CHAPTER 6
IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: One of the most significant developments in world history was the independent emergence of agriculture, a process that had already taken place in some locations throughout the Eastern Hemisphere by 8000 BCE. The so-called Agricultural Revolution, or Neolithic Revolution,was in reality more of a slow process resulting from the warming of global temperatures. The accompanying historical period, known as the Neolithic Age (or New Stone Age), was named for its characteristic tools made from stone.
Key Terms
Agricultural Revolution*
animism*
artifact*
foraging*
Neolithic Age
Neolithic Revolution
Paleolithic Age
pastoralism*
slash-and-burn cultivation*
specialization of labor*
The Transition from Foraging to Agriculture
At the close of the Paleolithic Age (or Old Stone Age), the transition from foraging (hunting and gathering) arose as nomadic groups returned to favorite grazing areas year after year. Perhaps some nomadic peoples made an effort to cultivate those crops that they found most appealing; later they may have transplanted seeds from these same favored crops to other areas through which they traveled. Because hunting required greater physical strength, the early cultivation of plants was probably a task left to women, granting them increased importance among agricultural peoples. Women farmers studied the growth patterns of plants as well as the effect of climate and soil on them. Agricultural development included the domestication of animals as well as the cultivation of crops.
Independent Origins of Agriculture: A Timeline
Key developments in the history of agriculture show the following events in the process:
• Agriculture began sometime after 9000 BCE with the cultivation of grain crops such as wheat and barley in Southwest Asia. Animals such as pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats also were domesticated.
• By 7000 BCE Sudanese Africa and West Africa cultivated root crops such as sorghum and yams.
• Inhabitants of the Yangtze River valley cultivated rice about 6500 BCE.
• About 5500 BCE, people of the Huang He valley began the cultivation of soybeans and millet. They also domesticated chickens and pigs and, later, water buffalo.
• In Southeast Asia, perhaps around 3500 BCE, inhabitants grew root crops such as yams and taro as well as a variety of citrus and other fruits.
• Around 4000 BCE, the peoples of central Mexico cultivated maize, or corn, later adding beans, squash, tomatoes, and peppers.
• The principal crop of the Andean region of South America was potatoes, first cultivated around 3000 BCE. Maize and beans were added later. The only domesticated animals in the Americas were the llama, alpaca, and guinea pig.
(Note to the student: The multiple-choice questions on the Advanced Placement examination will not require that you know the exact dates included in this timeline. Rather, the dates are given so that you may visualize a pattern of independent invention of agriculture.)
The Spread of Agriculture
After agriculture was established independently in various locations across the globe, the knowledge of crop cultivation spread rapidly. In fact, it was the nature of early agricultural methods that aided the extension of agricultural knowledge. An often-used agricultural method called slash-and-burn cultivation involved slashing the bark on trees and later burning the dead ones. The resulting ashes enriched the soil for a number of years. When the soil eventually lost its fertility, however, farmers were forced to move to new territory. By 6000 BCE, agriculture had spread to the eastern Mediterranean basin and the Balkans, reaching northern Europe about 4000 BCE. These frequent migrations exposed early farmers to new peoples, diffusing both agricultural knowledge and cultural values.
Characteristics of Early Agricultural Societies
Although agriculture required more work than foraging, it had the advantage of producing a more constant and substantial food supply. Consequently, the spread of agriculture not only increased cultural contacts but also produced significant population growth. As populations multiplied, neolithic peoples began to settle in villages. Members of agricultural communities had to cooperate, especially in constructing and maintaining irrigation systems. As villages grew and agriculture continued to supply an abundance of food, not all villagers were needed as farmers. Some inhabitants began to develop other talents and skills such as the manufacture of pottery, metal tools, textiles, wood products, and jewelry. Two early noteworthy agricultural settlements were:
• Jericho (established around 8000 BCE) in present-day Israel. Here farmers produced wheat and barley, while also trading with neighboring peoples in obsidian and salt. Characteristic of Jericho was a thick wall designed to protect the wealthy settlement against raiders.
• Çatal Hüyük (established around 7000 BCE) in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). Residents of this village left artifacts representing a variety of craft products indicating an extensive specialization of labor . They also traded obsidian with neighboring peoples.
Pastoralism
As agricultural communities arose, pastoralism developed in the grasslands of Africa and Eurasia. Pastoralists, or herders, contributed meat and other animal products to the overall food supply, further enlarging neolithic human populations. At times their overgrazing of livestock led to soil erosion. Both agricultural and pastoral peoples exchanged food products and technology.
Early Metallurgy
In addition to the development and spread of agriculture, the Neolithic Age witnessed the origins of metallurgy. The first metal that humans learned to use was copper, with which they cast items such as jewelry, weapons, and tools. Later, neolithic humans learned the use of other metals such as gold and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), giving rise to the term Bronze Age for the later neolithic period. Still later, the knowledge of ironworking was developed independently in Central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Culture of Neolithic Societies
As human populations concentrated in permanent settlements, the specialization of labor as well as trade activity resulted in differing degrees of accumulation of wealth. As time progressed, differences in family wealth manifested themselves in the emergence of social classes.
The inhabitants of early agricultural societies observed their environment in order to further their knowledge of the factors necessary to produce a bountiful harvest. Their knowledge of the seasons in relation to the positions of heavenly bodies led eventually to the development of calendars. Interest in the natural world led neolithic humans to celebrate fertility and the cycles of life. Many agricultural and pastoral societies practiced animism , or the belief that divine spirits inhabited natural objects such as rocks and trees. In addition, archeologists have unearthed numerous figures representing pregnant goddesses in the ruins of neolithic villages.
Beginnings of Cities
As population growth resulted in larger settlements, the agricultural world experienced the rise of cities. Urban areas offered further specialization of labor and more sophisticated technology. New roles emerged as cities required administrators, collectors of taxes and tribute, and religious leaders. Cities also acquired influence over larger territories than villages did.
Rapid Review
The Neolithic Age saw independent origins of agriculture worldwide. As the knowledge of agriculture spread, cultural diffusion marked the ancient world. When crop cultivation produced increasingly larger yields, some farmers specialized in other tasks or crafts. As population concentrations grew increasingly dense, settlements grew into villages and, later, cities. Cities developed a more complex social structure to administer wealth, provide order, and study the meaning of life itself.
Review Questions
1 . Early agriculture in the Americas
(A) developed as a result of cultural diffusion from the Eastern Hemisphere
(B) featured the domestication of larger animals than in the Eastern Hemisphere
(C) began later than in the Eastern Hemisphere
(D) did not produce the wide variety of crops that the Eastern Hemisphere did
2 . The Agricultural Revolution
(A) began with an extensive pattern of cultural diffusion
(B) occurred about the same time throughout the world
(C) was an abrupt process beginning in 8000 BCE
(D) saw the use of agricultural methods that encouraged migration
3 . During the Agricultural Revolution, women
(A) participated in hunting activities with men
(B) experienced a decrease in status
(C) were not represented in neolithic art
(D) observed and studied the agricultural environment
4 . The Neolithic Age
(A) saw the beginnings of urbanization
(B) saw the process of agriculture carried out without the use of metal tools
(C) produced societies without class distinctions
(D) saw a decline in global populations
5 . Early urban dwellers
(A) were dominated by peoples in agricultural settlements
(B) left the pursuit of religious practices to agricultural peoples
(C) saw the need for a government
(D) were offered few opportunities to carry out specialized tasks
Answers and Explanations
1 . C Agriculture in the Americas began around 5000 BCE, whereas that in the Eastern Hemisphere had begun at least 3000 years earlier. Agriculture in the Americas developed independently (A). Animals in the Americas were smaller than those in the Eastern Hemisphere (B). Although food crops in the Americas differed from those in the Eastern Hemisphere, a wide variety, including maize, squash, beans, and cacao, was produced (D).
2 . D Slash-and-burn cultivation resulted in the migration of early agricultural peoples as the soil lost its fertility. The Agricultural Revolution developed independently throughout the world (A) and at different times (B). The beginning of agriculture was a gradual process (C).
3 . D Women studied the growth of plants and became the first farmers. Men handled the more strenuous duties of hunting (A). Women’s roles as farmers and childbearers gave them an importance in neolithic society (B), a role that was represented in the fertility statues of the Neolithic Age (C).
4 . A The first cities arose in Sumer. Some neolithic societies used tools of copper, bronze, and later, iron (B). Societies were often stratified, with elite classes, peasants, and slaves (C). Because of the success of early agriculture, population rose rapidly worldwide during the Neolithic Age (D).
5 . C Government arose from a need to cooperate in major projects such as irrigation and flood control. Early cities tended to embrace and extend their governments to nearby agricultural settlements (A). Religious leaders played a role in early cities (B), and specialization of labor was commonplace (D).