PART IV
Part IV discusses different psychological and behavioral pathways from engagement in the arts and humanities to human flourishing. These are the mechanisms that bring about flourishing through participation in culture. Because of the enjoyable nature of the arts and humanities, many people are passionate about art, music, theatre, movies, literature, history, philosophy, religion, and other forms of culture. Harmonious passion can give rise to many adaptive outcomes, such as positive emotions, creativity, performance, and identity. Positive experiences can also sustain longer-term participation and flourishing. These experiences include flow states, narrative transportation, awe, wonder, and inspiration. Participation in the arts and humanities also engenders deeper and broader thinking that supports flourishing. Moreover, the arts and humanities can be especially effective at promoting well-being beyond the individual, at the level of the community.
CHAPTER 14
Robert J. Vallerand, Anna Sverdlik, and Arielle Bonneville-Roussy
Abstract
The arts and humanities are prevalent sources of passion. Whether it is through performing them or appreciating the performance of others, the type of passion that individuals have for the arts and humanities can shape a variety of outcomes. Following the model proposed by Tay, Pawelski, and colleagues (2018, 2019), the present chapter documents the role of passion for the arts and humanities in personal outcomes such as emotions, creativity, performance, well-being, and identity processes. Research on passion for the arts and humanities demonstrates that the type of passion matters: while engaging in the arts and humanities out of harmonious passion leads to adaptive outcomes and even protects against negative ones, being obsessively passionate may be maladaptive. Thus, while engagement in the arts and humanities has the potential to contribute to human flourishing, the quality of engagement matters for those who are passionate about these domains.
Key Words: harmonious passion, obsessive passion, dualistic model of passion
It’s the passion … I always say if they stopped me now,
I’d just do it as a hobby tomorrow, so it’s just something you love to do.
—Paul McCartney
With me poetry has not been a purpose, but a passion.
—Edgar Allan Poe
The arts and humanities permeate our lives. Whether it is music, dance, painting, or poetry, such activities surround us. Be it through engaging in the arts and humanities directly by performing them or doing so indirectly by appreciating the performance of others, they can contribute to our lives in a variety of ways. Recently, Tay, Pawelski, and colleagues (2018) have proposed an important model on the influence of the arts and humanities engagement and how they can contribute to human flourishing. Such a model takes into consideration the types of activities one engages in (e.g., music, painting), the modes of engagement (e.g., active engagement or appreciation of the work of others), the mechanisms involved while doing so (e.g., the immersion or socialization), and the outcomes that one can derive from such engagement (e.g., emotions, psychological well-being).
For over a decade, our research and that of others has focused on how the quality of engagement in various activities can influence optimal functioning (Vallerand, 2013). Specifically, such research has shown that being passionate for a given activity, either as a performer or as a consumer of the arts and humanities, can potentially contribute to a host of adaptive outcomes (Vallerand et al., 2003). We all know of passionate performers, like Paul McCartney in the introductory quote, who still thrive on passion years into their illustrious careers. However, not all passions are equal, and while some types of passion are adaptive (i.e., harmonious passion), others (i.e., obsessive passion) are much less so, and can even lead to maladaptive outcomes. Several hundreds of studies in the field of passion now support this analysis, including several in the arts and humanities. Such an analysis is in line with Tay et al. (2018), who posit that although the arts and the humanities have the potential to contribute to human flourishing, “[t]his by no means suggests that engagement in the arts and humanities always leads to increased well-being” (p. 215).
The purpose of this chapter is to document the role of passion for the arts and humanities with respect to some of the outcomes identified by Tay et al. (2018). In doing so, we will rest squarely on the Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019). This chapter contains three sections. First, we present the DMP. Second, we review the literature on the role of passion with respect to some of the outcomes identified by Tay et al. (2018). It will then be seen that the distinction between harmonious and obsessive passion for the arts and humanities matters when predicting outcomes. Finally, we draw conclusions on the role of arts and humanities in human flourishing.
The Dualistic Model of Passion
Over the past fifteen years or so, much research has been conducted on the construct of passion. Much of this work has been conducted under the umbrella of the DMP (Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019). The DMP posits that people engage in various activities throughout life in the hope of satisfying the basic psychological needs of autonomy (to feel a sense of personal initiative), competence (to interact effectively with the environment), and relatedness (to feel connected to significant others; see Ryan & Deci, 2017), and to grow psychologically. With time and experience, most people start to display a preference for some activities. Of these activities, a limited few will be perceived as particularly enjoyable and important, and will have some resonance with our identity or how we see ourselves. These activities become passionate. In line with this observation, passion is defined as a strong inclination toward a self-defining activity that one loves (or strongly likes), finds important, and in which one invests time and energy (Vallerand et al., 2003). Such an activity comes to be so self-defining that it represents a central feature of one’s identity. Playing a musical instrument (e.g., the guitar), painting, reading, or writing poetry all represent examples of activities that people can be passionate about in the arts and humanities.
The DMP further posits that there are two types of passion, harmonious and obsessive, that can be distinguished in terms of how the passionate activity has been internalized into one’s identity (Vallerand et al., 2003). Harmonious passion (HP) results from an autonomous internalization of the activity into the person’s identity and self, which occurs when individuals have freely accepted the activity as important for them without any contingencies attached to it. This type of internalization emanates from the intrinsic and integrative tendencies of the self (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Hodgins & Knee, 2002). HP produces a motivational force to willingly engage in the activity that one loves and engenders a sense of volition and personal endorsement about pursuing the activity. When HP is at play, the activity occupies a significant but not overpowering space in the person’s identity and is in harmony with other aspects of the person’s life. In other words, with HP the person fully partakes in the passionate activity with a mindful (Brown & Ryan, 2003; St-Louis, Verner-Filion, Bergeron, & Vallerand, 2018) and non-defensive perspective (Hodgins & Knee, 2002) that opens up access to adaptive self-processes (Deci & Ryan, 2000; St-Louis & Vallerand, 2015) that are conducive to positive outcomes. An example would be a student who is passionate about rock music and plays rock music before studying to give himself the energy necessary to complete his homework.
Conversely, obsessive passion (OP) results from a controlled internalization of the passionate activity into identity. Such an internalization process leads the activity representation, as well as values and regulations to be internalized outside the integrative self (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This type of internalization prevents access to optimal self-processes. Thus, people with an OP can find themselves in the position of experiencing an uncontrollable urge to partake in the activity they view as important and enjoyable. They cannot help but to engage in the passionate activity. Consequently, they risk experiencing conflicts and other negative affective, cognitive, and behavioral consequences during and after activity engagement. To return to the previous example, a student who is so obsessively passionate about playing rock music may start playing in good faith for just a few minutes before studying, but when the time comes to stop playing, she just can’t help it and continues to do so. As such, playing the guitar conflicts with her studying and leads to some negative outcomes (feeling guilty and anxious) and can become a negative factor in her life, as it prevents her from being optimally functioning, at least as pertains to school.
In sum, with HP the person controls her passion, while with OP one is controlled by one’s passion. One can see that although both types of passion are very powerful motivational forces, HP would appear to be more adaptive than OP and should therefore lead to more optimal outcomes than the latter. Thus, the DMP posits that while HP for the arts and humanities may indeed be more adaptive, OP may not be and in fact could even be maladaptive in some cases. In closing, we wish to underscore that while HP and OP both reflect passion, they are still distinct constructs that lie on two continua (Vallerand, 2015). In fact, because they lie on two different continua, HP and OP may have independent, conjoint, or opposite effects on outcomes. Recent research using a quadrant approach where both HP and OP can be high or low supports this analysis with respect to a variety of physical and psychological health outcomes (see Schellenberg et al., 2019). Most of the research on passion has focused on the opposite effects that HP and OP may have on outcomes and we now turn to this research.
Passion for the Arts and Humanities and Flourishing
Passion plays a central role in shaping personal and interpersonal experiences. This becomes particularly important in the arts and humanities, as passion is often discussed as an inseparable part of activity engagement (e.g., Greene, 1992; Hennion, 2001, 2017; Purcell, 2015; Roach, 1993). Following the DMP perspective, research on passion for the arts and humanities has largely focused on the differential roles of HP and OP in individuals’ emotional, psychological, and physical well-being, as well as in outcomes like creativity and performance. In line with previous research on passion in a variety of contexts (e.g., educational settings, work, and sports; for reviews, see Curran, Hill, Appleton, Vallerand, & Standage, 2015; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019; Vallerand & Verner-Filion, 2020), it would be expected that HP for the arts and humanities would consistently yield more adaptive outcomes, while OP may be unrelated to such outcomes or may even contribute to maladaptive consequences. In this section, we review some of the research focusing specifically on passion for the arts and humanities as pertains to emotions, creativity, performance, well-being, and identity processes. These outcomes follow directly from the Tay et al. (2018) model (see Figure 2 in their article).
Passion and Emotions
Numerous studies have explored the distinctive influence of HP and OP on people’s emotional experiences (e.g., Philippe, Vallerand, Houlfort, Lavigne, & Donahue, 2010; Vallerand et al., 2003). This relationship between passion and emotions is very important in the arts and humanities, as passionate activities such as listening to music are highly consumed by the general population (e.g., Bonneville-Roussy, Rentfrow, Xu, & Potter, 2013; Warburton, Roberts, & Christenson, 2014) and are often engaged in specifically for the pursuit of emotional experiences (e.g., Olsen, Powell, Anic, Vallerand, & Thompson, in press).
Results from studies exploring passion for the arts (e.g., music, painting) consistently demonstrate HP to be a positive predictor of positive emotions (e.g., Burke, Sabiston, & Vallerand, 2012; Mageau et al., 2009; Philippe et al., 2010, Study 2; St-Louis et al., 2018) such as wonder, peacefulness, and transcendence (Olsen et al., in press) when listening to a variety of music genres, as well as when playing a musical instrument (e.g., Vallerand et al., 2003), engaging in dramatic acting (Fredricks, Alfeld, & Eccles, 2010), or painting (Philippe et al., 2010, Study 2; Vallerand et al., 2003). Furthermore, HP seems to have a protective effect against negative emotions (e.g., shame; Philippe et al., 2010, Study 2; St-Louis et al., 2018; Vallerand et al., 2003), suggesting that being harmoniously passionate about the arts and humanities positively contributes to positive emotional experiences and alleviates negative ones. Similar results were found in other fields, such as passion for a cause (i.e., environmental activism; see Vallerand, 2015), work (Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019), and even religion (Rip, Vallerand, & Lafrenière, 2012).
With OP, the opposite pattern consistently emerges. Studies on listening to music (Burke et al., 2012; Olsen et al., in press; Philippe et al., 2010, Study 2; St-Louis et al., 2018; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 1) or playing a musical instrument (Mageau et al., 2009, Study 3; Vallerand et al., 2003), have found OP to be a positive predictor of negative emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness when engaging in the passionate activity. Additionally, some studies (e.g., St-Louis et al., 2018) have found OP to negatively predict positive emotions. This finding suggests that being obsessively passionate can prevent people from experiencing the emotional fulfillment that is often associated with engaging in the arts and humanities activities with HP. Taken together, existing research clearly demonstrates that HP promotes positive emotions and protects against negative ones, while OP is associated with experiencing negative emotions, and may even prevent the experience of positive emotions. It is important to note, however, that one study (Lecoq & Rimé, 2009, Study 1) involving participants who were passionate about the arts, found both HP and OP to be positively correlated with the emotion of awe. Thus, future research on this emotion, which is prevalent in arts and music, is important in order to determine if these results can be replicated.
Passion and Creativity
Creativity refers to the creation of a novel and original product that is adaptive in light of conditions and task (Sternberg, 1999). Much research reveals that positive emotions lead to creativity (e.g., Isen, 1987). As highlighted in the previous section, HP leads mostly to positive emotions and OP to negative emotions; therefore HP should also facilitate creativity, and this should be less the case for OP. Research in the work domain has indeed shown that HP leads to high levels of creativity while OP does not (Liu, Chen, & Yao, 2011; Luh & Lu, 2012). Such research reveals that HP predicts creativity, as assessed by self-reports, including with painters (Lafrenière, St-Louis, Vallerand, & Donahue, 2012; Luh & Lu, 2012; Schenkel, Farmer, & Maslyn, 2019), as well as through more objective assessments such as external informants (Liu et al., 2011; Yang, Long, & Hou, 2018). Research by St-Louis and Vallerand (2015) with artists (painters, designers, musicians, etc.) further showed that positive emotions are involved in the creative process and are experienced more by artists who display HP for their art than artists with an OP. Further, the artists with OP tend to experience negative emotions, which undermine creativity.
Of additional interest, Liu et al. (2011) identified the determinants of HP in the context of creativity. In line with past research on passion (e.g., Mageau et al., 2009), they tested a sequence involving autonomy support, passion, and creativity. Autonomy support, or a social environment that fosters personal volition, has been identified as facilitating creativity (e.g., Amabile, Conti, Coon, Lazenby, & Herron, 1996; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Oldham & Cummings, 1996). The research by Liu et al. (2011), mentioned earlier, demonstrated that the relationship between autonomy support and creativity was fully mediated by HP. These findings were further supported by Yang et al. (2018), who examined follower–leader secure attachment (FLSA) as an antecedent of HP. FLSA is defined as a relationship where the leader is available to the follower (i.e., employee) in times of need, encourages professional growth, and provides space for the employee to take actions based on personal choices. The authors have found that FLSA positively predicted HP, and HP, in turn, predicted creativity.
Other research in the work domain has suggested that passion represents the mechanism that mediates the relationship between cognitive style and creativity (Luh & Lu, 2012). Cognitive style refers to an individual’s ways of addressing a problem, such as finding solutions (e.g., using sources of information, seeking expert advice), and combining existing ideas to generate a new one (Kirton, 1989). Two cognitive styles are proposed: a propensity to innovate and a propensity to adapt, with the former being associated with a desire to find novel and creative solutions, and the latter referring to a desire to do things in accordance with accepted norms (Kirton, 1976, 1989). Not surprisingly, an innovative cognitive style was found to be a better predictor of creativity in design, and this relationship was fully mediated by HP, but not by OP. Indeed, HP appears to be the path through which individual creativity is cultivated. In addition to facilitating positive emotions during the creative process, HP also fully mediates the relationship between predictors of creativity (i.e., autonomy support, cognitive style) and creative output.
In sum, although several studies support the role of HP (but not OP) in creativity, few studies have investigated HP in the arts and humanities. Future research is needed in this area.
Passion and Performance
Does passion for the arts and humanities influence performance? The DMP posits that both types of passion lead to regular engagement in the passionate activity, a desire to constantly improve, persistence in difficult times and through obstacles, and eventually attainment of high performance levels. Thus, passion shapes performance through fueling one’s desire to engage in the passionate activity and deliberately practicing the skills necessary to master that activity (e.g., Bonneville-Roussy, Lavigne, and Vallerand, 2011; Bonneville-Roussy, Vallerand, & Bouffard, 2013; Vallerand et al., 2007, Studies 1 and 2; Vallerand et al., 2008, Studies 1 and 2). Although both HP and OP predict excellence, the roads taken to reach high performance levels differ as a function of the type of passion. For example, Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2011) have found that, with classical musicians, HP leads to mastery goals (i.e., a desire to master the skills necessary to play classical music), which in turn lead to deliberate music practice and high levels of performance; OP, on the other hand, mostly predicts both performance approach (a desire to outperform others) and performance avoidance goals (a desire to avoid doing more poorly than others) and these performance goals, in turn, negatively predict performance. Thus, although the obsessively passionate musicians still achieved high levels of performance, the paths to performance were more arduous than those of the harmoniously passionate musicians. Similar results were obtained in studies with dramatic arts students (Vallerand et al., 2007; Study 1) and dancers (Akehurst & Oliver, 2014).
In addition, the type of persistence displayed by artists is affected by the type of passion underlying it. Specifically, HP has been consistently associated with higher levels of persistence and performance, while OP has been either unrelated to persistence (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013) or related to rigid persistence, which eventually led to possible harmful consequences such as chronic physical injury in dancers (e.g., Akehurst & Oliver, 2014; Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand, 2006). Similar findings have been obtained in other fields such as sports and exercise (Stephan, Deroche, Brewer, Caudroit, & Le Scanff, 2009). In short, with regard to performance and persistence, HP has been found to lead to more adaptive outcomes than OP in most situations.
Passion and Well-Being
One of the major hypothesized effects of the arts and humanities engagement is that it contributes to well-being. However, the DMP makes an important distinction: positive effects should follow mostly if one’s engagement in the arts and humanities is fueled by HP and not by OP. Results of over twenty studies conducted in a number of fields including the arts and humanities suggest that this is indeed the case (see Curran et al., 2015; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019). For instance, research on passion for engaging in artistic activities has revealed that HP (but not OP) positively contributes to psychological well-being, such as satisfaction with life, having a purpose and meaning in life, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and vitality. These effects have been shown in various activities, such as playing music (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Bonneville-Roussy & Vallerand, 2020; Helonen & Lomas, 2014; Lalande et al., 2017; Stenseng, 2008), listening to music (Burke et al., 2012; St-Louis et al., 2018; White, Tong, & Schwartz, 2018), dancing (Guilbault, Harvey, & Vallerand, 2020; Padham & Aujila, 2014), painting (Lafrenière et al., 2012; Vallerand et al., 2003), and the performing arts (Mullen, Davis, & Polatajko, 2012; Vallerand et al., 2007). In addition, HP has been found to decrease, and OP to facilitate, negative psychological experiences, such as performance anxiety in musicians (Bonneville-Roussy & Vallerand, 2020) and burnout (Vallerand et al., 2010).
Research suggests that HP leads to general psychological well-being through the boosting of positive psychological states during activity engagement (see Vallerand, 2015). Such findings have been observed for the experience of flow during engagement in a passionate activity (Crooms, 2012; Fredricks et al., 2010; Vallerand et al., 2003). Flow is defined as the experience of being fully absorbed in the activity to the point of losing track of time and consciousness, becoming one with the activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Previous research has demonstrated that HP leads to flow during activity engagement, which, in turn, contributes to higher levels of well-being (e.g., Carpentier, Mageau, & Vallerand, 2012). Other research has shown that HP is associated positively, and OP negatively, with mindfulness during activity engagement while listening to music (St-Louis et al., 2018). Mindfulness, in turn, positively predicts positive affect and negatively predicts negative affect as well as vitality (St-Louis et al., 2018). Research has also found that positive emotions mediate the positive effects of HP on psychological well-being (see Rousseau & Vallerand, 2008). Once again, the quality of passion (i.e., HP over OP), rather than its mere presence, seems to be important in shaping the psychological experiences of individuals who are passionate about the arts and humanities.
The work of Fredricks et al. (2010) provides additional support for the role of passion in flow from a different conceptual perspective. The authors conducted a series of interviews with young artists (e.g., dancers, musicians, dramatic artists). Results from their qualitative analysis showed that passion led to a state of flow during activity engagement. Flow, in turn, not only led to positive emotions, but also helped the participants cope with negative experiences in their personal lives. Indeed, flow was an important mediator in the relationship between passion and psychological well-being. Thus, the qualitative research of Fredricks et al. (2010) is very informative on the role of passion in experiencing flow.
Finally, in addition to shaping psychological processes, passion also plays a role in physical well-being (i.e., physical health). Research on passion for the arts and humanities has revealed that HP leads to a variety of physical benefits, from feeling energized (Halonen & Lomas, 2014) and experiencing vitality (Curran et al., 2015) to recovering better from physical injury (e.g., Rip et al., 2006) and disease (Burke et al., 2012); OP, on the other hand, is often associated with risky behaviors that may lead to physical suffering (e.g., Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 3). For example, Akehurst and Oliver (2014) have demonstrated in a sample of professional dancers, whose livelihood depends on their physical health and capabilities, that OP leads to engagement in risky behaviors such as prematurely quitting a treatment routine or not going to the doctor after an injury, while HP is unrelated to such behaviors. Furthermore, Rip et al. (2006) have found that OP is associated with behaviors that promote prolonged physical distress, such as ignoring pain and continuing activity engagement despite an injury in performing dancers. Conversely, in Rip and colleagues’ research, HP has been associated with health-promoting behaviors among dancers, such as seeking advice and treatment following an injury, while being negatively related to risky behaviors like hiding an injury or ignoring pain. Finally, studies have found obsessively passionate dancers to engage in risky eating behaviors (e.g., calorie restriction, food preoccupation), thereby jeopardizing their overall physical health (Aujla, Nordin-Bates, & Redding, 2015; Padham & Aujla, 2014).
In sum, it appears that passion plays a role in a variety of dimensions related to well-being. From psychological well-being to physical health, HP seems to have a positive impact on the well-being of passionate individuals, while OP leads to negative experiences and maladaptive decisions that can have an impact in the short term, but also have negative consequences for well-being in the long term.
Passion and Identity
Identity changes represents a final outcome outlined by Tay et al. (2018) in their model. Passion, by definition, represents a central part of a person’s identity (Vallerand, 2015). Consider the words of a student musician, Annie: “If you change yourself, you change the world. The passion inside drives these changes, and my goal is to change the world with my passion: music” (http://whatmusicmeanstome.org/?page_id = 143). Research suggests that various processes are at play when individuals derive a sense of identity from an activity (in our case, in the arts or humanities) that individuals are passionate about. These identity processes include a resonance between the activity and a person’s own perception of him- or herself (e.g., someone who sees him- or herself as musically inclined may be drawn to play the guitar), as well as a sense that a person’s future is unimaginable without engagement in the passionate activity (Fredricks et al., 2010; Mageau et al., 2009; Mullen et al., 2012). As such, becoming passionate changes how people see themselves.
In line with these findings, research by Bouizegarène and colleagues (2018) has shown that different types of identity processes may underlie HP and OP. Specifically, in two studies, results have revealed that HP takes roots from an informational identity style (where individuals willfully reach for available self-relevant information and are capable of identity commitments that emerge from a thorough exploration of identity options; Berzonsky, 2011). Conversely, OP results mostly from a normative identity style (where the search for identity is rigid and close-minded with regard to available self-relevant information; Berzonsky, 2011). People with a normative style then mostly construct their identity by imitating social norms and internalizing significant others’ beliefs and values. As such, it would appear that the identity that develops with OP may be more insecure and rigid than with HP. In OP’s identity formation, the subsequent consequences that develop over time may be less adaptive and less likely to lead to flourishing.
Some examples of such rigidity have been demonstrated with passion for the humanities (e.g., passion for a cause, religion), where OP has been shown to lead not only to self-neglect and maladaptive health and well-being (St-Louis, Carbonneau, & Vallerand, 2016), but also to aggressive and unethical behavior toward others (Bélanger, Caouette, Sharvit, & Dugas 2014; Gousse-Lessard, Vallerand, Carbonneau, & Lafrenière, 2013; Rip et al., 2012, Study 2). Research on ideological passion (e.g., religion; Rip et al., 2012) and passion for a cause (e.g., Bélanger et al., 2014; Gousse-Lessard et al., 2013) suggests that while OP leads to extremism, hostility, and hatred in identity-threatening situations, HP is unrelated to such negative cognitions and emotions. That is, under circumstances that pose a perceived threat to their passion-derived sense of identity, harmoniously passionate individuals are less likely to experience negative emotions and less likely to behave in more radical (e.g., aggressive) ways than their obsessively passionate counterparts. Furthermore, passion seems to shape value judgment. Bélanger et al. (2014) investigated the psychology of martyrdom and found that OP was a stronger predictor of endorsing self-sacrifice for a cause and such extreme behaviors. Also, people who were obsessively passionate about an ideology (i.e., religion) indicated that they believed that their religion was more important than the life of others, while HP was unrelated to such egocentric beliefs. More recently, Bélanger and colleagues (2019) examined the model that may explain such values and behaviors, revealing that OP is linked to disengagement from one’s moral regulatory processes, thereby allowing a person to act in unethical ways. HP was found to be negatively related to such moral disengagement.
In sum, research on passion in the arts and humanities has revealed a wide array of adaptive outcomes and processes that are associated with HP. Conversely, OP is consistently either unrelated or negatively related to such outcomes, while being associated with more maladaptive consequences. It should be noted that the empirical literature on passion in the arts and humanities to date has largely employed cross-sectional designs. However, passion research in other fields using cross-lagged panel (Lavigne et al., 2012), longitudinal (Bonneville-Roussy, Vallerand, & Bouffard, 2013, Study 2), multilevel (Liu et al., 2011), and experimental designs where HP and OP are induced (see Bélanger, Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Kruglanski, 2013; Lafrenière et al., 2013) has revealed results similar to those discussed here, providing additional support for the reported findings. Nevertheless, future research is necessary to establish the causal relationship between passion outcomes specifically within the confines of the arts and humanities.
Conclusions
The preceding review leads to a number of conclusions. First, it would appear that in line with the DMP, HP for the arts and humanities contributes to a host of adaptive outcomes. These include emotions, flow, creativity, performance, psychological and physical well-being, and adaptive identity processes. To the extent that one has an OP for the arts and humanities, such adaptive outcomes may not be forthcoming. Second, HP may even protect one against negative outcomes such as negative emotions and psychological distress; OP does not ensure the promotion of adaptive outcomes and the prevention of maladaptive ones. Tay et al. (2018) have underscored that the arts and humanities may not always lead to flourishing and that research was necessary to identify the conditions under which engagement is optimal. The role of the arts and humanities in purportedly promoting human flourishing may thus very well depend on individuals being harmoniously passionate in the process. As such, HP seems to represent one of the conditions that Tay et al. (2018) have sought to identify.
Third, as highlighted by Lalande et al. (2017), people may engage in arts and humanities activities to make up for what may be missing in other parts of their life. Engaging in activities with OP may allow some individuals to experience benefits in the short term. However, doing so regularly may lead to failures to attend to other areas of one’s life and may come to be detrimental in the long run. Lalande et al. (2017) have highlighted that using the obsessively passionate activity to compensate may lead to lower levels of psychological well-being than engaging in the activity out of HP. Future research should shed light on how OP and HP toward the arts and humanities may provide some short-term relief or shelter from difficult times without leading to negative long-term effects.
Fourth, to date, research on passion in the arts and humanities has been conducted in a limited number of activities such as music (both listening and playing music), dancing, the performing arts, and religion. Further research with a number of other activities in the humanities, such as literature writing, poetry, and reading, may shed light on whether the findings reviewed in this chapter can generalize to most arts and humanities activities. In addition, the emotion of awe that seems so prevalent in the arts and humanities needs some research attention, especially as both OP and HP have been related to it (Lecoq & Rimé, 2009, Study 1).
In conclusion, the arts and humanities have the potential to contribute to human flourishing, and the research reviewed here clearly shows that this is the case. However, the adaptive outcomes take place mostly when engagement in these activities is fueled by HP and not by OP. Future research is necessary to more clearly delineate the processes that facilitate HP (rather than OP) for the arts and humanities so that the benefits from such activities are experienced by all.
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