Common section

LATIN INTO ENGLISH

Portrait of a man, third century CE (Adana Museum, Turkey)

I trade with both the living and the dead, for the enrichment of our native tongue. We have enough in England to supply our necessity, but if we will have things of magnificence and splendor, we must get them by commerce.

JOHN DRYDEN (English poet, 1631–1700),

dedication of his translation of Vergil's Aeneid

FORMING NEW WORDS

Just as we form adjectives and nouns in English from other English nouns and verbs (e.g., woman, womanly; farm, farmer; move, movement, movable), so too did Latin and Greek. Each ending (suffix) that we add to the stem of a noun or adjective tells us something about the quality or nature of the word.

I. ADJECTIVE-FORMING SUFFIXES USED WITH LATIN NOUN STEMS

Latin Ending	Meaning	English Derivative Form
-alis, -ialis	having the characteristic of, belonging to	-al, -ial
-anus, -ianus	having the characteristic of, belonging to	-an, -ian
-aris, -arius	having the characteristic of, belonging to	-ar, -ary
-ilis	having the characteristic of, belonging to	-il, -ile
-inus	having the characteristic of, belonging to	-ine
-osus	full of, abounding in	-ose, -ous
-lentus	full of, abounding in	-lent

Examples

Latin noun	English meaning	Latin stem	Latin adjective	English derivative
princeps, principis	chief	princip-	principalis	principal
margo, marginis	edge, boundary	margin-	marginalis	marginal
socius, socii	ally, companion	soci-	socialis	social
vox, vocis	voice	voc-	vocalis	vocal
urbs, urbis	city	urb-	urbanus	urban, urbane
mare, maris	sea	mar-	marinus	marine
familia, familiae	family	famili-	familiaris	familiar
vir, viri	man	vir-	virilis	virile
servus, servi	slave	serv-	servilis	servile
copia, copiae	abundance	copi-	copiosus	copious
virus, viri	poison	vir-	virulentus	virulent

Because Latin nouns and adjectives have gender, the Romans commonly used the masculine, feminine, or neuter form of the adjective as a noun. For example:

magnus (masculine) = large, but also, the large man

magna (feminine) = large, but also, the large woman

magnum (neuter) = large, but also, the large thing

II. NOUN-FORMING SUFFIXES USED WITH LATIN NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Sometimes we wish to express the abstract quality of a particular noun or adjective, and we do so by forming a new noun (e.g., man, manly, manliness; state, statehood; handsome, handsomeness; kind, kindly, kindliness).

Latin Ending	English Meaning	English Derivative Form
-atus	office, group engaged in	-ate
-itas, -ietas	quality of	-ity, -iety
-itudo	abstract state or quality	-itude
-itia	abstract state or quality	-ice
-monium, -monia	abstract state or quality	-mony
-ia, -ium	abstract state or quality	-y
-arium	place where	-arium
-ista	one who believes in	-ist¹
-ismus	an abstract belief in	-ism

Examples

Latin Noun or Adjective	English Meaning	Stem	Latin Derivative	English Derivative
princeps, principis	chief	princip-	principatus	principate
brevis, brevis	short	brev-	brevitas	brevity
socius, socii	friend, ally	soci-	societas	society
varium, varii	different	vari-	varietas	variety
virilis, virilis	manly	viril-	virilitas	virility
magnus, magni	large	magn-	magnitudo	magnitude
gratum, grati	pleasing	grat-	gratitudo	gratitude
pater, patris	father	patr-	patrimonium	patrimony
custos, custodis	guard	custod-	custodia	custody
sol, solis	sun	sol-	solarium	solarium
servus, servi	slave	serv-	servitudo and servitia	servitude service

III. DIMINUTIVE-FORMING SUFFIXES WITH LATIN NOUNS

We may indicate the smallness or familiarity of an object or person by the addition of a suffix (e.g., drop, droplet).

Latin Ending	English Derivative Form
-culus	-cule
-ellus	-el
-illus	-il
-olus	-ole
-uleus, -ulus	-ule

Examples

Latin Noun	English Meaning	Latin Diminutive Form	English Derivative
corpus	body	corpusculus	corpuscle
mus	mouse	musculus	muscle
moles	mass	moleculus	molecule
novum	new	novellus	novel
saccus	bag	sacellus	satchel
pupus	boy	pupillus	pupil (student)
pupa	girl	pupilla	pupil (part of the eye)
gladius	sword	gladiolus	gladiolus
area	ground	areola	areole
nux	nut	nuculeus	nucleus
modus	measure	modulus	module

IV. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM LATIN VERBS

We may also make a noun or adjective from a verb by the addition of a suffix; the newly formed noun or adjective retains the quality of action in the verb (e.g., the verb make > the noun maker; the verb like > the adjective likeable). In Latin, nouns and adjectives may be formed from either the present or perfect passive stem of the verb. Remember that the present stem will often lose its final vowel, especially if it is joined to a suffix that begins with a vowel.

A. Nouns and Adjectives Formed from the Present Stem of Latin Verbs

Latin Noun Ending	English Meaning	English Derivative Form
-mentum	state of, quality of	-ment
-bulus, -bulum	means of, place of, result of	-ble
-men	means of, place of, result of	-men
-or	means of, place of, result of	-or
-culus, culum	means of, place of, result of	-cle

Latin Adjectival Ending	English Meaning	English Derivative Form
-bilis, -ilis	capable of being	-ble, -ile
-ax, acis	inclined to	-acious
-uus; -ulus	inclined to	-uous; -ulous
-idus	inclined to	-id
-ns, -ntis (singular)	indicates present participle	-nt²
-ntes or -ntia (plural)	indicates present participle	-nce or -ncy

Examples

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Present Stem	Latin Noun or Adjective	English Derivative
sto-stare	stand	sta-	stabulum stabilis	stable (noun) stable (adj.)
doceo-docēre	teach	docē-	docilis documentum	docile document
specio-specere	look at	spece-	specimen	specimen
rigeo-rigēre	stiffen	rigē-	rigor rigidus	rigor rigid
vivo-vivere	live	vive-	vividus vivax, vivacis	vivid vivacious
veho-vehere	carry, ride	vehe-	vehiculum	vehicle
audeo-audēre	dare	audē-	audax, audacis	audacious
credo-credere	believe	crede-	credulus credibilis	credulous credible

“I MISS THE GOOD OLD DAYS WHEN ALL WE HAD TO WORRY ABOUT WAS NOUNS AND VERBS.”

(www.cartoonstock.com)

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Present Stem	Latin Noun or Adjective	English Derivative
tango-tangere	touch	tange-	tangens, -entis tangibilis	tangent tangible
vaco-vacare	be empty	vaca-	vacuus vacans, -antis vacantia	vacuous vacant vacancy
tolero-tolerare	bear	tolera-	tolerans, -antis tolerantia	tolerant tolerance
ago-agere	do, drive	age-	agens, -entis agentia	agent agency
rego-regere	rule	rege-	regens, -entis regentia	regent regency
audio-audire	hear	audi-	audientes	audience

B. Noun- and Adjective-Forming Suffixes with the Perfect Passive Stem of Latin Verbs³

Latin Ending	English Meaning	English Derivative Form
-or	he who	-or
-rix	she who	-rix
-ura	act of, result of	-ure
-orius; -orium	that which is used for	-ory; -orium
-ivus	given to	-ive
-io, -ionis	state of, result of, process of	-ion
-ilis	capable of being	-ile

Examples

Latin Verb	Perfect Stem	Latin Noun or Adjective	English Derivative
ago-agere-actum	act-	actor	actor
		activus	active
		actio, actionis	action
doceo-docēre-doctum	doct-	doctor	doctor
sto-stare-statum	stat-	statura	stature
		statio, stationis	station
facio-facere-factum	fact-	factorium	factory
		factio, factionis	faction
capio-capere-captum	capt-	captor	captor
		captura	capture
		captivus	captive
audio-audire-auditum	audit-	auditorium	auditorium
		auditio, auditionis	audition
		auditor	auditor
mitto-mittere-missum	miss-	missio, missionis	mission
		missilis	missile
tango-tangere-tactum	tact-	tactilis	tactile
video-vidēre-visum	vis-	visibilis	visible
		visio, visionis	vision
voco-vocare-vocatum	vocat-	vocatio, vocationis	vocation

Can You Spell That?

Although knowing the Latin root of an English word often can help you figure out its spelling, unfortunately it doesn't always work. For example, the person who holds a piece of property should be a tenent, since its Latin root is teneo-tenēre. What is the correct English spelling of this word? Check your dictionary to find out the reason why.

V. VERBAL SUFFIXES

A. The Romans added the verbs ago, facio, and capio to adjectives and nouns to form new verbs, adjectives, and nouns. The newly formed verbs then had the meaning of to do, make, or take a certain state.

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Latin Compound Verb Form	English Derivative Form
ago	do, drive	-igo	-igate; -igation
facio	make, do	-ficio	-fy; -fic; -ficate
capio	take	-cipio	-cipate; -cipation

Examples

Latin Adjective or Noun	English Meaning	Compound Latin Verb	English Derivative
castus, casti	pure	castigo (make pure)	castigate
navis, navis	ship	navigo (drive a ship)	navigation
pax, pacis	peace	pacifico⁴ (make peaceful)	pacify; pacific
pars, partis	part	participo (take part)	participate

B. By adding the suffix -sco to a verb stem, noun, or adjective, Latin indicates the process of beginning or continuing.

Examples

Latin Root	English Meaning	Latin Compound Form	English Derivative
candeo-candere	shine	candesco = begin to shine	candescent
			candescence
seneo-senere	be old	senesco = grow old	senescent
			senescence
quies, quietis	rest	quiesco = become quiet	quiescent
			quiescence

VI. VERBAL LEARNED BORROWINGS⁵

There are many learned borrowings in English that are derived from Latin verb stems:

Latin Verb	English Meaning	English Derivative Form	English Meaning
caedo-caedere-caesum	kill	-cide	killer, killed
facio-facere-factum	make	-fact	made
fero-ferre-latum	carry, bear	-fer	carrier
voro-vorare-voratum	eat	-vore	eater

Examples

Latin Noun	English Meaning	English Derivative Form	English Noun	English Adjective
frater, fratris	brother	-cide	fratricide	fratricidal
ars, artis	skill	-fact	artifact	artificial
conus, coni	cone	-fer	conifer	coniferous
caro, carnis	flesh	-vore	carnivore	carnivorous

What Do You Call That Word?

All the terms used to describe the parts of speech in English are derived from Latin roots.

noun = a word referring to a person, place, thing, state, or quality (nomen, nominis = name).

verb = a word that expresses, action, existence, or occurrence (verbum, verbi = word).

adjective = a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun (adjicio-adjicere-adjectum = add to).

adverb = a word that modifies or qualifies a verb or adjective.

preposition = a word placed before a noun to form a phrase that modifies another noun, adjective, or verb (praepono-proponere-praepositum = place before).

conjunction = a connector between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (conjun- go-conjungere-conjunctum = join together).

Gender Differences

Gender is a grammatical category that is used to classify nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (and in some languages, verbs). In the Romance languages, the gender of nouns can be determined by their articles (the). These articles are derived from the masculine and feminine forms of the Latin demonstrative adjective ille, illa = that

Latin	Spanish	French	Italian
ille = that (man)	el	le	il
illa = that (woman)	la	la	la

What Does That Mean?

Sometimes an English word will retain its singular and plural Latin endings when it comes into English. For example, the Latin verb ago-agere produces agenda, which literally means “the things that are to be done,” while erro-errare-erratum (wander, go astray) gives us erratum (singular) and errata (plural). How are these words used in English?

Anglo-Saxon Suffixes

Not all English suffixes are Greek or Latin in origin. Old English (Anglo-Saxon) has left its mark on the formation of modern English vocabulary as well.

Old English Suffix	English Meaning	Example
-ard	possessor of	dullard
-er, -ster	agent	doer, gangster
-less	without	toothless
-ful	full of	truthful
-some	full of	quarrelsome, toothsome
-ish	somewhat	foolish
-ness	quality of, state of	happiness, largeness
-dom	state of being, domain of	kingdom, martyrdom
-hood	state, condition, character	motherhood, neighborhood
-ship	state, condition, character	kingship, kinship

4: EXERCISES

NAME _______________________________________________________

A. What English adjectives are derived from the following Latin nouns? What is the current meaning of each adjective? Use the endings in section I of this chapter. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary.

Examples

Latin Noun	English Meaning	English Adjective	Current Usage
vulgus, vulgi	crowd	vulgar	crude, unrefined
> vulgaris
puer, pueri	boy	puerile	immature, childish
> puerilis

Latin Noun	English Meaning	English Adjective	Current Usage
1. tempus, temporis	time	________________	________________
2. mundus, mundi	world	________________	________________
3. populus, populi	people	________________	________________
4. corpus, corporis	body	________________	________________
5. miles, militis	soldier	________________	________________
6. fabula, fabulae	story	________________	________________
7. lex, legis	law	________________	________________
8. nomen, nominis	name	________________	________________
9. ops, opis	wealth, power	________________	________________
10. verbum, verbi	word	________________	________________
11. stella, stellae	star	________________	________________

B. Which English nouns are derived from the following Latin adjectives? What is the current meaning of each noun? Use the endings in Section II. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary.

Examples

Latin Adjective	English Meaning	English Noun	Current Usage
avarum, avari	greedy	avarice	greed
fortis, fortis	brave, strong	fortitude	moral strength, bravery

Latin Adjective	English Meaning	English Noun	Current Usage
12. clarum, clari	clear	________________	________________
13. malum, mali	bad	________________	________________
14. brevis, brevis	short	________________	________________
15. novum, novi	new	________________	________________
16. acer, acris	harp	________________	________________
17. varium, varii	different	________________	________________
18. memor, memoris	mindful	________________	________________
19. sanctum, sancti	holy	________________	________________
20. gravis, gravis	heavy	________________	________________

C. The following words have been made up, but they have been given Latin adjectival or noun endings. Identify each as either a noun or an adjective, and give the meaning of the suffix.

	Noun or Adjective?	Meaning of Suffix
21. spragid	________________	________________
22. fulmatorium	________________	________________
23. granatary	________________	________________
24. crellacious	________________	________________
25. dractator	________________	________________
26. stracticial	________________	________________
27. grenulent	________________	________________
28. lorbimony	________________	________________
29. traminiety	________________	________________
30. spranabile	________________	________________
31. muvacture	________________	________________
32. revulist	________________	________________
33. quacticule	________________	________________
34. scrimitude	________________	________________

D. What English nouns and adjectives are derived from the present stems (second principal part) of the following Latin verbs? What is the current usage of each noun or adjective? Use the endings in Section IV, part A. If necessary, consult an unabridged English dictionary.

Examples

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Present Stem	Eng. Noun or Adj.	Current Usage
vivo-vivere-victum	live	vivē-	vivid	intense, full of life
valeo-valēre⁶	be strong	valē-	valor	boldness, courage

Latin Verb	Meaning	Pres. Stem	Eng. Noun or Adj.	Current Usage
35. curro-currere-cursum	run	____________	____________	____________
36. experior-experiri-expertum	try	____________	____________	____________
37. recipio-recipere-receptum	take back	____________	____________	____________
38. miror-mirari-miratum	wonder at	____________	____________	____________
39. stupeo-stupēre	be stunned	____________	____________	____________
40. sedeo-sedēre-sessum	sit	____________	____________	____________
41. fallo-fallere-falsum	deceive	____________	____________	____________
42. clamo-clamare-clamatum	shout	____________	____________	____________
43. solvo-solvere-solutum	loosen	____________	____________	____________
44. patior-pati-passum	suffer	____________	____________	____________

E. Which English nouns and adjectives are derived from the perfect stems of the following Latin verbs? What is the current usage of each noun or adjective? Use the endings in Section IV, part B. If necessary, consult your dictionary.

Examples

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Perf. Stem	Eng. Noun or Adj.	Current Usage
tolero-tolerare-toleratum	bear, endure	tolerat-	toleration	endurance
jungo-jungere-junctum	join	junct-	juncture	act of joining

Latin Verb	English Meaning	Perf. Stem	Eng. Noun or Adj.	Current Usage
45. nascor-nasci-natum	be born	____________	____________	____________
46. lego-legere-lectum	read, choose	____________	____________	____________
47. curro-currere-cursum	run	____________	____________	____________
48. morior-mori-mortuum	die	____________	____________	____________
49. sedeo-sedēre-sessum	sit	____________	____________	____________
50. fallo-fallere-falsum	deceive	____________	____________	____________
51. patior-pati-passum	suffer, bear	____________	____________	____________
52. sentio-sentire-sensum	feel	____________	____________	____________
53. solvo-solvere-solutum	loosen	____________	____________	____________
54. muto-mutare-mutatum	change	____________	____________	____________
55. frango-frangere-fractum	break	____________	____________	____________

F. Fill in the blank with the literal meaning⁷ of the italicized word or part of the word. Make sure that your answers are grammatically correct.

56. All his arguments were fallacious, but everyone was ____________ by them.

57. His sanctimonious words revealed that he thought he was ____________ than everyone else.

58. They tried to revivify the patient, but it became clear that he was no longer ____________.

59. The mutability of our circumstances shows that our lives are subject to ____________.

60. It is said that “brevity is the soul of wit,” but some speakers never learn to keep their comments ____________.

61. If you have a sedentary job, you will spend a lot of time ____________.

62. The clamor in the street grew as the crowd ____________ their demands.

63. She gave the document a cursory glance as her eye ____________ down the page.

64. I asked him to verbalize his thoughts, but he couldn't find the ____________.

65. The Maritime Provinces of Canada are situated by the ____________

66. In Roman gladiatorial combat, the chief weapon of the fighters was the ____________.

67. His voracious appetite drove him to ____________ everything in the refrigerator.

68. I was told he had a mortal illness, but I hoped he would not ____________.

69. Identify the functions of the italicized words (nouns, adjectives, verbs?) in the following sentence: The spragid glomularity of the stractibulous bananitude oblifected me.

G. Fill in the blank with a word of the opposite meaning chosen from the list below. Check your dictionary if you are not sure of the meaning.

scarce	silent	freedom	concrete	rebellious
peaceful	poor	secretive	separation	otherworldly

70. juncture	__________
71. copious	__________
72. mundane	__________
73. turbulent	__________
74. vocal	__________
75. docile	__________
76. intangible	__________
77. opulent	__________
78. candid	__________
79. servitude	__________

Footnotes

1. These Latin endings are actually derived from Greek suffixes and are most often used to form learned borrowings (see note 5 below) in English.

2. A participle is a verb form used as an adjective; the present active participle is formed most often in English by adding the suffix -ing to the basic form of the verb—e.g., the running man, the smiling woman, the driving rain. Because Latin participles are adjectives, they can be declined and have number. All present participles belong to the third declension.

3. The fourth principal part of the verb, from which the perfect passive stem is derived, is also a participle, but passive in meaning, and refers to some event that happened in the past. It is most often expressed in English by the suffixes -ed and -en: e.g., scrambled eggs (eggs that have been scrambled), broken leg (a leg that has been broken), or amarried man (a man who has been married). Although the stem has a passive meaning, it can take on an active meaning when a suffix is added (see examples above).

4. Note that in compounds formed from a noun or adjective together with -ficio or -cipio, the final -i of the verb stem often disappears.

5. A learned borrowing is a word based on a Greek or Latin root, but given a meaning that it did not have in Latin or Ancient Greek—e.g., telephone, which is formed from the ancient Greek words tele- (from a distance) and phone (sound). The Greeks of the fifth century BCE obviously did not have telephones, but because of the high esteem in which classical learning was held, the ancient Greek language was used to name this nineteenth-century invention.

6. Some verbs do not have a perfect passive system.

7. In this, and in all following exercises, a blank represents the literal definition of the italicized word or part of the word. In the context of these exercises, the literal meaning of a word or part of a word is the original meaning of the Greek or Latin root.

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