HOW LATIN WORKS

Roman Forum

Latin is a dead language,
As you can plainly see.
It killed off all the Romans,
And now it's killing me.

Popular rhyme among students of Latin

INFLECTED LANGUAGES

Before we can begin to study the Greek and Latin roots of English vocabulary, we must first understand something of the way in which these languages “work.” In modern English, the function of any word in a sentence or a phrase is determined by its position. For example:

The dog bites the man.

has a very different meaning from

The man bites the dog.

whereas

The the man dog bites and

Bites man the dog the

have no meaning at all.

Both Latin and Greek, however, are inflected languages. That means that the functions of words within a particular sentence are determined not by word order, as in English, but by various endings that are placed on each word.

In Latin,   canis = dog

           vir = man

           mordeo = I bite

If we want to say “The dog bites the man, ” we can write:

Canis virum mordet, or

Canis mordet virum, or

Mordet virum canis, or

Virum canis mordet.

No matter how we arrange the words, the meaning of the sentence is always the same, because the ending (inflection) of each word determines its function in the sentence. If we want to change the meaning of the sentence, we have to change the endings of the words.

If we want to say, “The man bites the dog,” we can write:

Canem vir mordet, or

Canem mordet vir, or

Mordet vir canem, etc.

What has changed in these different Latin sentences? Can you explain why these changes have occurred?

Inflection

All Indo-European languages (including English) were originally highly inflected, although English has lost most of the distinctive endings. We can see the persistence of inflection in English, however, in such changes in form as I, my, me; he, his, him; goose, geese; sing, sang, sung; teach, teaches, taught. What grammatical change does each of these different forms indicate?

LATIN NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

The changes in the endings of nouns and adjectives are determined by declension. Each change of form that occurs is called a case. There are six cases in Latin, each one expressing a possible function of a noun, pronoun, or adjective in a sentence, as in the example of femina (woman):

femina = woman

Case	Sing. Form	Function	Example	Plural Form
Nominative	femina	subject	The woman carries a book.1	feminae
Genitive	feminae	possessive	I carry the woman's book.	feminarum
Dative	feminae	ind. object	I give a book to the woman.	feminis
Accusative	feminam	direct object	I see the woman.	feminas
Ablative	feminā	means/agent	It was done by the woman.	feminis
Vocative	femina	direct address	Woman, look at this!	feminae

There are five declensions (that is, five different sets of endings) in Latin; every noun and adjective belongs to one of these five declensions. Each declension is identified by the ending found in the genitive (possessive) case.

1.              The first declension is identified by -ae in the genitive case:

femina, feminae = woman, of the woman

porta, portae = door, of the door

nauta, nautae = sailor, of the sailor

2.              The second declension is identified by -i in the genitive case:

vir, viri = man, of the man

amicus, amici = friend, of the friend

bellum, belli = war, of the war

3.              The third declension is identified by -is in the genitive case:

rex, regis = king

mens, mentis = mind

urbs, urbis = city

4.              The fourth declension is identified by -ūs in the genitive case:

manus, manūs = hand, of the hand

cornu, cornūs = horn, of the horn

5.              The fifth declension is identified by -ei in the genitive case:

fides, fidei = faith, of the faith

dies, diei = day, of the day

Marcus Aurelius, last of the “good” Roman emperors (161–180 CE). While on campaign, he composed a work of philosophy, The Meditations, that was grounded in Stoic teachings. (Vatican Museum)

There are very few nouns and no adjectives that belong to the fourth and fifth declensions.

FINDING THE STEM OF A LATIN NOUN OR ADJECTIVE

The reason why it is so important to understand how declensions work is that almost all English derivatives from Latin nouns and adjectives are formed from the stem of the word. The stem of a noun or adjective is the genitive case minus the case ending.

Genitive Case	Stem
feminae	femin-
nautae	naut-
portae	port-
viri	vir-
belli	bell-
regis	reg-
mentis	ment-
urbis	urb-
manus, manūs	man-
fidei	fid-

LATIN VERBS

Just as nouns and adjectives are inflected, so are verbs. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation. The changes in verb endings indicate person (first, second, or third person), tense (time of action), voice (active or passive²), and mood (indicative, subjunctive, or imperative³).

Almost every Latin verb has four stems (called principal parts), each of which has a different function, and from which are formed all the possible tenses, and voices. For example,

amo-amare-amavi-amatum = love

amo = I love (first person singular, present tense, active voice)

amamus = we love (first person plural, present tense, active voice)

amavi = I have loved (first person singular, perfect tense, active voice)

amabitur = She (or he or it) will be loved (third person singular, future tense, passive voice)

amata eras = you (fem.) had been loved (second person singular, pluperfect tense, passive voice)

amatē = love! (imperative)

amare = to love (infinitive)

CONJUGATIONS

There are four conjugations, each of which is distinguished by the vowel that appears in the infinitive form:

1.              The first conjugation is distinguished by a in the infinitive form:

amo-amare-amavi-amatum = love

porto-portare-portavi-portatum = carry

2.              The second conjugation is distinguished by ē (long) in the infinitive form:

moneo-monēre-monui-monitum = warn

teneo-tenēre-tenui-tentum = hold

3.              The third conjugation is distinguished by ě (short) in the infinitive form:

duco-ducere-duxi-ductum = lead

facio-facere-feci-factum = make

4.              The fourth conjugation is distinguished by i in the infinitive form:

audio-audire-audivi-auditum = hear

venio-venire-veni-ventum = come

FINDING THE STEM OF A LATIN VERB

Almost all English derivatives from Latin verbs are formed either from the present infinitive stem (which is the infinitive minus the -re ending) or from the perfect passive stem (the fourth principal part minus the -um ending.⁴) Very often, when a suffix is added to the present stem of a verb (see next chapter), the distinguishing vowel of the conjugation is also dropped before the suffix is added.

Present Infinitive	Present Stem	Perfect Passive5	Perfect Stem
portare (to carry)	porta-	portatum	portat-
monēre (to warn)	monē-	monitum	monit-
tenēre (to hold)	tenē-	tentum	tent-
ducere (to lead)	duce-	ductum	duct-
agere (to do)	age-	actum	act-
facere (to make)	face-	factum	fact-
venire (to come)	veni-	ventum	vent-
audire (to hear)	audi-	auditum	audit-

Deponent Verbs

There is a class of Latin verbs called deponent—verbs that are conjugated with the passive endings only, but that have active meanings. The conjugation to which each deponent verb belongs is identified in the infinitive form already noted. The mark of the passive infinitive is a final -i.

1.              The first conjugation deponent verb is distinguished by an a in the infinitive form:

arbitror-arbitrari-arbitratum = think

hortor-hortari-hortatum = urge

2.              The second conjugation deponent verb is distinguished by an ē in the infinitive form:

fateor-fatēri-fassum = speak

mereor-merēri-meritum = deserve

3.              The third conjugation deponent verb loses the ēr in the infinitive and retains only the final i as the indication of the infinitive:

sequor-sequi-secutum = follow

revertor-reverti-reversum = return

4.              The fourth conjugation deponent verb is distinguished by an i in the infinitive form:

experior-experiri-expertum = try

Examples

Present Infinitive	Present Stem	Perfect Participle	Perfect Stem
arbitrari (to think)	arbitra-	arbitratum	arbitrat-
hortari (to urge)	horta-	hortatum	hortat-
fatēri (to speak)	fatē-	fassum	fass-
merēri (to deserve)	merē-	meritum	merit-
sequi (to follow)	seque-6	secutum	secut-
reverti (to return)	reverte-	reversum	revers-
experiri (to try, attempt)	experi-	expertum	expert-

As we shall see, there are many English words that are derived from these verbs.

SOME VERY USEFUL LATIN VERBS

Principal Parts	English Meaning	Present Stem	Perfect Stem
ago-agere-actum	do, drive	age-	act-
audio-audire-auditum	hear	audi-	audit
capio-capere-captum7	take	cape- (-cipe-)-	capt- (cept-)
cedo-cedere-cessum	go, yield	cede-	cess-
dico-dicere-dictum	say, speak	dice-	dict-
do-dare-datum	give	da-	dat-
duco-ducere-ductum	lead	duce-	duct-
facio-facere-factum	make	face-(-fice-)	fact- (-fect-)
fero-ferre-latum	bear, carry	fer-	lat-
loquor-loqui-locutum	speak	loque-	locut-
mitto-mittere-missum	send	mitte-	miss-
moveo-movēre-motum	move	movē-	mot-
pono-ponere-positum	put, place	pone-	posit-
scribo-scribere-scriptum	write	scribe-	script-
sto-stare-statum	stand	sta-	stat-
teneo-tenēre-tentum	hold	tenē- (-tinē-)	tent-
venio-venire-ventum	come	veni-	vent-
verto-vertere-versum	turn	verte-	vers
video-vidēre-visum	see	vidē-	vis
voco-vocare-vocatum	call	voca-	vocat-

Be Grateful for Small Things

To the great relief of Latin students everywhere, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are not declined.

Double Meanings

Sometimes, two words will have the same Latin root, but end up appearing in words that have totally different meanings. For example,

egregious and gregarious both derive from grex, gregis = flock
salary and saline both derive from sal, salis = salt
money and admonish both derive from moneo-monēre-monitum = warn.

Check your unabridged English dictionary for current meanings of these words and how these meanings developed.

Doublets

When two different English words derive from the same root and have related meanings but different English spellings, they are called doublets. Doublets most often occur when a Latin root comes into English in two different ways: directly from Latin and through an intermediary language, such as French, as well. For example,

amiable and amicable both derive from amicus, amici = friend
card and chart both derive from charta, chartae = paper
poison and potion both derive from potio, potionis = drink
royal and regal both derive from rex, regis = king
traitor and tradition both derive from trado-tradere-traditum = hand over

Check your dictionary to see if you can find a word that is a doublet of fragile.

Un Faux Ami, or What Did I Say?

A word can be spelled the same in two different languages but have no etymological connection. For example, the French word coin means corner, while the German word kind means child. The French call these seemingly related words faux amis, or false friends.?

NAME _______________________________________________________________________

A. Find the stem of each of the following Latin nouns or adjectives and list an English derivative and its current usage. Use your unabridged English dictionary to find the derivative and its definition. Remember: the genitive case (minus the ending) gives each noun or adjective its stem.

Examples

Latin Word	Meaning	Stem	English Derivative	Current Usage
liber, liberi	free	liber-	liberal	favorable to progress
audax, audacis	bold	audac-	audacity	boldness, daring
Latin Word	Meaning	Stem	English Derivative	Current Usage
1. aqua, aquae	water	__________	__________	__________
2. liber, libri	book	__________	__________	__________
3. corpus, corporis	body	__________	__________	__________
4. nox, noctis	night	__________	__________	__________
5. mors, mortis	death	__________	__________	__________
6. bellum, belli	war	__________	__________	__________
7. canis, canis	dog	__________	__________	__________
8. lex, legis	law	__________	__________	__________
9. pes, pedis	foot	__________	__________	__________
10. vulnus, vulneris	wound	__________	__________	__________
11. fama, famae	rumor, report	__________	__________	__________
12. lux, lucis	light	__________	__________	__________
13. os, oris	mouth	__________	__________	__________
14. os, ossis	bone	__________	__________	__________
15. gravis, gravis	heavy	__________	__________	__________
16. vita, vitae	life	__________	__________	__________
17. tempus, temporis	time	__________	__________	__________
18. rus, ruris	countryside	__________	__________	__________

B. In exercises 19–31, find the present or perfect stem, and an English derivative and its current usage for each of the following Latin verbs:

rego-regere-rectum = rule	dormio-dormire-dormitum = sleep
rapio-rapere-raptum = seize	relinquo-relinquere-relictum = leave
fallo-fallere-falsum = deceive	miror-mirari-miratum = wonder at
sentio-sentire-sensum = feel	nascor-nasci-natum = be born
mando-mandare-mandatum = order	pendo-pendere-pensum = hang
voco-vocare-vocatum = call	plaudo-plaudere-plausum = clap

Examples

Latin Verb	Present Stem	Eng. Derivative	Current Usage
doceo-docēre-doctum (teach)	docē-	docile	easily trained or managed
tango-tangere-tactum (touch)	tange-	tangible	able to be touched; real

Latin Verb	Present Stem	Eng. Derivative	Current Usage
doceo	doct-	doctor	a learned person
tango	tact-	tactile	pertaining to touch

Latin Verb	Present Stem	Eng. Derivative	Current Usage
19. rego	_________	_______________	__________________________
20. relinquo	_________	_______________	__________________________
21. sentio	_________	_______________	__________________________
22. pendo	_________	_______________	__________________________
23. nascor	_________	_______________	__________________________
24. mando	_________	_______________	__________________________
25. fallo	_________	_______________	__________________________
Latin Verb	Present Stem	Eng. Derivative	Current Usage
26. sentio	_________	_______________	__________________________
27. dormio	_________	_______________	__________________________
28. nascor	_________	_______________	__________________________
29. fallo	_________	_______________	__________________________
30. voco	_________	_______________	__________________________
31. plaudo	_________	_______________	__________________________

C. The following Latin words (32–49) are used in English without any change in form or ending. Find the original Latin meaning of each word by looking in an unabridged English dictionary. Which of these words have changed in meaning, even when they have remained the same in form?

Latin Word	Latin Meaning	Current English Usage
32. miser	_________________	_________________________
33. bonus	_________________	_________________________
34. pauper	_________________	_________________________
35. minister	_________________	_________________________
36. album	_________________	_________________________
37. arbiter	_________________	_________________________
38. rumor	_________________	_________________________
39. crux	_________________	_________________________
40. via	_________________	_________________________
41. explicit	_________________	_________________________
42. major	_________________	_________________________
43. gratis	_________________	_________________________
44. onus	_________________	_________________________
45. rancor	_________________	_________________________
46. squalor	_________________	_________________________
47. novella	_________________	_________________________
48. ulterior	_________________	_________________________
49. valor	_________________	_________________________

D. In exercises 50–70, fill in the blank with the word that best defines the italicized word or part of a word in the sentence. Make sure that your sentences are grammatically correct.

Example

An audition allows an actor to be heard.

50. An agent is someone who __________things for you.

51. A captive is one who has been__________.

52. A pedestrian goes by __________.

53. Data are information that is __________.

54. At a convention, delegates __________together.

55. A factory is a place where goods are __________.

56. The inscription was __________on the wall of the house.

57. Status is an indication of one's social__________.

58. Transportation is a means of __________across.

59. A deposit is money __________ down on an item to be purchased.

60. “Please remit payment” is a polite way of saying “__________ us back the money.”

61. Elocution lessons teach you how to __________ out.

62. A conductor __________ the orchestra.

63. When he told me he had reverted to smoking, I knew he had __________back to his bad habits.

64. Sequential numbers __________ one another in order.

65. I got a merit increase in my paycheck that I __________ because of my hard work.

66. He exhorted the students to work harder, but his __________ had no effect.

Sometimes a Latin verb form will become a noun in English. In the following sentences, what is the literal meaning of the italicized word, and what is its current English meaning?

67. The recipe called for six eggs, but I had only five. ____________

68. His speech contained one non sequitur after another, and I became more and more confused. ____________

69. His book had the imprimatur of the leading scholars in the field. ____________

70. The doctor admitted that he had given me only a placebo, but even so, I felt much better. ____________

E. In Exercises 71–78, fill in the blank in each sentence with one of the words listed below that best completes the meaning of the sentence.

mordant	portals	gratis	arbiter
morbid	nausea	amorous	sequence

71. He said he loved me, but I rejected his __________ advances.

72. His __________ remark made me feel as if he wanted to bite me.

73. We couldn't reach an agreement, and so the court appointed an __________ to make the decision.

74. I wanted to be a sailor, but I suffered from __________.

75 Before I had reached the __________ of the building, the guard opened the door.

76. His __________ jokes convinced me that he had a sick sense of humor.

77. He said he was presenting the outline of the course in __________, so I could follow what he was saying.

78. I knew there would be a price to pay, even though my friend said the tickets were __________.

Footnotes

1. There is no indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article in Latin.

2. The use of the active voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is doing the action (the wolf ate the boy). The passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is receiving the action (the boy was eaten by the wolf).

3. Mood is the way of expressing the action of a verb as a fact (indicative), as a command (imperative), or as a possibility that may or may not occur (subjunctive). The subjunctive in both Latin and Greek has many uses.

4. For this reason, the third principal part of the verb will not be given in subsequent vocabulary.

5. The perfect passive form is really a verbal adjective (called a participle) as well as a verb. Since all nouns and adjective have gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), every participle has a masculine, feminine, and neuter form, depending on the gender of the noun it is describing. The form previously given (-um) is the neuter form. We shall see in the following chapters the consequences of this dual function of the participle.

6. The present stem of third conjugation deponent verbs replaces the distinguishing final e that it lost when forming the infinitive.

7. In compounds of capio, facio, and teneo, the a or e of the present stem becomes an i. For example,
recipio-recipere-receptum = take back
conficio-conficere-confectum = make together, accomplish
retineo-retinēre-retentum = hold back, restrain