Zimmermann Telegram

 January 1917 telegram sent by the German foreign minister to Mexico suggesting that the Mexican army should join forces with the Germans against the United States; when the Germans and Mexicans were victorious, the Mexicans were promised most of the southwestern part of the United States, The British deciphered the code of this telegram and turned it over to the United States; the release of its content caused many in America to feel that war against the Germans was essential.