Introduction
1. Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism, Cambridge, 1968, p.351.
2. Ibid., p.342.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. S. Gopal, The Indian Economic and Social Review, Vol.XIV, No. 3, July-September 1977, p.405.
6. Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India, Calcutta, 1946, second edition, p.311.
7. The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (hereafter referred to as Gandhi, CW), New Delhi, 1958-1984, Vol.57, p.454.
1. The First Major Challenge: The Revolt of 1857
1. R.C. Majumdar, editor, British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance. Part 1, Bombay, 1963, p.513.
2. S.N. Sen, Eighteen Fifty-Seven, Delhi, 1957, pp.5-10.
3. T.R. Holmes, A History of the Indian Mutiny, London, 1898, p.50.
4. Harprasad Chattopadhyaya, Sepoy Mutiny, 1857 - A Social Study and Analysis, Calcutta, 1957, p.l.
5. E.I.Brodkin, Property Mutations and the Mutiny in Rohilkhand, Journal of Asian Studies. August 1969, p.66.
6. Taimiz Khaldun, ‘The Great Rebellion’ in P.C.Joshi, editor, Rebellion, 1857 - A Symposium, Delhi, 1957, pp.36-44.
2. Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings
1. L. Natrajan, ‘The Santhal Insurrection: 1855-56,’ in A.R. Desai, editor, Peasant Struggles in India, Delhi, 1979, p.137.
2. Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Delhi, 1983, pp.28, 112.
3. L. Natrajan, op.cit., p.143.
4. Suresh Singh, The Dust Storm and the Hanging Mist, Calcutta, 1966, pp.87 and 85.
3. Peasant Movements and Uprisings After 1857
1. Blair B. Kling, The Blue Mutiny - the Indigo Disturbances in Bengal 1859-1862, Philadelphia, 1966, p.145.
2. Ibid., p.73.
3. Ibid., p.120.
4. Foundation of the Congress: The Myth
1. Lajpat Rai, Young India, Delhi, 1965 edition, first published in 1916, pp. 112-6.
2. R. Palme Dutt, India Today, Bombay, 1949 edition, pp.288 ff.
3. M.S. Golwalkar, We or Our Nationhood Defined, Nagpur, 1947 edition, first published in 1939.
4. William Wedderburn, Allan Octavian Hume, C.B., London, 1913, pp.79 ff.
5. Lajpat Rai, op.cit., p.114.
6. Gurmukh Nihal Singh, Landmarks in Indian Constitutional and National Development, Vol.1, 1600-1919, Delhi, 1952, third edition, p. 105.
7. C.F. Andrews and Girija Mukerji, The Rise and Growth of the Congress in India, London, 1938, p. 128.
8. R.Plame Dutt, op.cit., p.291.
9. Briton Martin, New India, 1885, Bombay, 1970, pp.65 ff.
10. Dufferin to Kimberley, 20 Aug. 1986, Dufferin Papers (DP), Vol. 37, Reel no. 525; Hume to Dufferin, 31 July 1886, DP; Vol.50, Reel no. 531; Dufferin to Hume, 8 Oct. 1887, DP, Vol. 52 ‘Reel no. 532; Hume to A.P. MacDonnell, no date, Letter no. 521,DP,Vol. 54, Reel no. 534; Dufferin to Gratham Geary, 27 Oct. 1888, DP, Vol. 54, Reel no. 534.
11. Hume to Dufferin, 27 November 1886, DP, Vol.50, Reel no. 530.
12. Ibid.
13. W.C. Bonnerji, ‘Introduction’ to Indian Politics, Madras, 1898, P.VII.
14. Briton Martin, op.cit., pp.74-5.
15. B.L. Grover, British Policy Towards Indian Nationalism 1885-1909, Delhi. 1967, pp.181 ff.
16. Dufferin to Reay, 17 May 1885, DP, Vol.47, Reel no. 528.
17. Dufferin to Colvin, 9 October 1888, DP, Vol. 54, Reel no. 534.
18. Dufferin to Reay, 17 May 1885, DP, Vol. 47, Reel no.528.
19. Reay to Dufferin, 24 May 1885, and 4 June 1885, DP, Vol. 47, Reel no. 528.
20. Dufferin to Secretary of State, 3 February 1885, and 7 August 1885, DP, Volume 18, Reel no.517.
21. Dufferin to Northbrook, 23 June 1886; and Dufferin to Henry S. Maine, 9 May 1886, DP, Vol. 37, Reel no. 525.
5. Foundation of the Indian National Congress: The Reality
1. Indian National Congress, containing full texts of all Presidential Addresses, reprint of all the Congress Resolutions, etc., Madras, no date, Part I, p.386.
2. Ibid., p.3.
3. I.P. Minayeff, Trends in and Diaries of India and Burma, Calcutta, no date, p. 120.
4. S.R. Mehrotra, Emergence of the Indian National Congress, Delhi, 1971, p.418.
5. Indian National Congress, op. cit., Part III, p.16.
6. Ibid., Part III, pp. 17-8.
7. Ibid., Part I, pp.11-2
8. G.K. Gokhale, Speeches of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Madras, 1916, second edition, p.929.
9. R.G. Pradhan, India’s Struggle for Swaraj, Madras, 1930. p.20.
10. Indian National Congress, Part I, op.cit., p.3.
11. R.P. Masani, Dadabhai Naoroji: The Grand Old Man of India, London, 1939, p.441.
12. Gokhale, Speeches, p. 1113.
13. W. Wedderbum. Allan Octavian Hume, pp.63-4.
6. Socio-Religious Reforms and the National Awakening
1. Sophia Dobson Collet, Life and Letters of Rammohan Roy, Calcutta, 1913, p. 124.
2. Life and Work of Brahmananda Keshav, edited by P.S. Basu, Calcutta, 1940, p.63.
3. J.C. Ghose, editor, English Works of Rammohan Roy, Allahabad, 1906, p.312.
4. Mahadev Govind Ranade, The Miscellaneous Writings, Bombay, 1915, p.191.
5. P.S. Basu, op.cit., p.147.
6. Writings and Speeches of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, edited by Shan Mohammad, Meerut, 1972, p.117.
7. Dayanand Saraswati, Satyartha Prakash, English translation by Durga Prasad, New Delhi, 1972, p.83.
8. M.K. Sanoo, Narayana Guru Swami, in Malayalam, Irininjalakuda, 1976, p.441.
9. P.J. Thomas, The Growth of Higher Education in Southern India, Madras, no date, p.5.
7. An Economic Critique of Colonialism
1. For a short treatment of the subject, see Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, New Delhi, 1966, Chapter I. For details, see Dadabhai Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, London, 1901, and Speeches and Writings,Madras, no date.
2. R.C. Dutt, Economic History of India in the Victorian Age, London, sixth edition, first published in 1903, p.XVI.
3. G.V. Joshi, Writings and Speeches, Poona, 1912, p.616.
4. M.G.Ranade, Essays on Indian Economics, Bombay, 1898, p.96.
5. For a detailed treatment, see Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, Chapter III, Section I; and his ‘British and Indian Ideas on Indian Economic Development, 1858-1905’ in Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India,New Delhi, 1987 reprint.
6. Curzon, Speeches, Vol.I, Calcutta, 1900, p.34.
7. Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, pp.34, 568-9, Speeches, p.169.
8. February 1903, p.193.
9. New India, 12 August 1901.
10. G.V. Joshi, op.cit., pp.687-8.
11. Ram Gopal, Lokamanya Tilak, Bombay. 1965 reprint, p. 148.
12. For details, see Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, Chapter XIII.
13. Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, p.216.
14. R.C. Dutt, Economic History of India Under Early British Rule, London, 1956, 8th impression, pp.xi and 420.
15. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Council of the Governor-General of India, 1896, Vol.XXXV, p.85.
16. Naoroji, Speeches, pp.328, 329.
17. Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, pp.224-5.
18. Naoroji, Speeches, p.389.
19. India, London, 2 September 1904.
20. Naoroji, Speeches, p.671.
21. Ibid., p.73.
8. The Fight to Secure Press Freedom
1. J. Natrajan, History of Indian Journalism — Part II of the Report of the Press Commission, New Delhi, 1955, p.15.
2. Dufferin to Secretary of State, 21 March and 17 May 1886, Dufferin Papers.
3. Lord Curzon, Speeches, Vol. IV, Calcutta, 1906, p.75.
4. J. Natrajan, op.cit., p. 135.
5. D.V. Tahmankar, Lokamanya Tilak, London, 1956, p.73; and Ram Gopal, Lokamanya Tilak, p. 133.
6. R.G. Pradhan and A.K. Bhagwat, Lokamanya Tilak — A Biography, Bombay, 1958, p.111.
7. D. Keer, Lokamanya Tilak, Bombay, 1969, p.141.
8. Pradhan and Bhagwat, op.cit., pp.117-8.
9. Ibid., pp.219-21.
10. Ibid., p.222.
11. Ibid., p.228.
12. V.I. Lenin, Collected Works, Moscow, 1963, Vol.15, p.184.
13. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 23, p.120.
9. Propaganda in the Legislatures
1. R.C. Majumdar, editor, British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance, Part I, p.759.
2. Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, p.534 f.n.
3. Ibid., p.553 f.n.
4. Madan Mohan Malaviya, Speeches, Madras, no date, pp.26-7, 30-1.
5. Pherozeshah M. Mehta, Speeches and Writings, edited by C.Y. Chintamani, Allahabad 1905, pp.405-6.
6. Homi Mody, Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, A Political Biography, Bombay, 1963 edition, pp. 185-6.
7. Ibid., p.188.
8. Speeches and Writings op.cit., pp.334, 348.
9. Ibid., p.350.
10. Ibid., p.663.
11. Ibid., p.564.
12. Gokhale, Speeches, pp. 1-29.
13. B.R. Nanda, Gokhale, The Indian Moderates and the Raj, Delhi, 1977, p. 138.
14. Ibid.
15. Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, p.4 f.n.
16. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Council of the Governor-General of India, assembled for the purpose of making Laws and Regulations, 1904, Vol.XLIII, p.542.
17. Nanda, Gokhale, pp.358-9.
18. Pradhan and Bhagwat, Lokamanya Tilak, p.259.
10. The Swadeshi Movement — 1903-1908
1. B.L. Grover, A Documentary Study of British Policy Towards Indian Nationalism, 1885-1909, Delhi, pp.224-5.
2. S. Gopal, British Policy in India, 1858-1905, Cambridge, 1965, p.270.
3. Ibid., pp.270-1.
4. Ibid.
5. Sumit Sarkar, The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal, 1903-8, New Delhi, 1973, p.20.
6. Haridas and Uma Mukherjee, India’s Fight in Freedom or the Swadeshi Movement, 1905-06, Calcutta, 1958, p.162.
7. Sumit Sarkar, op.cit., p.65.
8. Indian National Congress, containing full texts of all Presidential Addresses, etc., Part I, p.863.
9. Bipan Chandra, Modern India, New Delhi, 1969, p.244.
10. Sandhya, 21 November 1906, in Sumit Sarkar, op.cit., p.69.
11. Haridas and Uma Mukherjee, op.cit., p. 109.
11. The Split in the Congress and the Rise of Revolutionary Terrorism
1. Grover, British Policy Towards Indian Nationalism, p. 183.
2. R.C.Majumdar, History of Freedom Movement in India,. Vol.I,Calcutta, 1962, p.413.
3. Nanda, Gokhale, p. 376.
4. Quoted in R.P. Masani, Dadabhai Naoroji: The Grand Old Man of India, p.459.
5. C.H. Philips, editor, The Evolution of India and Pakistan 1858-1947 Select Documents, London, 1965 edition, p.151.
6. Nanda, Gokhale, p.182.
7. Speeches and Writings of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, edited by D.G. Karve and D.V. Ambekar, Bombay, 1966, Vol. Two, p.243.
8. Nanda Gokhale, p.283.
9. Ibid., p.293.
10. Ibid.
11. Lajpat Rai: Writings and Speeches, edited by V,C. Joshi, 2 Vols., Delhi, 1966, Vol. I, p.180.
12. Nanda, Gokhale, p.288.
13. Sri Aurobindo Karmayogin, edited from Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, 1972, p.1.
14. C.H. Philips, op.cit., p.85.
15. Haridas and Urna Mukherjee, India’s Fight for Freedom or the Swadeshi Movement 1905-1906, Calcutta, 1958, p.166.
16. Hirendranath Mukherjee, India Struggles for Freedom, Bombay, 1948 edition, p.96.
12. World War I and Indian Nationalism: The Ghadar
1. Harish K. Puri, Ghadar Movement, Amritsar, 1983, pp.31-2.
2. ‘Ghadar Conspiracy Report, 1913-16,’ by Isemonger and Slattery, 1922, reproduced in Bhai Nahar Singh and Kirpal Singh, editors, Struggle for Free Hindustan, (Ghadar Movement), Vol.1, 1905-1916, New Delhi, 1986, pp. 17-21.
3. Ibid., pp.46-7.
4. Harish K. Puri, op.cit., pp.69-70.
5. Sohan Singh Josh, Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna: Life of the Founder of the Ghadar Party, New Delhi, 1970, pp.30-1.
6. Ghadar di Goonj, No.1, poem 8, quoted in Harish K. Puri, op.cit., pp.73-4.
7. Sohan Singh Josh, op.cit., p.45.
8. Harish K. Puri, op.cit., pp.121-2.
9. Ibid., p. 124.
10. Ibid., p.113.
11. See, Emily C. Brown, Har Dayal: Hindu Revolutionary and Rationalist, Tuscon, 1975, for a full account of Har Dayal’s life and ideas.
13. The Home Rule Movement and its Fallout
1. Letter to the Press, August 27, 1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, His Writings and Speeches, Madras, 1919, p.392.
2. Bombay Police 1915, par. 568 (b), cited in H.F. Owen, ‘Towards Nation-Wide Agitation and Organisation: The Home Rule Leagues, 1915–18,’ in D.A. Low, editor, Soundings in Modern South Asian History, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968, p. 167, n.42.
3. G.P. Pradhan and A.K. Bhagwat, Lokamanya Tilak: A Biography, Bombay, 1959, pp.265-6.
4. Ibid., p.266-7, Tilak’s Writings and Speeches, pp. 116-17, has a slightly different translation of the passage.
5. Ibid., p.269. Tilak’s Writings and Speeches, p.187, has a slightly different version.
6. Pradhan and Bhagwat, op.cit., p.292.
7. Ibid., p.306.
8. Home Rule Speech at Ahmednagar, May 31, 1916, Tilak’s Writings and Speeches, p.142.
9. Pradhan and Bhagwat, op.cit., p.271.
10. Ibid., p.273.
11. A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi, The Encyclopaedia of the Indian National Congress, Vol.7, 1916-20, p.48.
12. Tilak’s Writings and Speeches, pp.202-03.
13. Pradhan and Bhagwat, op.cit., p.284.
14. Edwin S. Montagu, Indian Diary, London, 1930, p. 157.
15. S.R. Mehrotra, India and the Commonwealth, 1885-1929, London, 1965, p.103.
14. Gandhi’s Early Career and Activism
1. One of the best accounts of this journey is in Chandran D.S Devanesan, The Making of the Mahatma, Madras, 1969, pp.229-45.
2. Gandhi, CW, Vol.1, p.61.
3. B.R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi, New Delhi, 1958, p.117.
4. D.G. Karve and D.V. Ambekar, editors, Speeches and Writings of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Volume 2: Political, p.444.
5. G.A. Natesan, ‘Reminiscences,’ in Gandhi, p.215, on Gandhi’s 75th birthday in 1944, cited in B.R. Nanda, op.cit., pp.154-5.
6. Gandhi, CW, Vol. XIV, p.340.
7. Ibid, p.339.
8. M.K. Gandhi, An Autobiography OR The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Ahmedabad, 14th Reprint, first published in 1927 and 1929, pp.365-6.
15. The Non-Cooperation Movement — 1920-22
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol.17, p.504.
2. Prabhudas Gandhi, ‘Recalling Memories of 1921,’ in Government of India, 1921 Movement: Reminiscences, New Delhi, 1971, p.85.
3. Prabhudas Gandhi, op.cit., pp.86-7; and Gandhi, CW, Vol.21, pp.180-1.
4. D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, 8 Volumes, New Delhi, 1969 reprint, Vol.2, p.52.
5. Hitesranjan Sanyal, ‘Congress Movements in the Villages of Eastern Midnapore, 1921-31,’ in Asie du Sud, Traditions et Changements, Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, No.582, Paris.
6. Atlury Murali, Social Change and Nature of Social Participation in National Movement in Andhra, 1905-1934, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 1985, pp.284-90.
7. See Chapter 16 below.
8. See Chapter 16 below.
9. See Chapter 18 below.
10. R.P. Dutt, India Today, pp.324-9.
11. Majid H. Siddiqi, Agrarian Unrest in North India: The United Provinces, 1918-22, New Delhi, 1978, p.201.
12. Atlury Murali, op.cit., pp.288-90.
13. B.L. Grover, British Policy Towards Indian Nationalism 1885-1909, Delhi, 1967, pp.181 ff.
14. Gandhi, CW, Vol.22, p.457.
15. Ibid., p.458.
16. Peasants Movements and Nationalism in the 1920s
1. For the Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh, see Majid H. Siddiqi, Agrarian Unrest in North India: The United Provinces (1918-22), New Delhi, 1978; Kapil Kumar, Peasants in Revolt: Tenants, Congress, Landlords and the Raj in Oudh, 1886-1922,New Delhi, 1984; S.Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Vol.1, London, 1975, pp.42-57; Gyanendra Pandey, ‘Peasant Revolt and Indian Nationalism,’ in Ranajit Guha, editor, Subaltern Studies I, Delhi, 1982.
2. For the Mappila revolt in Malabar, see K.N. Pannikar, ‘Peasant Revolts in Malabar in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,’ in A.R. Desai, editor, Peasant Struggles in India, New Delhi, 1979, pp.601-630; Conrad Wood, ‘Peasant Revolt: An Interpretation of Moplah Violence in the 19th and 20th Centuries,’ in Dewey and Hopkins, editors, The Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History of India and Africa, London, 1978; Stephen F. Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498-1922, New York, 1980, Chapter 7.
3. For the no-tax movement in Bardoli, see Mahadev Desai, The Story of Bardoli, Ahmedabad, 1957; Shirin Mehta, The Peasantry and Nationalism, New Delhi, 1984; Ghanshyam Shah, ‘Traditional Society and Political Mobilisation: The experience of Bardoli Satyagraha (1920-1928),’ in Contributions to Indian Sociology, New Series, New Delhi, No.8, 1974, pp.89-107; and Interviews with Uttamchand Shah, Bardoli, 22 and 25 June 1985, Chimanlal Pranlal Bhatt, Vedchi, 26 June 1985, and Kasanbhai Ukabhai Choudhry, Vedchi, 26 June 1985, Khushalbhai Morarji Patel, Bardoli, 25 June 1985, Vallabhbhai Khushalbhai Patel, Sankri, 25 June 1985, Chhotubhai Gopalji Desai, Puni, 25 June 1985.
4. Interview with Kalyanji V. Mehta, cited in Shirin Mehta, The Peasantry and Nationalism, pp. 88-9.
5. Ibid., p. 177.
6. Ibid., pp.182-3.
7. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 36, p.73.
17. The Indian Working Class and the National Movement
1. Indian National Congress, containing full texts of all Presidential Addresses, etc., Part I, p.12.,
2. Quoted in Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, pp.360-1.
3. G. Subramaniya Iyer, Some Economic Aspects of British Rule in India, Madras, 1903, pp.175-8, 218-32.
4. Sumit Sarkar, The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal, 1903-1908, pp.183-4.
5. AITUC — Fifty Years, Documents, New Delhi, 1973, pp.30, 35.
6. Ibid., pp.78-9.
7. Lala Lajpat Rai: Writings and Speeches, Vol.II, p.57.
8. Ibid., pp.60-1.
9. Quoted in Balabushevich and Dyakov, editors, A Contemporary History of India, New Delhi, 1964, p.150.
10. Lajpat Jagga, ‘Colonial Railwaymen and British Rule: A Probe into Railway Labour Agitation in India, 1919-1922,’ in Bipan Chandra, editor, The Indian Left: Critical Appraisals, New Delhi, 1983, pp.104-06.
11. Ravinder Kumar, ‘From Swaraj to Purna Swaraj: Nationalist Politics in the city of Bombay, 1920-32,’ in D.A. Low, editor, Congress and the Raj, Facets of the Indian Struggle 1917-47, London, 1977, p.88.
12. J.B. Kripalani, Gandhi, His ‘Life and Thought,’ p.78, quoted in Sukomal Sen, (Working Class of India, History of Emergence and Movement 1830-1870), Calcutta, 1977, pp.152-3. In Chapter 39 below we see how in another context Gandhiji went beyond the trusteeship theory to argue that land belonged to the tiller and landlords could ‘cooperate by running away.’
13. H. Williamson, India and Communism, National Archives of India (NAI), p.126. Williamson was the Director, Intelligence Bureau, Government of India. Also see, Home Political Department, Fl. 7/16/34 in Subodh Roy, editor, Communism in India, Unpublished Documents, 1935-45, Calcutta, 1976, p.103.
14. Guidelines of the History of the Communist Party of India, issued by Central Party Education Department, New Delhi, 1974, p.35.
15. Balabushevich and Dyakov, op.cit., p.241.
16. Ibid., p.321; and Sukomal Sen, op.cit., p.364.
18. The Struggles for Gurdwara Reform and Temple Entry
1. Mohinder Singh, The Akali Movement, Delhi, 1978, p.47.
2. Ibid., Appendix IV.
3. Ibid., pp. 149-50.
4. A.K. Gopalan, In the Cause of the People, New Delhi, 1973 p.38.
5. E.M.S. Namboodiripad, How I became a Communist, Trivandrum, 1976, p. 123.
19. The Years of Stagnation —Swarajists, No-changers and Gandhiji
1. Indian Annual Register, 1923, Vol.II, pp. 143-4.
2. B.R. Nanda, The Nehrus Motilal ana Jawaharlal, London, 1962, p.234.
3. Ibid., pp.239-40.
4. Gandhi, CW, Vol.24, p.109.
5. Ibid., Vol.25, p.310.
6. Ibid., Vol. 23, p.341.
7. Ibid., Vol.24, p.356.
8. Ibid., Vol.25, p.275.
9. Ibid., p.335.
10. Ibid., p.310.
11. Indian Annual Register, 1923, Vol.II, p.217.
12. Manoranjan Jha, Role of Central Legislature in the Freedom Struggle, New Delhi, 1972, p.82.
13. Ibid., p.87.
14. Lajpat Rai: Writings and Speeches, Vol.II, p.260.
15. Leonard A. Gordon, Bengal: The Nationalist Movement 1876-1940, Delhi, 1974, p.217.
16. Gandhi, CW, Vol.30, p.371.
17. Lajpat Rai: Writings and Speeches, Vol.II, pp.430, 437.
18. The Voice of Freedom — Selected Speeches of Pandit Motilal Nehru, edited by K.M. Pannikar and A. Pershad, Bombay, 1961, pp.371 ff., 401 ff.
19. Manoranjan Jha, op.cit., p.142.
20. Ibid., p.143.
21. Gandhi, CW, Vol.40, pp.201-2.
22. Ibid., Vol. 33, p.347.
20. Bhagat Singh, Surya Sen and the Revolutionary Terrorists
Interviews with the following have been very useful: Shiv Varma, New Delhi, 12 and 14 September 1984; Jaidev Kapur, New Delhi, 10 and 14 September 1984; Kishorilal, Jullundhur (Punjab), 1 April 1985; Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Hyderabad, 17 June 1985; Durga Das Khanna, Chandigarh, 10 and 11 November 1983; Tridip Choudhry, New Delhi, 27 November 1983.
1. Jagmohan Singh and Chamanlal, Bhagat Singh aur unke Sathiyon ke Dastavez (The Documents of Bhagat Singh and His Comrades), New Delhi, 1986, in Hindi, p.266.
2. Kalpana Joshi (nee Dutt), ‘Chittagong Uprising and the Role of Muslims,’ in Challenge — A Saga of India’s Struggle for Freedom, edited by Nitish Ranjan Ray, et. al., New Delhi, 1984, p.51.
3. Anand Gupta, ‘The Immortal Surya Sen,’ in Ibid., p.89.
4. Shiv Varma, editor, Selected Writings of Shaheed Bhagat Singh, New Delhi, 1986, Appendix I.
5. Proceedings of the HRA Council Meeting, 1924.
6. Shiv Varma, op.cit., Appendix II.
7. Ramprasad Bismil, Autobiography, edited by Banarsidas Chaturvedi, Delhi, 1966, in Hindi.
8. Shiv Varma, op.cit., p.95.
9. Ibid., p.130.
10. Ibid., pp. 137-8.
11. Ibid., p. 137.
12. Jagmohan Singh and Chamanlal, op.cit., p.267.
13. Shiv Varma, op.cit., pp. 190, 198-9.
14. Ibid., p.74.
15. Quoted in Gopal Thakur, Bhagat Singh: The Man and His Ideas, New Delhi, 1952, p.39.
16. Vishwanath Vaishampayan, Amar Shahid Chandrasekhar Azad, Benaras, 1976, in Hindi, Parts 2-3, Appendix 5.
17. Shiv Varma, op.cit., p.109.
18. Sohan Singh Josh, My Meetings with Bhagat Singh and on Other Early Revolutionaries, New Delhi, 1976, pp.13-5; and Jagmohan Singh and Chamanlal, op.cit., pp. 186-9, 244-5.
19. Jagmohan Singh and Chamanlal, op.cit., pp. 190-3.
20. Ibid., pp.248 ff.
21. Rules and Regulations of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Punjab, 1 May 1928, Meerut Conspiracy Case, 1929, Exhibit no.P 205 (T); Reports on the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Home (Political) Proceedings, F.130 & KW (1930).
22. Bhagat Singh, Why I am an Atheist, with an introduction by Bipan Chandra, Delhi, 1979. Also in Shiv Varma, op.cit., pp.139 ff. and pp.117 ff.
21. The Gathering Storm — 1927-29
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 35, pp.454-5.
2. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, 1885-1947, New Delhi, 1983, p.266.
3. Gandhi, CW, Vol.38, p.416.
4. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.2, p. 176.
5. Ibid, p.381
6. Gandhi, CW, Vol.41, p.499.
7. Ibid., p.240.
8. Ibid., pp.240-1.
9. Ibid., pp.499-500.
10. Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, general editor, S. Gopal, 15 volumes, New Delhi, 1972-1982, Vol.4, p.198. Hereafter referred to as Nehru, SW.
11. Ibid., p.192.
12. Ibid., p.195.
13. Tendulkar, Mahatma Vol.3, pp.8-9.
22. Civil Disobedience — 1930-31
This account of the Civil Disobedience Movement owes a lot to our interviews with participants in the movement; in particular, Sita Poviah, Chitra Poviah and Lata Poviah, Bombay, 21 May 1985; Najuben Dastoor, Bombay, 16 June 1985; Pramodaben Gosalia, Bombay, 22 May 1985; Pashabhai Bhailalalbhai Amin, Anand (Gujarat), 4 July 1985; Tribhuvandas Patel, Anand, 1 and 5 July 1985; Umashankar Joshi, Ahmedabad, 9 July, 1985; Madhavlal Shankarlal Pandya, Piplov, Borsad (Gujarat), 3 July 1985; A.K. Raman Kutty, Palghat (Kerala), 20 May 1984; A.V. Kuttimalu Amma, Ernakulum, 23 May 1984; Bhaktavatsalam, Madras, 4 June 1984; K. Subramaniam ‘Subri’, Madras, 7 June 1984; Sadhu Ram Sharma, Amritsar, 28 March 1985; Tunmala Durgamba, Guntur, 23 June 1984; P.C. Sen, Calcutta, 19 January 1985; Atulya Ghosh, Calcutta, 27 July 1986; R.R. Diwakar, New Delhi, 4 May 1986; Madan Mohan Misra, Rae Bareili, 26 April 1986; Rampal Trivedi, Lucknow, 27 April 1986.
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol.42, p.389.
2. Ibid., p.499.
3. Gandhi, CW, Vol.43, p.3.
4. Ibid., p.7.
5. Ibid., pp.46-7.
6. Ibid., p.37.
7. Ibid.
8. For an example of the kind of effort that was made at the local level, see Atlury Murali, Social Change and Nature of Social Participation in National Movement in Andhra, 1905-1934, pp.653-60.
9. Ibid., pp.659-60.
10. Gandhi, CW, Vol.43, p.37.
11. C.F.V. Williams, cited in David Arnold, ‘The Politics of Coalescence: The Congress in Tamilnad, 1930-37,’ in D.A. Low, editor, Congress and the Raj, p.264.
12. For a discussion of British Policy towards the Civil Disobedience Movement, see D.A. Low, ‘Civil Martial Law, 1930-34,’ in D.A. Low, editor, Congress and the Raj.
13. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.3, p.41.
14. Gandhi, CW, Vol.43, p.219.
15. Nehru, SW, Volume 4, p.183.
16. Interview with Usha Mehta, Bombay, 18 May, 1985.
17. Ibid.
18. Jawaharlal Nehru had summed up his immediate reaction to the signing of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in the famous lines of T.S. Eliot: ‘This is the way the world ends Not with a bang but with a whimper.’ Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography, New Delhi, 1962 reprint, p.259.
19. Tanika Sarkar, ‘The First Phase of Civil Disobedience in Bengal 1930–1,’ in The Indian Historical Review, New Delhi, July 1977, Vol.IV: No. 1. pp.90-92.
20. Ibid., p.80.
23. From Karachi to Wardha: The Years from 1932 to 1934
1. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, The History of Indian National Congress 1885–1935, no place, 1935, p.768.
2. Ibid., pp.779 ff., and Indian National Congress Resolutions on Economic Policy, Programme and Allied Matters, New Delhi, 1969, pp.3 ff.
3. R.J. Moore, The Crisis of Indian Unity 1917-1940, Delhi, 1974, p.209.
4. B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi — A Biography, Delhi, 1981 reprint, p.314.
5. Gandhi, CW, Vol.47, p.369.
6. R.J. Moore, op.cit., p.289.
7. Nehru, SW, Vol.6, p.372.
8. Ibid., p.273.
9. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, op.cit., p.942.
10. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi, p.339.
11. Bisheshwar Prasad, Bondage and Freedom, Vol.II, New Delhi, 1979, p.423.
12. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi, p.367.
13. Gandhi, CW, Vol.55, p.430.
14. Ibid., Vol.57, pp.451,454.
15. Citations are too many for Sections V and VI. See CW, Vols. 51 to 56; or Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.3, pp.159-245; and Vol. 4, pp.14-63.
24. The Rise of the Left-wing
In writing this chapter, we have extensively used interviews with the following: S.A. Dange, 20 February 1984; S.M. Joshi, New Delhi, 29 February 1984; Achuta Menon, Trichur (Kerala), 21 May 1984; E.P. Gopalan, Pattambi (Kerala), 18 May 1984; Achyut Patwardhan, Bangalore, 7 December 1984; K. Lingaraju, Rajahmundry, 1 July 1984; Venkata Subiah, Pondicherry, 10 June 1984; Master Hari Singh, Chandigarh, 8 July 1982., N.C. Shekhar, Cannanore (Kerala), 15 and 16 May 1984; P. Balachandra Menon, Chittoor (Kerala), 20 May 1984; M. Govindan Nair, New Delhi, 24 May, 1984: K.C. George, Trivandrum, 27 May 1984; V.P. Chinthan, Madras, 15 June 1984; Karam Singh Mann, Jullundhur (Punjab), 2 April 1985; S.G. Sardesai, Pune, 6 June 1985; M.R. Masani, Bombay, 26 May and 10 June 1985; Rohit Dave, Bombay, 21 May 1985; S.Y. Kolhatkar, Bombay, 23 May 1985; Dinkar Mehta, Bombay, 15 June 1985; Kamalashankar Pandya, Baroda, 29 and 30 June 1985; Ganga Saran Sinha, New Delhi, 16 December 1985; A.R. Desai, Bombay, 17 May and 13 June 1985; V.B. Karnik, Bombay, 20 May 1985; R.M. Jhambekar, Bombay, 22 May 1985; Batuk Desai, Bombay, 14 June 1985; P.B. Rangnekar, 28 May 1985; L.K. Oak, Bombay, 1985; Ramesh Sinha, Lucknow, 22 April 1986; Z.A. Ahmed, Lucknow, 29 April 1986; N.G. Gore, 29 December 1986; Prem Bhasin, New Delhi, 10 February 1987.
1. Jnananjan Pal, ‘Bipin Chandra Pal,’ in Atulchandra Gupta, editor, Studies in the Bengal Renaissance, Jadavpur, 1958, p.573.
2. S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru — a Biography, Vol. One, p. 109.
3. Nehru, SW, Vol.4, pp. 192-3.
4. Ibid., Vol.6, p.16.
5. Ibid., p.124.
6. Ibid., Vol.7, pp. 180-1.
7. Ibid., pp.76-7.
8. Mohit Sen, The Indian Revolution, Review and Perspectives, New Delhi, 1970, p.35.
9. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, pp.60-1.
10. Guidelines of the History of the Communist Party of India, issued by Central Party Education Department, New Delhi, 1974, p.46.
11. Ibid., p.54.
12. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, p.374.
13. Acharya Narendra Dev, Socialism and the National Revolution, Bombay, 1946, p.4.
14. Girja Shankar, Socialist Trends in Indian National Movement, Meerut, 1987, p.57.
15. Ibid., Appendix V.
16. Ibid., p.126.
17. Jayaprakash Narayan, Why Socialism, Benaras, 1936, p.1.
18. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, p.76.
25. The Strategic Debate — 1934-37
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol.55, p.429.
2. Nehru, SW, Vol.6, p.281.
3. Ibid., p.271.
4. For detailed treatment, See Bipan Chandra, ‘Jawaharlal Nehru and the Capitalist Class,’ in his Nationalism and Colonialism in Modem India, pp. 177 ff.
5. For detailed treatment, See Chapter 38 below and Bipan Chandra, Indian National Movement: The Long-term Dynamics, New Delhi; 1988:
6. Gandhi, CW, Vol.57, p.425.
7. Ibid., Vol.58, p. 11.
8. Ibid, Vol.61, p.439.
9. Ibid., Vol.58, p.318.
10. Ibid., Vol.59, pp.3-12; Vol.58, pp.405-06; and Tendulkar Mahatma, Vol.3, pp.318-9.
11. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, p.118.
12. Raj Mohan Gandhi, A Warrior From the South — The Rajaji Story, Bombay 1978, p.282.
13. D.A. Low, ‘Civil Martial Law: The Government of India and the Civil Disobedience Movements, 1930-34,’ in D.A. Low, editor, Congress and the Raj, p.190.
14. R.J. Moore, ‘The Problem of Freedom with Unity: London’s India Policy 1917-47,’ in Ibid., p.379.
15. Erskine to Craik, 20 April 1936, Home Political Proceedings, F.No.4/6/36 (National Archives of India).
16. John Glendevon, The Viceroy at Bay — Lord Linlithgow in India, 1936-43, London, 1971, p.52,.
17. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, pp. 185-7.
18. Jawaharlal Nehru — A Bunch a Old Letters, Written mostly to Jawaharlal Nehru, Bombay, 1958, pp.157 and 156.
19. A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi, The Encyclopaedia of Indian National Congress, Volume Eleven: 1936-1938, New Delhi, 1980, p.48.
20. Ibid., p.42.
21. Ibid., pp.41-2.
26. Twenty-Eight Months of Congress Rule
Our understanding of the period of Congress Ministries from 1937 to 1939 was enriched by interviews with large number of freedom fighters, in particular Keralyeean, Calicut, 25 February and 12 May 1984; E.P. Gopalan, Pattambi (Kerala), 18 May 1984; B. Gopal Reddy, Nellore (Andhra Pradesh), 16 June 1984; C. Subramaniam, Madras, 2 June 1984; Soli Batliwala, Bombay, 26 May 1985; M.R. Masani, Bombay, 26 May and 10 June 1985; Kamalashankar Pandya, Baroda, 29 and 30 June 1985; Shekhar Ganguly, Patna, 27 November 1985; Rameshwar Prasad Misra, Lucknow, 28 April 1986.
1. For detailed discussion of S-T-S’. See Chapter 38 below.
2. Gandhi, CW, Vol.66, p.16.
3. Ibid, Vol.65, p.406.
4. Nehru, Discovery of India, pp.321-2.
5. Gandhi, CW, Vol.66, p.63.
6. Rajmohan Gandhi, The Rajaji Story 1937-72, Bombay, 1984, p.7.
7. S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru — A Biography, Vol.One, p.230.
8. Quoted in Visalakshi Menon, ‘The Indian National Congress and Mass Mobilization — A Study of U.P. 1937-39,’ Studies in History, Vol.II, No.2. July-December 1980, New Delhi, p.115.
9. Quoted in Gyanesh Kudaisya, Office Acceptance and the Congress 1937-1939: Premises and Perceptions, M.Phil dissertation, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, pp. 110 and 93.
10. Nehru, Discovery of India, p.321.
11. Annual Report of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, 1938, pp.27, 30, 83-7, 113, 117, 120-2.
12. AICC, G-13/1937. Nehru Memorial Museum and Library.
13. Visalakshi Menon, op.cit.
14. S. Gopal, op.cit., p.231
15. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.4, p.276.
16. R. Palme Dutt, India Today, pp.491-2.
17. Gandhi, CW, Vol.68, pp. 112-3. Also see CW, Vol.66, pp.268-9.
18. See, for example, Ibid., Vol.66, pp.300-02.
19. Ibid., Vol.68, p.195.
20. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.5, p.94. A different translation is given in Gandhi, CW, Vol.69, p.210.
21. Gandhi, CW, Vol.68, p.125.
22. Nehru, SW, Vol.8, p.388.
23. Gandhi, CW, Vol.70, p.291.
24. R. Coupland, Indian Politics 1936-1942, Madras, 1944, p.156.
25. Nehru, Discovery of India, p.326.
26. Guidelines of the History of the Communist Party of India, p.45.
27. Visalakshi Menon. op.cit., p.140.
28. A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi. editors, The Encyclopaedia of Indian National Congress, Vol. Twelve, p.255.
27. Peasant Movements in the 1930s and ’40s
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 46, pp. 200-03.
2. For the text of the Congress Agrarian Programme see A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi, The Encyclopaedia of the Indian National Congress, Volume II, 1936-38, New Delhi, 1980, pp. 212-3.
3. M.A. Rasul, A History of the All India Kisan Sabha, Calcutta, 1974, P.9.
4. See Chapter 26 above.
5. K. Gopalankutty, ‘The Integration of Anti-Landlord Movement with the Movement Against Imperialism — The Case of Malabar, 1935-39,’ in Bipan Chandra, editor, The Indian Left: Critical Appraisals, New Delhi, 1983; A.K. Gopalan, In the Cause of the People: Reminiscences, Madras, 1973, Chs.6-12, and Interviews with E.P. Gopalan, Pattambi, 18 May 1984, K. Madhavan, Kanhangad, 14 May 1984, K.P.R. Gopalan, Cannanore, 16 May 1984, K. Keralyeean, Calicut, 25 February and 17 May 1984, E.Nayanar, Trivandrum, 25 May 1984.
6. N.G. Ranga, Fight for Freedom: Autobiography, Delhi, 1968; P. Sundarayya, Telangana Peoples’ Struggle and Its Lessons, Calcutta, 1972, pp. 139-147; M.A. Rasul, op.cit., and Interviews with N.G. Ranga, Nidobrulu, 22 June 1984, Uddaraju Ramam, Vijayawada, 25 June, 1984, Kolah Venkaiah, Guntur, 5 July 1984.
7. Walter Hauser, The Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha, 1929-1942: A Study of an Indian Peasant Movement, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1962, Microfilm, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi; Gyan Prakash Sharma,Congress, Peasant Movement and Tenancy Legislation in Bihar, 1937-1939, Unpublished M.Phil dissertation, CHS, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 1979; Sahajanand Saraswati, Mera Jeevan Sangharsh, in Hindi, Delhi, 1985 edition.
8. Master Hari Singh, Punjab Peasant in Freedom Struggle, Volume 2, New Delhi, 1984; Bhagwan Josh, Communist Movement in Punjab, Delhi, 1979; Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Communists and Peasants in Punjab: A Focus on the Muzara Movement in Patiala, 1937-53,’ in Bipan Chandra, editor, The Indian Left: Critical Appraisals, pp.401-46; Interviews with Jagjit Singh Lyallpuri, Ludhiana, 29 May 1981, G.S. Randhawa, New Delhi, 14 September 1981, Master Hari Singh, Chandigarh, 8 July 1982, Bhagat Singh Bilga, Phillaur, 17 November 1983, Chain Singh Chain, Jullundur 14 Novernber 1983.
9. Mridula Mukherjee, op.cit.; Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Peasant Movement in a Princely State: Patiala, 1937-48,’ in Studies in History, New Delhi, Vol.1, No.2, 1979; Master Hari Singh, op.cit., Ramesh Walia, Praja Mandal Movement in East Punjab States,Patiala, 1972; Interviews with Jagir Singh Joga, Joga, 16 May 1981, Brish Bhan, 18 May 1981, Bachittar Singh, Patiala, 14 April 1981, G.S. Randhawa, New Delhi, 14 September 1981, Vaid Chajju Mal, New Delhi, 27 February 1981, Giani Bachan Singh, Sunam, 2 May 1981.
10. Sunil Sen, Agrarian Struggle in Bengal, New Delhi, 1972; Abani Lahiri, ‘Last Battle of Bengal Peasants Under British Rule,’ in Nisith Ranjan Ray et.al., editors, Challenge: A Saga of India’s Struggle for Freedom, New Delhi, 1984, pp.374-86; Krishna Kant Sarkar, ‘Kakdwip Tebhaga Movement,’ in A.R. Desai, editor, Peasant Struggles in India, pp.469-85; Ranjit Das Gupta, ‘Peasants, Workers and Freedom Struggle, Jalpaiguri, 1945-47,’ in Amit Kumar Gupta, editor, Myth and Reality: The Struggle for Freedom in India, 1945-47, New Delhi, 1987, pp.435-49.
28. The Freedom Struggle in Princely India
1. Jawaharlal Nehru, SW, Vol.4, pp. 192-3.
2. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 68, pp.326-7.
3. A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi, The Encyclopaedia of the Indian National Congress, Volume 12, 1939-46, New Delhi, 1981, p.162.
4. John R. Wood, ‘Rajkot: Indian Nationalism in the Princely Context: The Rajkot Satyagraha of 1938-9,’ in Robin Jeffrey, editor, People, Princes and Paramount Power, New Delhi, 1978, p.260.
5. Ibid.
6. Gandhi, CW, Vol.69, pp.162-6 and 168-71.
7. Ramanand Tirtha, Memoirs of Hyderabad Freedom Struggle, Bombay, 1967, pp. 176-7.
8. For the struggle in Hyderabad, see P. Sundarayya, Telengana People’s Struggle and Its Lessons, Calcutta, 1972; Ravi Narayan Reddy, Heroic Telengana: Reminiscences and Experiences, New Delhi, 1973; Raj Bahadur Gour et.al., Glorious Telengana Armed Struggle, New Delhi, 1973; Ramanand Tirtha, Memoirs of Hyderabad Freedom Struggle, Bombay, 1967; N. Ramesan, editor, The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Vol.IV (1921-1947), Hyderabad, 1966; and Interviews with Devapalli Venkateswara Rao, Hyderabad, 7 July, 1984, Ravi Narayan Reddy, Hyderabad, 8 July 1984, Arutla Ramachandra Reddy, Hyderabad, 6 and 9 July, 1984, Giri Prasad, Hyderabad, 9 July 1984, C. Thirumal Rao, Nalgonda, 16 July 1984, Mallu Swarajyam, Hyderabad, 10 July 1984, Bhimareddy Narsimhareddy, Hyderabad, 12 July 1984.
29. Indian Capitalists and the National Movement
1. Purshottamdas Thakurdas, et.al., A Plan of Economic Development for India, Pts. I & II, Penguin, London, 1945, popularly known as the Bombay Plan.
2. Aditya Mukherjee, ‘The Indian Capitalist Class: Aspects of its Economic, Political and Ideological Development in the Colonial Period, 1927-47, in S. Bhattacharya and Romila Thapar, editors, Situating Indian History, New Delhi, 1986, pp.246-7.
3. Ibid., pp.250-1.
4. See for example, Sumit Sarkar, ‘Logic of Gandhian Nationalism: Civil Disobedience and the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1930-31),’ The Indian Historical Review, New Delhi, Vol.III, No.l, July 1976, pp.120-1, 146.
5. Sri Ram, Annual Reports of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, (hereafter referred to as FICCI, A.R.), 1943, p.150, and Muthiah Chettiar, President, FICCI, A.R., 1944, p.205.
6. G.D. Birla, FICCI, A.R., 1934, p.173; S.P. Jain and B.M. Birla in FICCI, A.R., 1943, p.129 and 1946, pp. 104-5 respectively.
7. Purshottamdas Thakurdas, President’s Speech, FICCI, A.R., 1928 p.4.
8. G.D. Birla, FICCI, A.R., 1930, p.264.
9. Lalji Naranji to Purshottamdas, 28 March 1930, Purshottamdas Thakurdas (PT) Papers, fl. 91, part II, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library.
10. G.D. Birla to Purshottamdas, 16 Feb. 1932, PT Papers, fl. 104; Purshottamdas to N.R. Sarkar, 1 August 1942, PT Papers, fl.239, pt. II, and N.R. Sarkar, Free Press Journal, 24 July 1941.
11. FICCI, Proceedings of the Executive Committee (Proc. of EC), 1934, pp.33-42.
12. FICCI, A.R., 1935, pp.72-3.
13. FICCI, Proc. of EC, 1930-31, p.5.
14. Ambalal to Purshottamdas, 5 Nov. 1929, PT Papers, fl. 91, pt.l.
15. G.D. Birla to Mahadev Desai, 8 July 1937 and 22 July 1937 in, In the Shadow of the Mahatma, Calcutta, 1953, pp.219, 224-6.
16. G.D. Birla to Purshottamdas, 16 Jan. 1931, PT Papers, fl.42, pt. VII (emphasis mine).
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Irwin to Purshottamdas, 29 Sept. 1930 and Purshottamdas to Irwin, 28 April 1930, PT Papers, fl. 99, pt.2.
20. Purshottamdas to G.D. Birla, 9 Sept. 1940 and G.D. Birla to Purshottamdas, 11 Sept. 1940, PT Papers, fl. 239, pt.1.
21. PT Papers, fl.239, pt.4.
22. A.D.D. Gordon, Business and Politics, Rising Nationalism and Modernising Economy in Bombay, 1918-1933, New Delhi, 1978, pp.179, 185-86, 192, 199. See also, Claude Markovits, Indian Business and Nationalist Politics from 1931-1939, unpublished D.phil dissertation, Cambridge, pp.96, 121, 172 ff.
23. For example, Sumit Sarkar, op.cit., p.99; and ‘Popular Movements and National Leadership 1945-47,’ Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVII, Nos. 14-16, (annual no.), April 1982.
24. Home Political Department, F. no.4/14-A, 1940, National Archives of India.
25. Gandhi, CW, Vol.32, pp.459-60.
26. J.K. Mehta to Purshottamdas, 3 Feb. 1930, PT Papers, fl. 42, pt.8. For an understanding of the relationship of the capitalist class and the national movement, especially leaders like Gandhi, Sardar Patel and Nehru, the following interviews have proved very useful: J.R.D. Tata, Bombay, 23 May, 1985, R.K. Bajaj, Bombay, 17 June 1985, and Vadilal Lallubhai Mehta, 8 July 1985.
27. G.D. Birla to Purshottamdas, 30 July 1929, PT Papers, fl. 42, pt.5.
28. Ibid.
29. G.D. Birla to Walchand Hirachand, 26 May 1936, PT Papers, fl. 177.
30. FICCI, A.R., 1943, p.31.
31. John Mathai to Purshottamdas, 8 Dec. 1942 and enclosures. PT Papers, fl. 291, pt.1 and fl.42, pt.5.
30. The Development of a Nationalist Foreign Policy
1. S.N. Banerjea, Speeches, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1880, pp.215-6.
2. R.C. Dutt, Economic History of India in the Victorian Age, p.549.
3. Indian National Congress, containing full texts of all Presidential Addresses, reprint of all the Congress Resolutions, etc., Part I, p.386.
4. Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography, p.31.
5. Gandhi, CW, Vol.22, p.246.
6. Ibid, Vol.27, p.450.
7. A.M. Zaidi and S.G. Zaidi, editors, The Encyclopaedia of the Indian National Congress, Volume Nine. 1925-1929, New Delhi, 1980, p.234.
8. Nehru, SW, Vol.2, p.281.
9. Gandhi, CW, Vol.55, p.427.
10. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, pp.172-3.
11. Ibid., Vol.9, p.235.
12. Gandhi, CW, Vol.68, p.138.
13. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, p.602.
14. Gandhi, CW, Vol.67, p.428.
15. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.4, p.276.
16. Gandhi, CW, Vol.67, pp. 404, 414.
17. Nehru, SW, Vol.9, p.144.
18. Ibid., p.157.
19. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 68, pp. 137-40.
20. Nehru, SW, Vol. 7, p.181.
21. Ibid., Vol. 9, p.508.
22. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 37, p.380.
23. Nehm, SW, Vol. 9, p.292.
31. The Rise and Growth of Communalism
1. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, p.69.
2. C.G. Shah, Marxism, Gandhism, Stalinism, Bombay, 1963, p.185.
3. K.M. Ashraf, Hindustani Muslim Siyasat Par Ek Nazar, Bombay, 1959 reprint, in Urdu.
4. Quoted in A.N. Vidyalankar, National Integration and Teaching of History, New Delhi, no date, p.3.
5. James Mill, The History of British India, London, 1826. Since then the work has been reprinted several times.
6. K.M. Ashraf, op.cit., p.73.
32. Communalism — The Liberal Phase
1. S. Abid Husain, The Destiny of Indian Muslims, Bombay, 1965, p.24.
2. Ibid., pp. 156-7.
3. Syed Ahmed Khan, Writings and Speeches, edited by Shan Mohammad, Bombay, 1972, pp.102 ff., 180 ff., 202 ff., 210 ff., 243.
4. Ibid., pp.156-7, 184-5.
5. Ibid, pp.204, 207-10.
6. Ibid., p.210.
7. Ibid., p.242.
8. Ibid., p.243.
9. Quoted in Ram Gopal, Indian Muslims: A Political History (1858–1947), Bombay, 1959, p.101.
10. Lal Chand, Self-abnegation in Politics, Lahore, 1938 edition.
11. Report in the Statesman, 31 December 1932, quoted in Nehru, SW, Vol.6, p. 163.
12. Indian Annual Register, 1933, Vol.II, p.206.
33. Jinnah, Golwalkar And Extreme Communalism
1. Stanley Wolpert, Jinnah of Pakistan, New York, 1984, p.26.
2. Ibid., Chapters 4 and 5.
3. Ibid., p.97.
4. Quoted in Raja of Mahmudabad, ‘Some Memories,’ in The Partition of India, edited by C.H. Philips and M.D. Wainright, London, 1970, p.385.
5. Quoted in S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru — A Biography, Vol. One, 1889-1947, p.223, f.n.5.
6. Quoted in Z.H. Zaidi, ‘Aspects of the Development of Muslim League Policy, 1937-47,’ in The Partition of India, edited by C.H. Philips and M.D. Wainright, p.250.
7. M.A. Jinnah, Speeches and Writings, edited by Jamil-ud-Din, Vol.I, Lahore, 1960 edition, pp 69-70, 72-3.
8. Ibid., p.127.
9. Ibid., p.243.
10. Ibid., p.248.
11. Indian Annual Register, 1946, Vol. II, p.226.
12. M.A. Jinnah, Speeches and Writings, edited by Jamil-ud-Din, Vol.II, Lahore, edition, 1964, pp.240-1.
13. Z.A. Suleri, My Leader, no place, 1946, third edition; F.K. Khan Durrani, The Meaning of Pakistan, Lahore, 1944.
14. Quoted in Ram Gopal, Indian Muslims: A Political History (1858–1947), Bombay, 1959, p.258.
15. Quoted in W.C. Smith, Modern Islam in India, Lahore, 1963 reprint, p.299.
16. M.A. Jinnah, op.cit., Vol.II, p.489.
17. V.D. Savarkar, Hindu Rashtra Darshan, A Collection of the Presidential Speeches, Bombay, 1949, pp.21-2.
18. Ibid., p.77.
19. M.S. Golwalkar, We or Our Nationhood Defined, Nagpur, 1947 edition, first published in 1939, p.58.
20. Ibid., p.73.
21. Ibid., p. 19.
22. Ibid., pp.55-6.
23. Ibid., p. 19.
24. Ibid., pp.40-1.
25. M.S. Golwalkar, Bunch of Thoughts, Bangalore, 1966 edition, pp. 150-2.
26. Jinnah, op.cit., Vol.II, pp.403-4.
27. Rajendra Prasad, India Divided, Bombay, 1947, third revised edition, p. 153.
28. S. Gopal, op.cit. p.227.
34. The Crisis at Tripuri to the Cripps Mission
1. Crossroads, Being the Works of Subhas Chandra Bose 1938-40, Bombay, 1962, p.87.
2. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.5, pp.28-9.
3. Crossroads, pp.91-2.
4. Subhas Bose, The Indian Struggle 1920-42, Bombay, 1967 reprint, p.332.
5. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.5, p.28.
6. Gandhi, CW, Vol.68, p.359.
7. Nehru, SW, Vol.9, pp.481-2.
8. The Indian Struggle, p.335.
9. Crossroads, pp.108 ff.
10. Gandhi, CW, Vol.67, p.198.
11. Ibid., Vol.69, pp.209-10.
12. Ibid., p.98.
13. Rajendra Prasad, Autobiography, Bombay, 1957
14. Gene D. Overstreet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India, Berkeley, 1959, p.168.
15. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, p.374.
16. S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru — A Biography, Vol.One, p.263.
17. Indian Annual Register, 1939, Vol.II, pp.389-93.
18. Gandhi, CW, Vol.70, pp.267-280.
19. Ibid., Vol.71, Appendix VI.
20. Nehru, SW, Vol.II, p.106.
21. S. Gopal, op.cit., p.268.
22. Gandhi, CW, Vol.73, p.72.
23. Tendulkar, Mahatma, Vol.6, p.43. Gandhi’s Collected Works, Vol.75, p.224 has another version of the speech.
24. S. Gopal, op.cit., p.278.
25. Nehru, Discovery of India, p.399.
35. The Quit India Movement and The INA
1. S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Vol. One, p.294.
2. Gandhi, CW, Vol.76, p.442. Gandhi is also reported to have told Jawaharlal Nehru, ‘If you won’t join, I’ll do it without you.’ S. Gopal, op.cit., p.292.
3. For the full text of the speech, see Gandhi, CW, Vol.76, pp.384-96; the quotes in my text are to be found on pp.391, 392, 394 and 395.
4. Ibid., p.367.
5. Francis Hutchins, Spontaneous Revolution: The Quit India Movement, New Delhi, 1971, p.191.
6. Interview with Achyut Patwardhan, Bangalore, 9 December 1984.
7. Interviews with Usha Mehta, Bombay, 18 May 1985; S.M. Joshi, New Delhi, 29 February 1984; Annadada Narde, Bombay, 25 May 1985; Lalbhai Dayabhai Naik, Navsari (Gujarat), 27 June 1985; Jayanti Thakore, Ahmedabad, 7 and 8 July 1985, Hoshiar Singh, Baraut (U.P.), 14 April 1987.
8. Gandhiji first used the phrase ‘leonine violence’ in his letter of 29 January 1943 to the Viceroy. Gandhi, CW, Vol.77, p.56. For Gandhi’s declaration of his intention to fast and the Viceroy’s response, see Gandhi, CW, Vol.77, pp.49-51, and Mansergh and Lumby, editors, Transfer of Power (hereafter TP), 1942-7, Vols. 1-12, London, 1970-1983, Vol.3, pp.462-3 and 493.
9. The popular reaction to Gandhi’s fast is detailed in Government of India, Home Political Department, file nos. 19/3/43, 19/4/43, 19/5/43 and 19/6/43, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
10. TP, Vol.3, p.632.
11. Linlithgow in a conversation with Louis Phillips, Special U.S. representative in New Delhi. Ibid., p.690.
12. Ibid., pp.684-6.
13. Radhika Singha, Aspects of the Quit India Movement in Eastern U.P., Unpublished M.Phil dissertation, CHS, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 1986; Chandan Mitra, ‘Countours of Popular Protest: The Quit India Movement of 1942,’ paper presented at a Seminar on A History of the Indian National Congress. 1885-1947, at Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, 22-24 July 1985.
14. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India, pp.400-01.
15. Gail Omvedt, ‘The Satara Parallel Government, 1942-47,’ in D.N. Panigrahi, editor, Economy, Society and Politics in Modern India, New Delhi, 1985; and Interviews with Y.B. Chavan, New Delhi. 2 May 1984, V.S. Page, Bombay, 7 June 1985 and Vasantdada Patil, Bombay, 14 June 1985.
16. Stephen Hennigham, Peasant Movements in Colonial India: North Bihar 1917-1942, Canberra, 1982, pp. 183-5; Interview with Paras Nath Misra, Lucknow, 20 and 21 April 1986.
17. Gandhi, CW. Vol.76, p.461.
18. Interviews with Paras Nath Misra, Lucknow, 20 and 21 April 1986, and Vishwanath Prasad Mardana. Lucknow, 24 April 1986.
19. Interview with Mrinalini Desai. Bombay, 22 May 1985, and Shirubhau Limaye, Pune, 5 June 1985. G.P. Pradhan, Pune, 6 June 1985.
20. Gandhi, CW, Vol. 76, p.295.
21. Francis Hutchins. op.cit., pp.247-8.
22. TP, Vol.5, pp.166, 359, 615 and 754.
23. Selected Speeches of Subhas Chandra Bose, New Delhi, 1965, p.218.
24. For accounts of the I.N.A., see K.K. Ghosh, The Indian National Army, Meerut, 1969, and Interviews with P.K. Sehgal, Kanpur, 23 September, 1986, Laxmi Sehgal, 23 September, 1986, Colonel Mahboob Ahmed, Patna, November 1985, Niranjan Singh Gill, Amritsar, 2 and 3 April 1985.
36. Post-War National Upsurge
1. TP, Vol.6, p.109.
2. K.K. Ghosh, The Indian National Army, p.210.
3. TP, Vol.6, p.507.
4. Ibid., p.512.
5. Nehru, SW, Vol.14, pp.279-80.
6. F. Tuker, While Memory Serves, London, 1950, p.54.
7. Wavell to Pethick Lawrence, 27 November 1945, TP., Vol.6, p.552.
8. Cunningham to Wavell, 27 November 1945, Ibid., p.546.
9. Note on INA Situation by Director, Intelligence Bureau, TP, Vol.6, p.512.
10. Commander-in-Chief to Viceroy, 24 and 26 November 1945, TP, Vol.6., pp.533 and 545.
11. TP, Vol.6, p.546.
12. R.P. Dutt, India Today, Bombay, 1949, pp.536-42; Sumit Sarkar, ‘Popular Movements and National Leadership 1945-47,’ Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XVII, Nos. 14-16 (annual no.) April 1982; Gautam Chattopadhyay, ‘The Almost Revolution: A Case Study of India in February 1946,’ in Essays in Honour of Professor S.C. Sarkar, New Delhi, 1976.
13. Gautam Chattopadhyay, op.cit.
14. Subrata Banerjee, The R.I.N Strike, New Delhi, 1981, p.vii
15. Viceroy to Secretary of State, 27 February 1946, TP, Vol.6, p. 1076.
16. R.P. Dutt, op.cit., p.542.
17. Government of India, Home Political Department, File No. 5/8/46, National Archives of India.
18. Viceroy to Prime Minister, 24 February 1946, TP, Vol.6, p. 1055.
19. Home Political Department, File No. 7/1/46.
20. Jawaharlal Nehru Correspondence, Part 1, Vol.81, Nehru Memorial Library.
21. Sumit Sarkar, op.cit., p.2. Also see G. Chattopadhyay, op.cit., p.428; and A.R. Desai, ‘Introduction,’ in A.R. Desai, editor Peasant Struggles in India, p.xx.
22. Indian National Congress, March 1940 to September 1946: Being the Resolutions Passed by the Congress, the AICC and the Working Commitee, published by the General Secretary, AICC.
23. Gandhi, CW, Vol.83, pp.171, 175, 183-4.
37. Freedom and Partition
1. For a fuller discussion of how this erosion took place and the conclusions drawn from it by the British, see Sucheta Mahajan, ‘British Policy, Nationalist Strategy and Popular National Upsurge, 1945-6,’ in A.K Gupta, editor, Myth and Reality, Struggle for Freedom in India, 1945-7, pp.57-63.
2. R.J. Moore, Escape from Empire, Oxford, 1983, p.22. Also see David Potter, ‘Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The Case of the Indian Civil Service,’ Modern Asian Studies, Vol.7, No.l, 1973.
3. R.P. Noronha, Tale Told by an Idiot, New Delhi, 1976, p.3.
4. TP, Vol.6, p.688.
5. The option of changing the nature of British rule to one of strong autocratic authority capable of maintaining British rule for another 15-20 years was ruled out by Attlee in late 1946. The considerations were that there were no British troops available, British and U.S. public opinion would not accept it and a disgraceful exit with a legacy of hostility would be the end result. TP, Vol.9, pp.68-9. Our understanding of the reasons for British withdrawal from India is also based on Interviews with contemporary officials as well as participants in the national movement, especially R.A. Gopalaswamy, Madras, 5 June 1984, S.R. Kaiwar, Madras, 2 June 1984, A.K. Das, Lucknow, 20 April 1986, K.K. Das, Lucknow, 26 April 1986, Achyut Patwardhan, Bangalore, 9 December 1984, N.G. Gore, 29 December 1984, Rohit Dave, Bombay, 21 May 1985.
6. Bombay Chronicle, 8 July 1946.
7. R.J. Moore, op.cit., pp.156 and 163.
8. Nehru, Selected Works, edited by S. Gopal, Second Series, Vol.2, New Delhi, 1984, p.69.
9. Attlee’s statement in the Cabinet meeting of 18 February 1946, TP, Vol.9, London, 1980, p.750.
10. House of Commons Debate, 5 March 1947, Parliamentary Debates (Hansard).
11. Note by Jenkins, Punjab Governor, 16 February 1947, TP, Vol.9, p.729.
12. Wavell: The Viceroy’s Journal, edited by Penderel Moon, New Delhi, 1977, p.428.
13. Collins and Lapierre, Mountbatten and the Partition of India, Sahibabad, 1983, pp.21 and 53.
14. Report of Viceroy’s 13th Staff Meeting, 11 April 1947, TP, Vol.10, P.190.
15. Francis Williams, A Prime Minister Remembers, London, 1961, p.212.
16. Nehru, SW, Second Series, Vol.1, p.207.
17. S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru — A Biography, Vol.One, p.352.
18. Interview with Mountbatten, 17 April 1947, TP, Vol.10, p.309.
19. Ronald Wingate, Lord Ismay, A Biography, London, 1970, p.167.
20. Brigadier R.C.B. Bristow, Memories of the British Raj — A Soldier in India, London, 1974. Lockhart wrote the Foreword.
21. Nehru, SW, Vol.15, pp.306-07.
22. S. Gopal, op.cit., p.307.
23. Nehru, SW, Second Series, Vol.2, p.377.
24. Bimal Prasad, Gandhi, Nehru and J.P. Studies in Leadership, Delhi, 1985; Sandhya Chaudhuri, Gandhi and the Partition of India, New Delhi, 1984, Sumit Sarkar, Modern India.
25. Gandhi, CW, Vol.88, p.75.
26. Bimal Prasad, op.cit., p.31.
38. The Long-term Strategy of the National Movement
1. This Chapter is based on Bipan Chandra, Indian National Movement: The Long-term Dynamics, New Delhi, 1988.
2. Gandhi, CW, Vol.64, p.194. Also Vol.68, p.319.
3. Gandhi, CW, Vol.67, p.226.
4. Ibid., p.420.
5. Ibid, Vol.69, p.60.
6. Indian National Congress, March 1940 to September 1946: Being the Resolutions Passed by the Congress, AICC and the Working Committee, New Delhi, 1946.
7. Nehru, SW, Vol.4, p.195; Bhagat Singh, Why I am an Athiest, p.12.
39. The Indian National Movement — The Ideological Dimension
1. Gandhi, CW, Vol.76, p.384.
2. Kesari, 16 June 1908, quoted in Ashis Kumar Dhuliya, Aspects of Tilak’s Political Strategy and His Struggle for Civil Liberties, M.Phil Dissertation, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 1984, p.269.
3. Gandhi, CW, Vol.22, pp.142 and 176-7.
4. Ibid., Vol.69, p.356.
5. Nehru, SW, Vol.7, p.414.
6. Ibid., Vol. 11, p.367.
7. See, for example, Gandhi, CW, Vol.68, pp.258-9.
8. Bipan Chandra, ‘British and Indian Ideas on Indian Economic Development,1858-1905,’ in Bipan Chandra Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India, pp.92 ff.
9. Ibid., pp.109 ff; and Bipan Chandra, The Rise and Growth of Economic Nationalism in India, pp.90 ff.
10. Indian National Congress: Resolutions on Economic Policy, Programme and Allied Matters 1924-1969, New Delhi, 1969, p. 16.
11. Gandhi, CW, Vol.55, p.427.
12. References are too many. The reader may see Gyorgy Kalmar, Gandhism, Budapest, 1977; and Francine R. Frankel, India’s Political Economy 1947-1977: The Gradual Revolution, Delhi, 1978, Chapters 1 and 2.
13. Gandhi, CW, Vol.64, p.192.
14. Ibid., Vol.76, p.367.
15. Ibid., pp.437, 445-6.