Notes

PREFACE: WRITING IN THE YEARS OF GREAT HATRED

1 Associated Press, “As Virus-Era Attacks on Asians Rise, Past Victims Look Back,” U.S. News & World Report, March 2, 2021, www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2021-03-02/victims-of-anti-asian-attacks-reflect-a-year-into-pandemic.

2 Nicole Hong et al., “Brutal Attack on Filipino Woman Sparks Outrage: ‘Everybody Is on Edge,’“ New York Times, March 30, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/30/nyregion/asian-attack-nyc.html.

3 Kyung Lah and Jason Kravarik, “Family of Thai Immigrant, 84, Says Fatal Attack ‘Was Driven by Hate,’“ CNN, February 16, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/16/us/san-francisco-vicha-ratanapakdee-asian-american-attacks-ndex.html.

4 T. J. Manotoc, “Elderly Filipino Killed in Arizona in Suspected Hate Crime,” ABS-CBN, March 8, 2021, https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/03/08/21/elderly-filipino-killed-in-arizona-feared-to-be-an-asian-hate-crime.

5 According to the Stop AAPI Hate National Report released in March 2021, 68 percent of the approximately 3,800 anti-Asian hate incidents in the United States over the course of the previous year targeted women. Kimmy Yam, “There Were 3,800 Anti-Asian Racist Incidents, Mostly Against Women, in Past Year,” NBC News, March 17, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/there-were-3-800-anti-asian-racist-incidents-mostly-against-n1261257.

6 Kimmy Yam, “Racism, Sexism Must Be Considered in Atlanta Case Involving Killing of Six Asian Women, Experts Say,” NBC News, March 17, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/racism-sexism-must-be-considered-atlanta-case-involving-killing-six-n1261347.

7 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).

8 Choy, Empire of Care, 121–65.

9 Robert K. Wilcox, The Mysterious Deaths at Ann Arbor (New York: Popular Library, 1977), 166.

10 James Baldwin, “As Much Truth as One Can Bear,” New York Times Book Review, January 14, 1962, 148, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1962/01/14/118438007.html.

11 Beth Spotswood, “Immigrants’ Torment as Angel Island Detainees Re-Created in Dance,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 14, 2017, https://www.sfchronicle.com/performance/article/Immigrants-torment-as-Angel-Island-detainees-12198419.php.

12. Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Americans, a Diverse and Growing Population,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans.

13 Liz Zhou, “The Inadequacy of the Term ‘Asian American,’“ Vox, May 5, 2021, https://www.vox.com/identities/22380197/asian-american-pacific-islander-aapi-heritage-anti-asian-hate-attacks.

14 Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Asian Americans Are the Fastest-Growing Racial or Ethnic Group in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, April 9, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/09/asian-americans-are-the-fastest-growing-racial-or-ethnic-group-in-the-u-s.

15 “Profile: Asian Americans,” US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health, https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=63, accessed August 15, 2021.

16 Rakesh Kochhar and Anthony Cilluffo, “Income Inequality in the U.S. Is Rising Most Rapidly Among Asians,” Pew Research Center, July 12, 2018, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/07/12/income-inequality-in-the-u-s-is-rising-most-rapidly-among-asians.

INTRODUCTION: THE MULTIPLE ORIGINS OF ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORIES

1 “About Stop AAPI Hate,” Stop AAPI Hate, https://stopaapihate.org/about.

2 National Nurses United, Sins of Omission: How Government Failures to Track Covid-19 Data Have Led to More Than 1,700 Health Care Worker Deaths and Jeopardize Public Health, September 2020, https://www.nationalnursesunited.org/sites/default/files/nnu/graphics/documents/0920_Covid19_SinsOfOmission_Data_Report.pdf.

3 Chen Fu, “‘It’s Tough to Reconcile Being Both Celebrated and Villainized.’ An Asian-American Doctor on the Challenges of the Coronavirus Pandemic,” Time, April 8, 2020, https://time.com/collection/coronavirus-heroes/5816886/asian-american-doctor-coronavirus.

4 Chia Youyee Vang and Monica Mong Trieu, Invisible Newcomers: Refugees from Burma/Myanmar and Bhutan in the United States, Asian & Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund, 2014, https://apiascholars.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/APIASF_Burma_Bhutan_Report.pdf.

5 Anna Purna Kambhampaty, “In 1968, These Activists Coined the Term ‘Asian American’—and Helped Shape Decades of Advocacy,” Time, May 22, 2020, https://time.com/5837805/asian-american-history.

6 Allison O’Connor and Jeanne Batalova, “Korean Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, April 10, 2019, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/korean-immigrants-united-states-2017.

7 Migration Policy Institute, The Pakistani Diaspora in the United States, June 2015, prepared for the Rockefeller Foundation-Aspen Institute Diaspora Program (RAD), https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/RAD-Pakistan.pdf.

8 Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Americans, a Diverse and Growing Population,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans.

CHAPTER ONE: 2020: THE HEALTH OF THE NATION

1 Garrett M. Graff, “An Oral History of the Pandemic Warnings Trump Ignored,” Wired, April 17, 2020, https://www.wired.com/story/an-oral-history-of-the-pandemic-warnings-trump-ignored.

2 Reis Thebault, Abigail Hauslohner, and Jacqueline Dupree, “U.S. Coronavirus Death Toll Surpasses 100,” Washington Post, March 17, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/us-coronavirus-death-toll-reaches-100/2020/03/17/f8d770c2-67a8-11ea-b313-df458622c2cc_story.html.

3 Katie Mettler and William Booth, “U.S. Deaths from Covid-19 Soar Past 10,000,” Washington Post, April 6, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-deaths-from-covid-19-soar-past-10000/2020/04/06/865fe0ec-7806-11ea-9bee-c5bf9d2e3288_story.html.

4 “Four Months After First Case, U.S. Death Toll Passes 100,000,” New York Times, May 27, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/27/us/coronavirus-live-news-updates.html.

5 “1-Month Report,” Stop AAPI Hate, April 23, 2020, https://stopaapihate.org/1-month-report.

6 National Nurses United, Sins of Omission: How Government Failures to Track Covid-19 Data Have Led to More Than 1,700 Health Care Worker Deaths and Jeopardize Public Health, September 2020, https://www.nationalnursesunited.org/sites/default/files/nnu/graphics/documents/0920_Covid19_SinsOfOmission_Data_Report.pdf.

7 Joan B. Trauner, “Chinese as Medical Scapegoats, 1870–1905,” California History Magazine, 1978, https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=Chinese_as_Medical_Scapegoats,_1870-1905.

8 Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 58.

9 Shah, Contagious Divides, 51, 53.

10 Shah, Contagious Divides, 275n28.

11 Victor G. Heiser, “Unsolved Health Problems Peculiar to the Philippines,” Philippine Journal of Science 5, no. 2 (July 1910): 177–78, in Record Group 350, box 275, file 2394-25, US National Archives, College Park, Maryland.

12 Natalia Molina, Fit to Be Citizens? Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 59.

13 Molina, Fit to Be Citizens?, 56.

14 “Hindu Immigration,” Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration, House of Representatives, Sixty-Third Congress, Second Session, Relative to Restriction of Immigration of Hindu Laborers, part 2, February 19, 1914, p. 71, https://www.lib.washington.edu/specialcollections/collections/exhibits/southasianstudents/docs/hindu-immigration-hearings-before-the-committee-on-immigration.-part-2.

15 Shah, Contagious Divides, 58.

16 Shah, Contagious Divides, 53.

17 Poem number 48 in Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910–1940, ed. Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980), 100.

18 Shah, Contagious Divides, 198–99.

19. Kelly Wallace, “Forgotten Los Angeles History: The Chinese Massacre of 1871,” Los Angeles Public Library Blog, May 19, 2017, https://www.lapl.org/collections-resources/blogs/lapl/chinese-massacre-1871.

20 Tom Rea, “The Rock Springs Massacre,” WyoHistory.org, November 8, 2014, https://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/rock-springs-massacre.

21 See Beth Lew-Williams, The Chinese Must Go: Violence, Exclusion, and the Making of the Alien in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).

22 Lew-Williams, The Chinese Must Go, 92.

23 Lew-Williams, The Chinese Must Go, 98.

24 David Cahn, “The 1907 Bellingham Riots in Historical Context,” Seattle Civil Rights & Labor History Project, 2008, https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/bham_history.htm.

25 Richard S. Kim, The Quest for Statehood: Korean Immigrant Nationalism and U.S. Sovereignty, 1905–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3–4.

26 Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 93.

27 Linda España-Maram, Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles’s Little Manila: Working-Class Filipinos and Popular Culture, 1920s–1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 130.

28 Mary Paik Lee, Quiet Odyssey (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 144–45.

29 Denise Dador, “Coronavirus: Local Boy Bullied, Attacked, Targeted Just Because He’s Asian, Officials Say,” ABC7, February 14, 2020, https://abc7.com/coronavirus-los-angeles-anti-asian-racism-novel-la-county-public-health/5929456.

30 Kara Takasaki, “Stop AAPI Hate Reporting Center: A Model of Collective Leadership and Community Advocacy,” Journal of Asian American Studies 23, no. 3 (October 2020): 341–51.

31 Daryl Joji Maeda, “The Asian American Movement,” Oxford Research Encyclopedias: American History, published online, June 9, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.21.

32 “About A3PCON,” Asian Pacific Policy and Planning Council, http://www.asianpacificpolicyandplanningcouncil.org/about-a3pcon.

33 Takasaki, “Stop AAPI Hate Reporting Center,” 343.

34 “Donald Trump’s ‘Chinese Virus’: The Politics of Naming,” The Conversation, April 21, 2020, https://theconversation.com/donald-trumps-chinese-virus-the-politics-of-naming-136796.

35 Kimmy Yam, “Trump Can’t Claim ‘Kung Flu’ Doesn’t Affect Asian Americans in This Climate, Experts Say,” NBC News, June 22, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/trump-can-t-claim-kung-flu-doesn-t-affect-asian-n1231812.

36 Yam, “Trump Can’t Claim ‘Kung Flu’ Doesn’t Affect Asian Americans in This Climate.”

37 World Health Organization, “WHO Issues Best Practices for Naming New Human Infectious Diseases,” press release, May 8, 2015, https://www.who.int/news/item/08-05-2015-who-issues-best-practices-for-naming-new-human-infectious-diseases.

38. The Stop AAPI Hate reporting center’s various reports, including its state-specific and national reports and those charting the pandemic’s first two weeks, first month, and first three months, are available on the Stop AAPI Hate website, at https://stopaapihate.org/reports.

39 According to a 2021 LAAUNCH survey, “Fewer than 1 in 4 Asian Americans feel respected in this country. Meanwhile, close to 1 in 4 white Americans do not believe that anti-Asian American racism is significant enough of a problem that it needs to be addressed.” LAAUNCH, “STAATUS Index Report 2021,” p. 3, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5f629e7e013d961943d5cec9/6098a7be3d627168e03054da_staatus-index-2021.pdf.

40 Russell Jeung, Incidents of Coronavirus Discrimination, March 19–25, 2020: A Report for A3PCON and CAA, March 25, 2020, p. 5, https://stopaapihate.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Stop-AAPI-Hate-Report-Week1-200325.pdf.

41 Russell Jeung, Incidents of Coronavirus Discrimination, March 26–April 1, 2020: A Report for A3PCON and CAA, April 3, 2020, p. 3, https://stopaapihate.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Stop-AAPI-Hate-Report-2Weeks-200403.pdf.

42 Stop AAPI Hate, Stop AAPI Hate National Report: 3.19.20 – 8.5.20, p. 1, https://stopaapihate.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Stop-AAPI-Hate-Report-National-200805.pdf.

43 “Lost on the Frontline,” The Guardian and Kaiser Health News, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2020/aug/11/lost-on-the-frontline-covid-19-coronavirus-us-healthcare-workers-deaths-database, accessed January 25, 2021.

44 National Nurses United, Sins of Omission.

45 See Jennifer Dixon, “Nurse Who Died from Coronavirus Was a Hero, Risked Her Life for Veterans, Son Says,” Detroit Free Press, April 3, 2020, https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/2020/04/03/veterans-affair-nurse-coronavirus /2942426001; Alicia Lee, “Beloved Missouri Nurse Died of Coronavirus a Week Before Her 40th Anniversary at Hospital,” CNN, April 28, 2020, https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/28/us/missouri-nurse-coronavirus-dies-trnd/index.html; Natacha Larnaud, “Another Nurse on the Front Lines Dies from Coronavirus—This Time, in Miami,” CBS News, March 30, 2020, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-nurse-dies-from-covid-19-miami-hospital.

46 Abby Budiman, “Filipinos in the U.S. Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-filipinos-in-the-u-s/#filipino-population-in-the-u-s–2000-2019.

47 Christina Thornell, “Why the US Has So Many Filipino Nurses,” Vox, June 30, 2020, https://www.vox.com/2020/6/30/21307199/filipino-nurses-us.

48 Luis Hassan Gallardo and Jeanne Batalova, “Filipino Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, July 15, 2020, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/filipino-immigrants-united-states-2020.

49 Paul Ong and Tania Azores, “The Migration and Incorporation of Filipino Nurses,” in The New Asian Immigration in Los Angeles and Global Restructuring, ed. Paul Ong, Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 182.

50 Joanne Spetz et al., 2016 Survey of Registered Nurses, California Board of Registered Nursing, November 1, 2017, https://healthforce.ucsf.edu/sites/healthforce.ucsf.edu/files/publication-pdf/survey2016.pdf.

51. “Filipino Nurses Get a Shout-Out in 70th Emmys Opening Monologue,” GMA News Online, September 19, 2018, https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/showbiz/showbizabroad/668315/filipino-nurses-get-a-shout-out-in-70th-emmys-opening-monologue/story.

52 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 41–57.

53 Choy, Empire of Care, 61–93.

54 Choy, Empire of Care, 62.

55 Choy, Empire of Care.

56 Choy, Empire of Care, 101.

57 Choy, Empire of Care, 67–70.

58 Choy, Empire of Care, 84–89.

59 Choy, Empire of Care, 114–18.

60 “Meet the Nurse Who Gave World’s First COVID-19 Vaccine,” RCN Magazines, December 24, 2020, https://www.rcn.org.uk/magazines/bulletin/2020/dec/may-parsons-nurse-first-vaccine-covid-19.

61 US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “EEOC Announces $2.1 Million Settlement of Wage Discrimination Suit for Class of Filipino Nurses,” press release, March 2, 1999, https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/eeoc-announces-21-million-settlement-wage-discrimination-suit-class-filipino-nurses.

62 Anh Do, “Filipino Nurses Win Language Discrimination Settlement,” Los Angeles Times, September 18, 2012, https://www.latimes.com/health/la-xpm-2012-sep-18-la-me-english-only-20120918-story.html.

63 The Strength of Many, dir. Marissa Aroy, 2020, https://vimeo.com/412121963.

64 Jennifer Nazareno et al., “From Imperialism to Inpatient Care: Work Differences of Filipino and White Registered Nurses in the United States and Implications for COVID-19 Through an Intersectional Lens,” Gender, Work & Organization 28, no. 4 (July 2021): 1426–46, https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12657.

65 Sarah Jaffe, “‘Horror Story After Horror Story’: A Frontline Nurse Discusses the Crisis,” The Nation, March 26, 2020, https://www.thenation.com/article/society/zenei-cortez-interview.

66 Riza V. Mauricio, “The Power of Touch,” in “Frontline Heroes,” Philippine Nurses Association of America, 2020, https://mypnaa.wildapricot.org/frontline-heroes.

67 Evangeline Ver Vicente, “COVID-19: Story of an ICU Nurse,” insidePNAA, May 2020, p. 10, https://mypnaa.wildapricot.org/frontline-heroes.

68 Arlin Fidellaga, “Socially Distant but Spiritually Connected,” insidePNAA, April 2020, p. 16, https://mypnaa.wildapricot.org/frontline-heroes.

69 Jeanne Batalova, “Immigrant Health-Care Workers in the United States,” Migration Information Source, May 14, 2020, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/immigrant-health-care-workers-united-states-2018.

70 Chen Fu, “‘It’s Tough to Reconcile Being Both Celebrated and Villainized.’ An Asian-American Doctor on the Challenges of the Coronavirus Pandemic,” Time, April 8, 2020, https://time.com/collection/coronavirus-heroes/5816886/asian-american-doctor-coronavirus.

71 Janelle Bitker, “There’s Been a Surge of Attacks Against Asian Americans. Asians in the Bay Area Say the Hostility Isn’t New,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 25, 2021, https://www.sfchronicle.com/news/article/There-s-been-a-surge-of-attacks-against-Asian-15969890.php.

72 Ivan Natividad, “Racist Harassment of Asian Health Care Workers Won’t Cure Coronavirus,” Berkeley News, April 9, 2020, https://news.berkeley.edu/2020/04/09/racist-harassment-of-asian-health-care-workers-wont-cure-coronavirus.

CHAPTER TWO: 1975: TRAUMA AND TRANSFORMATION

1 Ocean Vuong, On Earth We’re Briefly Gorgeous: A Novel (New York: Penguin Press, 2019), 35.

2 Vuong, On Earth We’re Briefly Gorgeous, 35.

3 Martin Wolk, “When Everything Changed: Novelist Ocean Vuong Reflects on a Year of Intense Highs and Lows,” Los Angeles Times, January 8, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-01-08/ocean-vuong-on-earth-were-briefly-gorgeous.

4 “Do You Remember Glastonbury When . .,” Hartford Courant, March 4, 2016, https://www.courant.com/community/glastonbury/hc-do-you-remember-glastonbury-when-20160304-photogallery.html.

5 Kat Chow, “Going Home with Ocean Vuong,” The Atlantic, June 4, 2019, https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2019/06/going-home-ocean-vuong-on-earth-were-briefly-gorgeous/590938.

6 “What Is a Refugee?,” UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/what-is-a-refugee.html.

7 In their 2014 report on refugees from Burma/Myanmar and Bhutan, scholars Chia Youyee Vang and Monica Mong Trieu explain their use of “Burma/Myanmar”: “The usage of the term ‘Burma’ is consistent with reports released by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as they track refugees to the United States. We recognize the sensitivity that exists regarding the use of the term. We use Burmese Americans and Burmese refugees to encompass all refugees with origins in Burma/Myanmar with the understanding that there are numerous ethnic groups who prefer to be identified by their respective ethnic identity. We are also sensitive to the use of the country’s current official name of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Many in the international community use Myanmar because they believe that nations should be referred to by the name that they prefer. We are aware of the recent changes in U.S. relations with the country and that in its May 15, 2013 statement regarding Myanmar President Thein Sein’s visit to the United States, the Obama Administration referred to the country as Myanmar, as a courtesy gesture of respect for a government that is pursuing a transformative reform agenda.” Chia Youyee Vang and Monica Mong Trieu, Invisible Newcomers: Refugees from Burma/Myanmar and Bhutan in the United States, Asian & Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund, 2014, p. 2, https://apiascholars.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/APIASF_Burma_Bhutan_Report.pdf.

8 George Rupp, “The Largest Refugee Resettlement Effort in American History,” International Rescue Committee, July 28, 2016, originally published June 27, 2008, https://www.rescue.org/article/largest-refugee-resettlement-effort-american-history.

9 The Donut King, dir. Alice Gu (Los Angeles: Logan Industry, 2020).

10 “Transcript of President John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address (1961),” Our Documents, https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=91&page=transcript.

11. World Peace Foundation, “Cambodia: U.S. Bombing and Civil War,” Mass Atrocity Endings, August 7, 2015, https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/cambodia-u-s-bombing-civil-war-khmer-rouge.

12 “Bombing of Cambodia,” Ohio History Central, June 13, 2021, https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Bombing_of_Cambodia.

13 “Cambodia,” University of Minnesota Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2021, https://cla.umn.edu/chgs/holocaust-genocide-education/resource-guides/cambodia; Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray, eds., Major Problems in Asian American History: Documents and Essays (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 388.

14 Louis Elliott, “Monica Sok on Writing the Cambodian Story Beyond Trauma,” Literary Hub, April 30, 2020, https://lithub.com/monica-sok-on-writing-the-cambodian-story-beyond-trauma.

15 Viet Thanh Nguyen, Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 4.

16 Usha Welaratna, Beyond the Killing Fields: Voices of Nine Cambodian Survivors in America (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 117–35.

17 Welaratna, Beyond the Killing Fields, 125.

18 Welaratna, Beyond the Killing Fields, 128.

19 Welaratna, Beyond the Killing Fields, 127.

20 Robert P. Thayer, Who Killed Heng Lim? The Southeast Asian Experience of Racial Harassment and Violence in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Asian Americans United: Southeast Asian Mutual Assistance Associations Coalition, 1990), 17, https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb596nb2x7&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text.

21 Viet Thanh Nguyen, “The Hidden Scars All Refugees Carry,” New York Times, September 2, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/03/opinion/the-hidden-scars-all-refugees-carry.html.

22 Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Americans, a Diverse and Growing Population,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans.

23 Abby Budiman, “Cambodians in the U.S. Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-cambodians-in-the-u-s; Abby Budiman, “Hmong in the U.S. Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-hmong-in-the-u-s; Abby Budiman, “Laotians in the U.S. Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-laotians-in-the-u-s.

24 Mike Edgerly, “Minnesota’s Global Faces,” Minnesota Public Radio, May 16, 2005, http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2005/05/16_sommerm_globalmap.

25 Kong Pheng Pha, “Two Hate Notes: Deportations, COVID-19, and Xenophobia Against Hmong Americans in the Midwest,” Journal of Asian American Studies 23, no. 3 (October 2020): 336.

26 Pha, “Two Hate Notes,” 337.

27 “Xang Mao Xiong’s Life Story as Told to His Daughter, Maijue Xiong,” in Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America, ed. Sucheng Chan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 101.

28. “Xang Mao Xiong’s Life Story as Told to His Daughter, Maijue Xiong,” 102.

29 “Cover Story,” Laonet Magazine, April 2006, p. 8, http://www.laonet.com/ISSUE%20102/0102p8-9%20Cover%20Story.pdf.

30 Jerome Kroll et al., “Depression and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Southeast Asian Refugees,” American Journal of Psychiatry 146, no. 12 (December 1989): 1592–97.

31 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Update: Sudden Unexplained Death Syndrome Among Southeast Asian Refugees—United States,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, September 23, 1988, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001278.htm.

32 John Burnett, “Decades After Clashing with the Klan, a Thriving Vietnamese Community in Texas,” Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, November 25, 2018, https://www.npr.org/2018/11/25/669857481/decades-after-clashing-with-the-klan-a-thriving-vietnamese-community-in-texas.

33 Thayer, Who Killed Heng Lim?, 21.

34 Thayer, Who Killed Heng Lim?, 25.

35 Thayer, Who Killed Heng Lim?, 25–26.

36 Jeff Gammage, “In Philly, Anti-Asian Hate Is Not New,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 13, 2021, https://www.inquirer.com/news/a/asian-american-hate-crimes-philadelphia-violence-20210513.html.

37 Frances Kai-Hwa Wang, “Who Is Vincent Chin? The History and Relevance of a 1982 Killing,” NBC News, June 15, 2017, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/who-vincent-chin-history-relevance-1982-killing-n771291.

38 “M.I.A. = Murdered in America,” CAAAV Voice 5, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 1, 6, https://caaav.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Voice_Spring_1993.pdf.

39 “New Way Forward Act Would Offer Relief to Many Southeast Asian Refugees Facing a ‘Life Sentence’ of Deportation,” SEARAC (Southeast Asia Resource Action Center), January 27, 2021, https://www.searac.org/immigration/new-way-forward-act-would-offer-relief-to-many-southeast-asian-refugees-facing-a-life-sentence-of-deportation.

40 Jeff Gammage, “Deporting Asian Refugees, Activists Say, Is Anti-Asian Violence—and Removals Are Up,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 27, 2021, https://www.inquirer.com/news/immigration-immigrant-southeast-asia-asian-violence-cambodia-vietnam-laos-deportation-detention-20210327.html.

41 Sanjoy Mazumdar et al., “Creating a Sense of Place: The Vietnamese-Americans and Little Saigon,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 20, no. 4 (2000): 319–33.

42 Beth Nguyen, “Preserving Vietnamese Tradition in Silicon Valley,” MOFAD (Museum of Food and Drink) and Eater, 2016, https://www.eater.com/a/mofad-city-guides/san-jose-vietnamese-history.

43 “Our History,” Lee’s Sandwiches, 2021, https://leesandwiches.com/about-us.

44 “Our History,” Ph$$ Hòa, https://phohoa.com, accessed June 13, 2021.

45 Karen J. Leong et al., “Resilient History and the Rebuilding of a Community: The Vietnamese American Community in New Orleans East,” Journal of American History 94, no. 3 (December 2007): 770–79.

46 The Donut King.

47. Nikki Tundel, “Preserving a Tradition That Prepares Hmong Souls for Eternity,” MPR News, May 6, 2013, https://www.mprnews.org/story/2013/05/06/preserving-a-tradition-that-prepares-hmong-souls-for-eternity.

48 Cynthia Schuster, “Wisconsin Hmong-Americans Look to Preserve Cultural Heritage in New Generations,” Wisconsin Public Radio, June 26, 2014, https://www.wpr.org/wisconsin-hmong-americans-look-preserve-cultural-heritage-new-generations.

49 “Education,” Angkor Dance Troupe, 2021, https://www.angkordance.org.

50 Instagram post, Lao Student Association, Fresno State University, May 15, 2021, https://www.instagram.com/p/CO6n8jfA9Ve.

51 “Herstory,” HAWA (Hmong American Women’s Association), 2021, https://www.hawamke.org/herstory.

52 “The State of Laotian Americans,” LANA (Laotian American National Alliance), 2021, https://lanausa.org/about-laotian-americans.

53 “Outreach,” Laotian American Society, https://www.lasga.org/outreach.

54 Rady Mom as told to Ted Siefer, “Cambodian-American Rady Mom’s House Win Makes History,” Boston Globe, November 13, 2014, https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2014/11/05/cambodian-american-rady-mom-house-win-makes-history/5eGOk46Dno9HtlV410Vg8K/story.html.

55 “Overview,” Legacies of War, 2021, http://legaciesofwar.org/about/overview.

56 Tina Maharath, “Tina Maharath for Ohio State Senate 2018,” Lao American Magazine, September 1, 2017, http://www.laoamericanmagazine.com/2017/09/tina-maharath-for-ohio-state-senate-2018.

57 Felicia R. Lee, “A New Literature with Asian Roots,” New York Times, February 22, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/22/books/a-new-literature-with-asian-roots.html.

58 “About Us,” Little Laos on the Prairie, 2021, https://littlelaosontheprairie.org/the-bloggers.

59 “About Us,” Little Laos on the Prairie.

60 Monica Sok, “The Cambodian American Writers Who Are Reimagining Cambodian Literature: 5 Writers Discuss Subverting Conventions and Writing Against the Trauma Narrative,” Electric Lit, June 11, 2019, https://electricliterature.com/there-is-more-than-one-way-to-be-cambodian.

61 Andru Defeye, “Poetry Is Changing the World. And Two Sacramento Youth Poets Are Leading the Renaissance,” Sacramento Bee, March 2, 2021, https://www.sacbee.com/news/local/sacramento-tipping-point/community-voices/article249513370.html.

62 “Refugee Act of 1980,” National Archives Foundation, 2021, https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/refugee-act-1980.

63 David A. Martin, “The Refugee Act of 1980: A Forlorn Anniversary,” Lawfare, March 19, 2020, https://www.lawfareblog.com/refugee-act-1980-forlorn-anniversary.

64 “Statement by President Joe Biden on Refugee Admissions,” White House, May 3, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/05/03/statement-by-president-joe-biden-on-refugee-admissions.

65 Vang and Trieu, Invisible Newcomers, 7.

66. Taylor Tedford, Kimberly Kindy, and Jacob Bogage, “Trump Orders Meat Plants to Stay Open in Pandemic,” Washington Post, April 29, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/28/trump-meat-plants-dpa.

67 Kate Payne, “Iowa’s Burmese Community Devastated by COVID-19,” Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, June 21, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/06/21/881173373/iowas-burmese-community-devastated-by-covid-19.

CHAPTER THREE: 1968: WHAT’S IN THE NAME “ASIAN AMERICAN”?

1 Anna Purna Kambhampaty, “In 1968, These Activists Coined the Term ‘Asian American’—and Helped Shape Decades of Advocacy,” Time, May 22, 2020, https://time.com/5837805/asian-american-history.

2 “The Third World Liberation Front and the History of Ethnic Studies and African American Studies,” University of California, Berkeley Library, August 4, 2021, https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/twlf/oralhistories.

3 Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978).

4 See Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); and Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992).

5 Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885–1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 219.

6 Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity, 26.

7 Ryan Masaaki Yokota, “Interview with Pat Sumi,” in Asian Americans: The Movement and the Moment, ed. Steve Louie and Glenn K. Omatsu (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2001), 17–31. See also Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Radicals on the Road: Internationalism, Orientalism, and Feminism During the Vietnam Era (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013).

8 “Activist Amy Uyematsu Proclaims the Emergence of ‘Yellow Power,’ 1969,” in Major Problems in Asian American History: Documents and Essays, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 421, used with permission from Amy Uyematsu, “The Emergence of Yellow Power in America,” Gidra, October 1969, from Roots: An Asian American Reader.

9 Esther Wang, “The Counterculturalists: Alex Hing,” The Margins, October 9, 2014, https://aaww.org/counterculturalist-alex-hing.

10 Philippine-American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE), “Statement of the Philippine-American Collegiate Endeavor (PACE) Philosophy and Goals,” Asian American Movement 1968, January 16, 2008, http://aam1968.blogspot.com/2008/01/philippine-american-collegiate-endeavor.html.

11 Daryl J. Maeda, Chains of Babylon: The Rise of Asian America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), 104.

12 Catherine Ceniza Choy, “Towards Trans-Pacific Social Justice: Women and Protest in Filipino American History,” Journal of Asian American Studies 8, no. 3 (Fall 2005): 293–307.

13 Augusto Espiritu, foreword to A Time to Rise: Collective Memoirs of the Union of Democratic Filipinos (KDP), ed. Rene Ciria Cruz, Cindy Domingo, and Bruce Occena (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017), xiv.

14. See Maeda, Chains of Babylon; Who Killed Vincent Chin?, dir. Christine Choy and Renee Tajima-Peña (New York: Filmakers Library, 1990); Yasuko I. Takezawa, Breaking the Silence: Redress and Japanese American Ethnicity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Estella Habal, San Francisco’s International Hotel: Mobilizing the Filipino American Community in the Anti-Eviction Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007).

15 Kevin L. Nadal, “The Brown Asian American Movement: Advocating for South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Filipino American Communities,” Asian American Policy Review 29 (Spring 2019): 2–11.

16 “A Skit on Sexism Within the Asian American Movement, 1971,” in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray, p. 425, from Miya Iwataki, “The Asian Women’s Movement—A Retrospective,” East Wind 2, no. 1 (Spring/Summer 1983): 37.

17 Daniel C. Tsang, “Slicing Silence: Asian Progressives Come Out,” in Louie and Omatsu, Asian Americans, 220–39.

18 “Interview with Jeff Leong, 2018,” Asian American Political Alliance Oral History Project, 2018, p. 6, UC Berkeley, Ethnic Studies Library, https://calisphere.org/item/2c92e2bf-0034-41a6-ab53-69a961ad4c95.

19 “Interview with Steve Wong, 2018,” Asian American Political Alliance Oral History Project, 2018, p. 1, UC Berkeley, Ethnic Studies Library, https://calisphere.org/item/290ff150-769c-49a1-a911-70d5ddfc09fa.

20 Abe Ignacio, Enrique de la Cruz, Jorge Emmanuel, and Helen Toribio, The Forbidden Book: The Philippine-American War in Political Cartoons (San Francisco: T’boli Publishing, 2004), 3.

21 Paolo Chua, “The 15 Best Jose Rizal Quotes,” Esquire Philippines, December 27, 2019, https://www.esquiremag.ph/culture/lifestyle/best-jose-rizal-quotes-a00297-20191227-lfrm2.

22 Meredith Eliassen, “On Display: The 1968 San Francisco State Student Strike,” Process: A Blog for American History, December 18, 2018, http://www.processhistory.org/eliassen-1968.

23 Maeda, Chains of Babylon, 50.

24 “Success Story of One Minority Group in U.S.,” U.S. News and World Report, December 26, 1966.

25 “People v. Hall (1854),” Immigration History, online resource, Immigration and Ethnic History Society, https://immigrationhistory.org/item/people-v-hall.

26 Frederick Douglass, “Our Composite Nationality,” December 7, 1869, Teaching American History, https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/our-composite-nationality.

27 Michael Morey, “The 19th-Century African American Soldier Who Fought for Filipino Liberation,” Zócalo Public Square, April 16, 2019, https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2019/04/16/19th-century-african-american-solider-fought-filipino-liberation/ideas/essay.

28 Igancio et al., The Forbidden Book, 82.

29 Barbara M. Posadas, “The Hierarchy of Color and Psychological Adjustment in an Industrial Environment: Filipinos, the Pullman Company, and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters,” Labor History 22, no. 3 (Summer 1982): 349–73.

30. Posadas, “The Hierarchy of Color and Psychological Adjustment in an Industrial Environment,” 363.

31 Don Villar, “Remembering Chicago Asian American Activist Cipriano Samonte,” Chicago Federation of Labor, https://chicagolabor.org/cfl/chicago-asian-american-activist-cipriano-samonte.

32 “Visitors in the Pomona Assembly Center—Takashi Hoshizaki,” YouTube video, posted by Densho, February 9, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watchPv=aMvhKDb3g7Y.

33 “Life of Kiyoshi Kuromiya: From Selma Marcher to AIDS Activist,” NBC News, March 7, 2015, https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/selma-50th-anniversary/selma-marcher-aids-activist-life-steven-kuromiya-n318876.

34 Tsang, “Slicing Silence,” 222.

35 DeNeen L. Brown, “Thurgood Marshall’s Interracial Love: ‘I Don’t Care What People Think. I’m Marrying You,’“ Washington Post, August 18, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/thurgood-marshalls-interracial-love-i-dont-care-what-people-think-im-marrying-you/2016/08/18/84f636be-54d5-11e6-bbf5-957ad17b4385_story.html.

36 “Interviewee: Cecilia Suyat Marshall,” June 29, 2013, Falls Church, Virginia, Interviewer: Emilye Crosby, Videographer: John Bishop, Civil Rights History Project Interview completed by the Southern Oral History Program under contract to the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of African American History and Culture and the Library of Congress, 2013, p. 13, https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/afc/afc2010039/afc2010039_crhp0097_Marshall_transcript/afc2010039_crhp0097_Marshall_transcript.pdf.

37 “Interviewee: Cecilia Suyat Marshall,” 5.

38 Robert D. McFadden, “Grace Lee Boggs, Human Rights Advocate for 7 Decades, Dies at 100,” New York Times, October 5, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/grace-lee-boggs-detroit-activist-dies-at-100.html.

39 Michelle Chen, “Grace Lee Boggs: Small Rebellions,” Guernica, July 15, 2014, https://www.guernicamag.com/small-rebellions.

40 “Yuri Kochiyama,” Densho Encyclopedia, June 3, 2014, https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Yuri_Kochiyama.

41 William Yardley, “Yuri Kochiyama, Rights Activist Who Befriended Malcolm X, Dies at 93,” New York Times, June 4, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/05/us/yuri-kochiyama-civil-rights-activist-dies-at-93.html.

42 “Yuri Kochiyama”; Y. Vue, “The Unerasing of Asian American Civil Rights History,” Medium, August 30, 2020, https://yiavue.medium.com/the-unerasing-of-asian-american-civil-rights-history-3c13d4a33848.

43 “STAATUS Index Report 2021,” LAAUNCH, pp. 30–31, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5f629e7e013d961943d5cec9/6098a7be3d627168e03054da_staatus-index-2021.pdf.

44 Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, “Anti-Asian Racism in 2020,” Virulent Hate Reports, 14–16, https://virulenthate.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Virulent-Hate-Anti-Asian-Racism-In-2020-5.17.21.pdf.

45 Kimmy Yam, “Viral Images Show People of Color as Anti-Asian Perpetrators. That Misses the Big Picture,” NBC News, June 15, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/viral-images-show-people-color-anti-asian-perpetrators-misses-big-n1270821.

46. Edward Taehan Chang, “Confronting Sa-i-gu: Twenty Years After the Los Angeles Riots,” American Studies 35, no. 2 (2012): 1, http://dx.doi.org/10.18078/amstin.2012.35.2.001, retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/17h713dj.

47 Rev. Samuel Rodriguez, Rev. Mark Whitlock, and Rev. Hyepin Im, “Editorial: Faith Leaders Reflections on Race, 25 Years after the LA Riots,” NBC News, April 19, 2017, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/editorial-faith-leaders-reflections-race-25-years-after-la-riots-n752636.

48 “About,” Letters for Black Lives, Medium, July 11, 2016, https://lettersforblacklives.com/about-the-letter-ed27ea67eb2e.

49 Sathvik Nair, “Letters for Black Lives: South Asian American Version,” Letters for Black Lives, Medium, August 2, 2016, https://lettersforblacklives.com/letters-for-black-lives-south-asian-american-version-f5d8ec9a46ac.

50 KPIX CBS Bay Area, “Bay Area Rappers Unite to Condemn Rise in Attacks Against Asian-American Seniors,” February 10, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqvUZr4htyo.

51 KPIX CBS Bay Area, “Bay Area Rappers Unite to Condemn Rise in Attacks Against Asian-American Seniors.”

52 Agnes Constante, “After 50 Years, Asian American Studies Programs Can Still Be Hard to Find,” NBC News, June 27, 2019, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/after-50-years-asian-american-studies-programs-can-still-be-n1022331.

53 Madeline Holcombe, “Most US Schools Teach Little to Nothing About Asian American History and It Hurts Everyone, Experts Say,” CNN, May 31, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/31/us/asian-american-pacific-islander-history-schools/index.html.

54 “Full Text of HB0376,” Illinois General Assembly, https://www.ilga.gov/legislation/fulltext.asp?DocName=&SessionId=110&GA=102&DocTypeId=HB&DocNum=0376&GAID=16&LegID=128327&SpecSess=&Session=.

55 Kate Taylor and Amelia Nierenberg, “The Fight to Teach Asian American History,” New York Times, June 2, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/02/us/asian-american-history.html; and Susan Dunne, “Senators Push to Mandate Asian American Studies in Connecticut Public Schools amid Surge of Racist Attacks,” Hartford Courant, February 26, 2021, https://www.courant.com/coronavirus/hc-news-coronavirus-connecticut-anti-asian-racism-20210225-7skl3dxpvna4phd3jebtcyb53e-story.html.

CHAPTER FOUR: 1965: THE MANY FACES OF POST-1965 ASIAN AMERICA

1 “My Name Is Krishna Chandrasekhar,” interviewed by Kamala Gururaja, First Days Project, SAADA (South Asian American Digital Archive), https://firstdays.saada.org/story/krishna-chandrasekhar.

2 “My Name Is Lakshmi Kalapatapu,” interviewed by Jaisal Kalapatapu, First Days Project, SAADA (South Asian American Digital Archive), https://firstdays.saada.org/story/lakshmi-kalapatapu.

3 “My Name Is Lakshmi Kalapatapu.”

4 “My Name Is Lakshmi Kalapatapu.”

5. Bill Ong Hing, Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 38–41, 198–200.

6 Rebekah Barber, “How the Civil Rights Movement Opened the Door to Immigrants of Color,” Facing South, February 3, 2017, https://www.facingsouth.org/2017/02/how-civil-rights-movement-opened-door-immigrants-color.

7 Rose Cuison Villazor, “The Immigration Act of 1965 and the Creation of a Modern, Diverse America,” HuffPost, October 28, 2015, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-immigration-act-of-19_b_8394570; and Tom Gjelten, “In 1965, A Conservative Tried to Keep America White. His Plan Backfired,” Weekend Edition Saturday, NPR, October 3, 2015, https://www.npr.org/2015/10/03/445339838/the-unintended-consequences-of-the-1965-immigration-act.

8 Muzaffar Chishti, Faye Hipsman, and Isabel Ball, “Fifty Years On, the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Continues to Reshape the United States,” Migration Information Source, October 15, 2015, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/fifty-years-1965-immigration-and-nationality-act-continues-reshape-united-states.

9 Abby Budiman and Neil G. Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Origin Groups in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-origin-groups-in-the-u-s.

10 Budiman and Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Origin Groups in the U.S.”

11 Karthick Ramakrishnan, “How 1965 Changed Asian America, in 2 Graphs,” Data Bits, AAPI Data, September 28, 2015, http://aapidata.com/blog/1965-two-graphs.

12 Budiman and Ruiz, “Key Facts about Asian Origin Groups in the U.S.”

13 Abby Budiman, “Nepalese in the U.S. Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, April 29, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/fact-sheet/asian-americans-nepalese-in-the-u-s.

14 “My Name Is Tariq Akmal,” interviewed by Sindya N. Bhanoo, First Days Project, SAADA (South Asian American Digital Archive), https://firstdays.saada.org/story/tariq-akmal.

15 “My Name Is Tariq Akmal.”

16 “My Name Is Tariq Akmal.”

17 “This Is the Story of My First Day,” interviewed by Anjli Shah, First Days Project, SAADA (South Asian American Digital Archive), https://firstdays.saada.org/story/980. The story’s contributor asked that their name be withheld.

18 “My Name Is Viji Raman,” interview by Eshaan Mani, First Days Project, SAADA (South Asian American Digital Archive), https://firstdays.saada.org/story/viji-raman.

19 “Women We Admire: Viji Raman,” Daya, March 8, 2021, https://www.dayahouston.org/post/women-we-admire-viji-raman.

20 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).

21 Jennifer Nazareno, “Welfare State Replacements: Deinstitutionalization, Privatization and the Outsourcing to Immigrant Women Enterprise,” International Journal of Health Services 48, no. 2 (April 2018): 260.

22 Rakesh Kochhar and Anthony Cilluffo, “Income Inequality in the U.S. Is Rising Most Rapidly Among Asians,” Pew Research Center, July 12, 2018, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2018/07/12/income-inequality-in-the-u-s-is-rising-most-rapidly-among-asians.

23. Karthick Ramakrishnan and Sono Shah, “One Out of Every 7 Asian Immigrants Is Undocumented,” Data Bits, AAPI Data, September 8, 2017, http://aapidata.com/blog/asian-undoc-1in7.

24 Vanessa Williams, “‘You Feel Invisible’: How America’s Fastest-Growing Immigrant Group Is Being Left Out of the DACA conversation,” Washington Post, September 8, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2017/09/08/an-asian-daca-recipient-reminds-us-that-not-all-immigrant-families-are-from-south-of-the-u-s-border.

25 Preeti Sharma, Saba Waheed, Vina Nguyen, Lina Stepick, Reyna Orellana, Liana Katz, Sabrina Kim, and Katrina Lapira, Nail File: A Study of Nail Salon Workers and Industry in the United States, UCLA Labor Center and California Healthy Nail Salon Collaborative, 2018, p. 4.

26 Sharma et al., Nail File, 14.

27 Sharma et al., Nail File, 15.

28 Sharma et al., Nail File, 40.

29 Andy Kiersz, “Asian Americans Still Aren’t Reaching the C-Suite—and It All Comes Down to Promotions. These 4 Charts Put the Problem in Perspective,” Insider, May 26, 2021, https://www.businessinsider.com/asian-american-ceos-rare-lack-of-promotions-2021-5. See also Buck Gee and Denise Peck, “The Illusion of Asian Success: Scant Progress for Minorities in Cracking the Glass Ceiling from 2007–2015,” Ascend: Pan Asian Leaders, November 2018, https://www.ascendleadershipfoundation.org/research/the-illusion-of-asian-success. Gee and Peck created the Executive Parity Index (EPI), defined as a ratio of the percentage representation of a company’s executive workforce relative to that company’s percentage representation of its entry-level professional workforce, as a key analytical tool. They also introduced a Management Parity Index (MPI), a tool similar to the EPI, to compare the mid-level management representation against the professional representation for an assessment of the lower-level management pipeline flows.

30 Jennifer Liu, “How the Model Minority Myth Holds Asian Americans Back at Work—and What Companies Should Do,” CNBC, May 3, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/03/how-the-model-minority-myth-holds-asian-americans-back-at-work.html.

31 Michel Marriott, “In Jersey City, Indians Protest Violence,” New York Times, October 12, 1987, https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/12/nyregion/in-jersey-city-indians-protest-violence.html.

32 Janice Lobo Sapigao, microchips for millions (San Francisco: Philippine American Writers and Artists, 2016).

33 Sapigao, microchips for millions, 17.

34 Sapigao, microchips for millions, 43.

35 Budiman and Ruiz, “Key Facts About Asian Origin Groups in the U.S.”

36 Nancy Wang Yuen, Dr. Stacy L. Smith, Dr. Katherine Pieper, Marc Choueiti, Kevin Yao, and Dana Dinh, The Prevalence and Portrayal of Asian and Pacific Islanders across 1,300 Popular Films, USC Annenberg Inclusion Initiative, May 2021, p. 10, https://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/aii_aapi-representation-across-films-2021-05-18.pdf.

37. Jayanth Kumar, “Did You Know California Has a Dental Czar?,” Zócalo Public Square, September 30, 2019, https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2019/09/30/did-you-know-california-has-a-dental-czar/ideas/essay/.

38 Ka-Kit Hui, “Defining Health as a ‘State of Complete Physical, Mental, and Social Well-Being,’“ Zócalo Public Square, September 30, 2019, https://www.zocalopublicsquare.org/2019/09/30/defining-health-as-a-state-of-complete-physical-mental-and-social-well-being/ideas/essay.

39 Hui, “Defining Health.”

40 Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019).

41 Catherine Ceniza Choy, “When the Reporter Asks You Why There Are So Many Filipino Nurses in the U.S.,” The Margins, May 17, 2021, https://aaww.org/when-the-reporter-asks-catherine-ceniza-choy.

42 Richard Gonzales, “America No Longer a ‘Nation of Immigrants,’ USCIS Says,” The Two-Way, NPR, February 22, 2018, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/02/22/588097749/america-no-longer-a-nation-of-immigrants-uscis-says.

INTERLUDE: 1965 REPRISE: THE FACES BEHIND THE FOOD

1 The Delano Manongs: Forgotten Heroes of the United Farm Workers, dir. Marissa Aroy (New York: Media Factory, 2014).

2 Sasha Khokha, “Leaving a Legacy: Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Filipino-American Champion and Historian,” The California Report, KQED, August 17, 2018, https://www.kqed.org/news/11687433/leaving-a-legacy-dawn-bohulano-mabalon-filipino-american-champion-and-historian.

3 Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, updated and rev. ed. (New York: Little, Brown, 1998), 132–35.

4 Milton Murayama, All I Asking for Is My Body (San Francisco: Supa Press, 1975).

5 George Chu, “Chinatowns in the Delta: The Chinese in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, 1870–1960,” California Historical Society Quarterly 49, no. 1 (March 1970): 24.

6 “Ah Bing,” Museum of Chinese in America (MOCA), 2021, https://www.mocanyc.org/collections/stories/ah-bing.

7 David R. Shipman, “The Citrus Wizard of Florida,” US Department of Agriculture, February 21, 2017, https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2012/05/16/citrus-wizard-florida.

8 Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870–1942 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 2.

9 Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919–1982 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 22.

10 Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, 189.

11 Chrissy Lee Yau, “‘Ashamed of Certain Japanese’: The Politics of Affect in Japanese Women’s Immigration Exclusion, 1919–1924,” in Gendering the Trans-Pacific World, ed. Catherine Ceniza Choy and Judy Tzu-Chun Wu (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2017), 213.

12 Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place, 17.

13. Suzanne McMahon, curator, “Chapter 3: From Laborers to Landowners,” in “Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899–1965,” University of California, Berkeley Library, July 6, 2020, https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/echoes-of-freedom/laborers-to-landowners.

14 Heather R. Lee, “A Life Cooking for Others: The Work and Migration Experiences of a Chinese Restaurant Worker in New York City, 1920–1946,” in Eating Asian America: A Food Studies Reader, ed. Robert Ji-Song Ku, Martin F. Manalansan IV, and Anita Mannur (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 53–77.

15 Christine R. Yano (with Wanda Adams), “Tasting America: The Politics and Pleasures of School Lunch in Hawai’i,” in Eating Asian America, 41.

16 Carlos Bulosan, America Is in the Heart (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1946), 136.

17 “SAUND, Dalip Singh (Judge),” U.S. House of Representatives, History, Art & Archives, https://history.house.gov/People/Detail/21228.

18 Mark Padoongpatt, Flavors of Empire: Food and the Making of Thai America (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017).

19 Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 88, 98–99, 254–58.

20 Arleen de Vera, “Without Parallel: The Local 7 Deportation Cases, 1949–1955,” Amerasia Journal 20, no. 2 (1994): 1–25.

21 Carly Stern, “The ‘DoorDash’ for Leftover Food Takes Flight amid New York Lockdown,” OZY, April 7, 2020, https://www.ozy.com/the-new-and-the-next/the-doordash-for-leftover-food-takes-flight-amid-new-york-lockdown/288490.

22 “Our Story,” Heart of Dinner, https://www.heartofdinner.org/our-story.

23 Jaweed Kaleem, “Where Are Asian American Communities Growing the Fastest? Not California,” Los Angeles Times, April 29, 2021, https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2021-04-29/asian-americans-north-dakota.

CHAPTER FIVE: 1953: MIXED RACE LIVES

1 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Global Families: A History of Asian International Adoption in America (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 15–45.

2 Maggie Jones, “Why a Generation of Adoptees Is Returning to South Korea,” New York Times Magazine, January 14, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/18/magazine/why-a-generation-of-adoptees-is-returning-to-south-korea.html.

3 Bettijane Levine, “For Orphans of the Forgotten War, the Past Is Shrouded with Questions,” Los Angeles Times, June 21, 2000.

4 “A White American Woman Compares Marriage to Chinese and Japanese Husbands, circa 1924,” in Major Problems in Asian American History: Documents and Essays, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 219. The document is from Fisk University, Social Science Institute, Orientals and Their Cultural Adjustment: Interviews, Life Histories and Social Adjustment Experiences of Chinese and Japanese of Varying Backgrounds and Length of Residence in the United States (Nashville: Social Science Institute, Fisk University, 1946), 42–50, 72–73.

5 “A White American Woman Compares Marriage.”

6. “A White American Woman Compares Marriage,” 220.

7 Velina Hasu Houston, “Rising Sun, Rising Soul: On Mixed Race Asian Identity That Includes Blackness,” in Red and Yellow, Black and Brown: Decentering Whiteness in Mixed Race Studies, ed. Joanne L. Rondilla, Rudy P. Guevarra, and Paul Spickard (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2017), 21.

8 Choy, Global Families, 18–19.

9 Choy, Global Families, 18–19. See also Catherine Ceniza Choy, “Race at the Center: The History of American Cold War Asian Adoption,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 16, no. 3 (2009): 1–20; and Susie Woo, Framed by War: Korean Children and Women at the Crossroads of Empire (New York: New York University Press, 2019).

10 Richard H. Weil, “International Adoptions: The Quiet Migration,” International Migration Review 18, no. 2 (Summer 1984): 276–93; and Kirsten Lovelock, “Intercountry Adoption as a Migratory Practice: A Comparative Analysis of Intercountry Adoption and Immigration Policy and Practice in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand in the Post WWII Period,” International Migration Review 34, no. 3 (Fall 2000): 907–49.

11 Yukiko Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 183–84.

12 Gladys Nubla, “The Sexualized Child and Mestizaje: Colonial Tropes of the Filipina/o,” in Gendering the Trans-Pacific World, ed. Catherine Ceniza Choy and Judy Tzu-Chun Wu (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2017), 165–95.

13 Evangeline Canonizado Buell, Twenty-Five Chickens and a Pig for a Bride: Growing Up in a Filipino Immigrant Family (San Francisco: T’Boli, 2006), 18.

14 Choy, Global Families, 27.

15 Choy, Global Families, 27–28.

16 Choy, Global Families, 30–35.

17 Choy, Global Families, 22.

18 Choy, Global Families, 39.

19 Allison Varzally, Children of Reunion: Vietnamese Adoptions and the Politics of Family Migrations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

20 John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).

21 Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 76.

22 Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 77.

23 Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 85.

24 Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 86.

25 Vivek Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015).

26 Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America, 203–4.

27 Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America, 7.

28 “Researcher Traces Early Nineteenth-Century Origins of Filipino American Family, 1988,” in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray, 46–47. The document is from Marina E. Espina, Filipinos in Louisiana (New Orleans: A. F. Laborde, 1988), 58–59, 61, 63, 65.

29. “Researcher Traces Early Nineteenth-Century Origins,” 47.

30 Rachel Moran, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 17.

31 See Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

32 “A White American Woman Compares Marriage,” 222.

33 “A White American Woman Compares Marriage,” 222.

34 Barbara M. Posadas, “Hmm, You Don’t Look Polish!,” Polish American Studies 74, no. 2 (Autumn 2017): 38.

35 Posadas, “Hmm, You Don’t Look Polish!,” 40.

36 Posadas, “Hmm, You Don’t Look Polish!”

37 Allison Varzally, “Romantic Crossings: Making Love, Family, and Non-Whiteness in California, 1925–1950,” Journal of American Ethnic History 23, no. 1 (Fall 2003): 4.

38 Karen Isaksen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California’s Punjabi Mexican American Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 62.

39 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices, 68.

40 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices, 123.

41 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices.

42 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices, 66.

43 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices, 126.

44 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices, 123.

45 Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., Becoming Mexipino: Multiethnic Identities and Communities in San Diego (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012).

46 Guevarra, Becoming Mexipino, 27.

47 Guevarra, Becoming Mexipino, 151.

48 Guevarra, Becoming Mexipino, 154.

49 Guevarra, Becoming Mexipino, 156.

50 Guevarra, Becoming Mexipino, 161.

51 Sabrina Tavernise, Tariro Mzezewa, and Giulia Heyward, “Behind the Surprising Jump in Multiracial Americans, Several Theories,” New York Times, August 13, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/12/us/us-census-population-growth-diversity.html.

52 Kimmy Yam and Dartunorro Clark, “Black, Asian, American: Kamala Harris’ Identity, How It Shaped Her and What It Means for Voters,” NBC News, August 13, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/black-asian-american-kamala-harris-identity-how-it-shaped-her-n1236563.

53 Gretchen Livingston, “The Rise of Multiracial and Multiethnic Babies in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, June 6, 2017, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/06/the-rise-of-multiracial-and-multiethnic-babies-in-the-u-s.

54 See Paul R. Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); and Maria P. P. Root, ed., Racially Mixed People in America (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992).

55 “Maria P. P. Root, PhD: Clinical Psychologist and Independent Scholar,” American Psychological Association 37, no. 2 (February 2006), https://www.apa.org/monitor/feb06/root.

56. Maria P. P. Root, “Bill of Rights for People of Mixed Heritage,” 1993, https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310742-rights.pdf.

57 See Celeste Katz Marston, “‘What Are You?’ How Multiracial Americans Respond and How It’s Changing,” NBC News, February 28, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/what-are-you-how-multiracial-americans-respond-how-it-s-n1255166; and Akemi Johnson, “Who Gets To Be ‘Hapa’?,” Code Switch, NPR, August 8, 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2016/08/08/487821049/who-gets-to-be-hapa.

58 Part Asian, 100% Hapa, portraits by Kip Fulbeck with foreword by Sean Lennon and afterword by Paul Spickard (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2006), 248.

59 Part Asian, 100% Hapa, 200.

60 “About This Exhibition: ‘Hapa.me: 15 Years of the Hapa Project,’“ Japanese American National Museum, April 7–October 28, 2018, https://www.janm.org/exhibits/hapa-me.

61 Hapa.me: 15 Years of the Hapa Project, portraits by Kip Fulbeck with essays by Velina Hasu Houston, Cindy Nakashima, Keao Nesmith, and Paul Spickard (Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum, 2018), 166–67, 96–97.

62 Kip Fulbeck, introduction to Part Asian, 100% Hapa, 16.

63 Michelle Ye Hee Lee, “Atlanta Shooting Victim’s Biracial Sons Seek to Unite Black, Asian Communities in Shared Fight Against Hate,” Washington Post, August 8, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/atlanta-spa-shootings-yong-ae-yue/2021/08/08/9b8460b0-d1fb-11eb-9f29-e9e6c9e843c6_story.html.

CHAPTER SIX: 1941 AND 1942: THE DAYS THAT YOU REMEMBER

1 Brian Niiya, “Asian Americans and World War II,” in Finding a Path Forward: Asian American Pacific Islander National Historic Landmarks Theme Study, ed. Franklin Odo (Washington, DC: National Historic Landmarks Program, National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 2017), 207.

2 I am indebted to Gary Y. Okihiro for this account and several others cited in this chapter from his remarkable essay “An American Story,” in Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of Japanese American Internment, ed. Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 47–84. The story of Yoshiaki Fukuda appears on pages 54–55.

3 “Following evacuation orders, this store, at 13th and Franklin Streets, was closed. The owner, a University of California graduate of Japanese descent, placed the I AM AN AMERICAN sign on the store front on December 8, the day after Pearl Harbor. Evacuees of Japanese ancestry will be housed in War Relocation Authority centers for the duration. Photographer: Lange, Dorothea. Oakland, California. Date: 1942–03–13,” University of California, Berkeley, Bancroft Library, https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft367nb1xv/?brand=oac4.

4 Okihiro, “An American Story,” 54.

5 Niiya, “Asian Americans and World War II,” 207.

6 Alice Yang Murray, “The Internment of Japanese Americans,” in Major Problems in Asian American History: Documents and Essays, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 312.

7 “Exclusion Order posted at First and Front Streets directing removal of persons of Japanese ancestry from the first San Francisco section to be affected by evacuation. Evacuees will be housed in War Relocation Authority centers for the duration. Photographer: Lange, Dorothea. San Francisco, California. Date: 1942–04–11,” University of California, Berkeley, Bancroft Library, https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft796nb45t/?brand=oac4.

8 Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston, Farewell to Manzanar: A True Story of Japanese American Experience During and After the World War II Internment (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 13.

9 Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese American Family, with a new introduction by Traise Yamamoto (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982), 61.

10 Uchida, Desert Exile, 90.

11 Kelly A. Spring, “Miné Okubo,” National Women’s History Museum, https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/mine-okubo.

12 Okihiro, “An American Story,” 69.

13 Okihiro, “An American Story.”

14 Christopher Capozzola, Bound by War: How the United States and the Philippines Built America’s First Pacific Century (New York: Basic Books, 2020), 168.

15 Mary Paik Lee, Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 94–95.

16 Niiya, “Asian Americans and World War II,” 208.

17 Capozzola, Bound by War, 166–67.

18 Catherine Clifford, “What 83-Year-Old George Takei Learned About Resilience from His Dad Making Art in Japanese Internment Camp,” CNBC, October 16, 2020, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/10/16/what-george-takei-learned-about-resilience-in-japanese-internment-camp.html.

19 “Japanese-American Internment During World War II,” National Archives, Educator Resources, July 8, 2021, https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/japanese-relocation#background.

20 Franklin Odo, “442nd Regimental Combat Team,” Densho Encyclopedia, October 16, 2020, https://encyclopedia.densho.org/442nd_Regimental_Combat_Team.

21 John Okada, No-No Boy: A Novel (Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1957). See also John Okada, No-No Boy with a new foreword by Ruth Ozeki, introduction by Lawson Fusao Inada, and afterword by Frank Chin (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014); and Frank Abe, Greg Robinson, and Floyd Cheung, eds., John Okada: The Life and Rediscovered Work of the Author of No-No Boy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2018).

22 Stephanie Buck, “Overlooked No More: Mitsuye Endo, a Name Linked to Justice for Japanese-Americans,” New York Times, October 9, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/09/obituaries/mitsuye-endo-overlooked.html.

23 Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 175–201.

24 I am indebted to Brian Niiya for this haunting image and the historical information I have included in this paragraph from his astute essay “Asian Americans and World War II,” 212.

25 John H. Fong, “Rosie the Riveter, World War II Home Front Oral History Project,” conducted by Robin Li in 2011, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 2012, p. 11.

26. Fong, “Rosie the Riveter,” 4.

27 “Chinese Americans Picket Scrap Metal to Japan,” Oregon History Project, March 17, 2018, https://www.oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/historical-records/chinese-americans-picket-scrap-metal-to-japan/#.YRP-_dNKj-Y.

28 Dorothy Cordova, “Rosie the Riveter WWII American Home Front Oral History Project,” conducted by Robin Li in 2012, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 2013, p. 15.

29 Cordova, “Rosie the Riveter,” p. 17.

30 Niiya, “Asian Americans and World War II,” 212.

31 K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 60.

32 Wong, Americans First, 61.

33 Wong, Americans First, 171.

34 Wong, Americans First, 2.

35 Wong, Americans First, 167.

36 Maggie Gee, “Rosie the Riveter World War II American Homefront Oral History Project,” conducted by Leah McGarrigle, Robin Li, and Kathryn Stine, 2003, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, 2007, p. 84.

37 An Untold Triumph: The Story of the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments, U.S. Army, dir. Noel Izon (San Francisco: Center for Asian American Media, 2005), https://video.alexanderstreet.com/watch/an-untold-triumph.

38 See Capozzola, Bound by War, 165–66; Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 233; and Theo Gonzalves, “‘We Hold a Neatly Folded Hope’: Filipino American Veterans of World War II on Citizenship and Political Obligation,” Amerasia Journal 21, no. 3 (Fall 1995): 155–74.

39 An Untold Triumph.

40 An Untold Triumph.

41 Capozzola, Bound by War, 147.

42 Catherine Ceniza Choy, “Remembering the Filipino Veterans of World War II,” Berkeley Blog, November 9, 2017, https://blogs.berkeley.edu/2017/11/09/remembering-the-filipino-veterans-of-world-war-ii.

43 Bong-Youn Choy, Koreans in America (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1979), 172.

44 Choy, Koreans in America, 174.

45 “Young Oak Kim: Hero and Humanitarian,” A Story Map, http://bit.ly/NvAMYc.

46 “For Susan Ahn, WWII Was a Fight for America and Korea,” Asian Americans, video clip, aired April 21, 2020, on PBS, https://www.pbs.org/video/susan-ahn-cudd-korean-american-pioneer-and-woman-warrior-akb.

47 Wong, Americans First, 49.

48 Wong, Americans First, 51.

49 Wong, Americans First, 54.

50 Wong, Americans First, 50–51.

51 Evangeline Canonizado Buell, Twenty-Five Chickens and a Pig for a Bride (San Francisco: T’Boli Publishing, 2006), 58.

52. Buell, Twenty-Five Chickens, 59.

53 Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 243.

54 Wong, Americans First, 164–65.

55 Capozzola, Bound by War, 152.

56 Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 246.

57 Okihiro, “An American Story,” 80.

58 Linda Gordon, “Dorothea Lange Photographs the Japanese American Internment,” in Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of Japanese American Internment, ed. Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 6.

59 Miné Okubo, Citizen 13660 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946); see also Miné Okubo, Citizen 13660, 2nd ed., with a new introduction by Christine Hong (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014); Houston and Houston, Farewell to Manzanar; Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese-Amerian Family (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982); Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese American Family, 2nd ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015); George Takei, Justin Eisinger, Steven Scott, and Harmony Becker, They Called Us Enemy (Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2019).

60 Traise Yamamoto, “Introduction: An Uncommon Spirit,” in Uchida, Desert Exile, 2nd ed., xx.

61 Ralph Frammolino, “Ferguson’s View on Japanese-American Internment Blasted,” Los Angeles Times, August 29, 1990, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-08-29-mn-309-story.html.

62 Lauren Batten, “From Japanese Incarceration to COVID: The Fight for Justice,” Pacific Council Magazine, May 11, 2020, https://www.pacificcouncil.org/newsroom/japanese-incarceration-covid-fight-justice.

63 Choy, “Remembering the Filipino Veterans of World War II.”

64 Antonio Raimundo, “The Filipino Veterans Equity Movement: A Case Study in Reparations Theory,” California Law Review 98, no. 2 (2010): 575–623.

CHAPTER SEVEN: 1919: DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

1 “Korean Congress Declares Independence from Japanese Rule, 1919,” in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 155–56. This document is from “First Korean Congress: Held in the Little Theatre, 17th and Delancey Streets (Philadelphia), 1919” (Sŏul Tŭkpyŏlsi: Pŏmhan Sŏjŭk Chusik Hosea, 1986).

2 “Manuel Quezon Calls for Filipino Independence (1919),” The American Yawp Reader, https://www.americanyawp.com/reader/21-world-war-i/manuel-quezon-calls-for-filipino-independence-1919.

3 Gyan Prakash, “The Massacre That Led to the End of the British Empire,” New York Times, April 13, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/13/opinion/1919-amrtisar-british-empire-india.html.

4 “Indian Immigrant Mohan Singh Recounts His Education in the United States, circa 1924,” from Miss Secord, “The Life History of Mohan,” in Major Problems in Asian American History, 153. This document is from the papers of William C. Smith (A-237, A-102, 84-A), Special Collections and University Archives, University of Oregon.

5. Lili Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i and the Continental United States,” 2001, in Major Problems in Asian American History, 172–73.

6 Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i,” 173.

7 Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i,” 174–75; and Edward T. Chang, Pachappa Camp: The First Koreatown in the United States (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2021), 35–36.

8 Richard Kim, The Quest for Statehood: Korean Immigrant Nationalism and U.S. Sovereignty, 1905–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 15.

9 Kim, The Quest for Statehood.

10 Kim, The Quest for Statehood, 3–4.

11 Kim, The Quest for Statehood, 26.

12 Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i and the Continental United States,” 177.

13 Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i and the Continental United States.”

14 Margaret K. Pai, The Dreams of Two Yi-min (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1989), 20–21.

15 Edward T. Chang and Woo Sung Han, Korean American Pioneer Aviators: The Willow Airmen (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015), xiv.

16 Chang and Han, Korean American Pioneer Aviators, xvi. See also David K. Yoo, Contentious Spirits: Religion in Korean American History, 1903–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).

17 “Korean Congress Declares Independence from Japanese Rule, 1919,” 155.

18 “Korean Congress Declares Independence from Japanese Rule, 1919,” 156.

19 Kim, The Quest for Statehood, 64.

20 Kim, The Quest for Statehood, 18; Kim, “Korean Independence Movement in Hawai’i and the Continental United States,” 174.

21 Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 30.

22 “Modern History Sourcebook: Rudyard Kipling, The White Man’s Burden, 1899,” Internet History Sourcebooks Project, Fordham University, January 26, 1996, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/kipling.asp.

23 Christopher Capozzola, Bound by War: How the United States and the Philippines Built America’s First Pacific Century (New York: Basic Books, 2020), 56–57.

24 Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 30–31.

25 Abe Ignacio, Enrique de la Cruz, Jorge Emmanuel, and Helen Toribio, The Forbidden Book: The Philippine-American War in Political Cartoons (San Francisco: T’boli Publishing, 2004), 1–2.

26 Mark Twain, “The War Prayer,” https://www.people.vcu.edu/~toggel/prayer.pdf.

27 See Catherine Ceniza Choy, “A Filipino Woman in America: The Life and Work of Encarnacion Alzona,” Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture 3 (Fall 2006): 127–40.

28 See Robert Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

29 Benito M. Vergara Jr., Displaying Filipinos: Photography and Colonialism in Early 20th Century Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1995), 112.

30. Greg Allen, “‘Living Exhibits’ at 1904 World’s Fair Revisited,” Morning Edition, NPR, May 31, 2004, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1909651.

31 Allen, “‘Living Exhibits’ at 1904 World’s Fair Revisited.”

32 Suzanne McMahon, curator, “Chapter 6: At the University,” in “Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899–1965,” UC Berkeley Library, last updated July 6, 2020, https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/echoes-of-freedom/university.

33 McMahon, “Chapter 6: At the University.”

34 “Taraknath Das,” in “New, Thinking, Agile, and Patriotic: ‘Hindu’ Students at the University of Washington, 1908–1915,” University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections, 2006, https://www.lib.washington.edu/specialcollections/collections/exhibits/southasianstudents/das.

35 Joan M. Jensen, “Exporting Independence to Colonial India,” in Major Problems in Asian American History, 170. This essay is from Joan M. Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988).

36 Seema Sohi, “The Ghadar Party,” SAADA: South Asian American Digital Archive, May 8, 2018, https://www.saada.org/tides/article/the-ghadar-party. See also Seema Sohi, “Repressing the ‘Hindu Menace’: Race, Anarchy, and Indian Anticolonialism,” in The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants in an Age of U.S. Power, ed. Vivek Bald et al. (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 50–74.

37 Sohi, “The Ghadar Party.”

38 Suzanne McMahon, curator, “Chapter 7: Ghadar,” in “Echoes of Freedom,” in “Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899–1965,” UC Berkeley Library, last updated July 6, 2020, https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/echoes-of-freedom/university.

39 Judy Yung, “Student and Revolutionist,” Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation, 2021, https://www.immigrant-voices.aiisf.org/stories-by-author/875-student-and-revolutionist.

40 Sohi, “The Ghadar Party.”

41 Kartar Singh Sarabha, “On the Way to the Gallows,” in Yung, “Student and Revolutionist.”

42 Karen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California’s Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 131.

43 Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices.

44 “New Plaque at State Capitol Gives New Perspective to War in Philippines,” Brainerd Dispatch, February 6, 2002, https://www.brainerddispatch.com/news/3420410-new-plaque-state-capitol-gives-new-perspective-war-philippines.

45 Ignacio et al., The Forbidden Book, 1.

46 Chang, Pachappa Camp, 63–64.

47 Chang, Pachappa Camp, 64.

48 Chang, Pachappa Camp, 114.

49 Bhira Baukhaus, “A Sikh Temple’s Century,” New York Times, August 7, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/08/opinion/a-sikh-temples-proud-history.html?_r=1.

50 “About Sikh Temple of Wisconsin,” Sikh Temple of Wisconsin, 2021, http://sikhtempleofwisconsin.com/about-us.

51. Baukhaus, “A Sikh Temple’s Century.”

52 Baukhaus, “A Sikh Temple’s Century.”

53 Mandeep Kaur, “Sikhs Remain Resilient After Five Years of Living with Tragedy,” Milwaukee Independent, August 8, 2017, https://www.milwaukeeindependent.com/articles/sikhs-remain-resilient-five-years-living-tragedy.

54 Julie Zauzmer Weil, “He Was 12. He Had Just Moved to America. Then His Sikh Father Was Murdered,” Washington Post, August 4, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2017/08/04/his-father-was-murdered-hes-still-grappling-with-what-it-means-to-be-sikh-in-america.

55 Elly Fishman, “2021 Unity Awards Honoree: Pardeep Singh Kaleka,” Milwaukee, February 8, 2021, https://www.milwaukeemag.com/2021-unity-awards-honoree-pardeep-singh-kaleka.

56 Pardeep Kaleka, “Stories: Pardeep Kaleka,” The Forgiveness Project, February 16, 2016, https://www.theforgivenessproject.com/stories/pardeep-kaleka.

57 Philippine Study Group of Minnesota, Capitol Area Architectural and Planning Board, Minnesota Historical Society, and Minnesota Department of Administration, “Text for the Corrective Spanish-American War Plaque,” 2001, http://www.crcworks.org/newtext.pdf.

58 “The White Man’s Burden (Apologies to Kipling),” Judge (New York: Judge Publishing Company, 1899), artist: Victor Gillam, in Ignacio et al., The Forbidden Book, 25.

59 “Speaking from Experience (Through Professor Marconi’s Wireless Telegraphy): American Indian (to Filipino)—’Be Good, or You Will Be Dead!’“ Judge (New York: Arkell Publishing Company, c. 1899), artist: Victor Gillam, in Ignacio et al., The Forbidden Book, 96.

60 Ignacio et al., The Forbidden Book, 10.

61 Antonio S. Buangan, “The Suyoc People Who Went to St. Louis 100 Years Ago: The Search for My Ancestors,” Philippine Studies 52, no. 4 (2004): 474–98.

62 Buangan, “The Suyoc People Who Went to St. Louis,” 480.

63 Buangan, “The Suyoc People Who Went to St. Louis.”

64 Buangan, “The Suyoc People Who Went to St. Louis,” 481.

65 Buangan, “The Suyoc People Who Went to St. Louis,” 479.

66 Chang, Pachappa Camp, 111–14.

67 “Centennial: Korea’s Declaration of Independence March 1, 1919–March 1, 2019,” Korean American Pioneers Descendants Newsletter, February 2019, p. 2.

68 “Choi, Neung-ik: He Was in Charge of Diplomatic Business as a Representative of Korean National Revolutionary Corps,” KNA Memorial Foundation, January 25, 2019, https://knamf.org/choi-neung-ik. For the history of the Willows Aviation School, see Chang and Han, Korean American Pioneer Aviators.

CHAPTER EIGHT: 1875: HOMAGE

1 Lauren Mellone, “ATL Spa Shooting Family Survivor Fund: Jami Webb,” GoFundMe, https://www.gofundme.com/f/atl-spa-shooting-family-survivor-fund-jami-webb.

2 Joshua Sharpe, “With No Family in U.S., Local Asian Americans Hold Service for Spa Shooting Victim,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, April 4, 2021, https://www.ajc.com/news/crime/with-no-family-in-us-local-asian-americans-hold-service-for-spa-shooting-victim/XKXBRJDDXRD4JOLSHI4QG4EDWU.

3. “Delaina Ashley Yaun Gonzalez,” in “Victims Lost to Recent Anti-AAPI Hate Crimes,” Stanford Libraries, https://exhibits.stanford.edu/riseup/feature/delaina-ashley-yaun-gonzalez.

4 Jewel Wicker and Victoria Bekiempis, “Paul Andre Michels: ‘Very Good-Hearted’ Handyman Killed in Atlanta Shootings,” Guardian, March 18, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/mar/18/paul-andre-michels-atlanta-spa-shootings.

5 Hanna Park, “Soon Chung Park Worked Long Days as Single Mom to Bring 5 Kids from Korea to U.S.,” NBC News, March 25, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/soon-chung-park-worked-long-days-single-mom-bring-5-kids-korea-us-rcna514.

6 Victoria Bekiempis, “Hyun Jung Grant: Ex-Teacher Who Loved to Dance Killed in Atlanta Spa Shootings,” Guardian, March 19, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/mar/19/hyun-jung-grant-atlanta-spa-shootings.

7 Michelle Ye Hee Lee, “America Was Always Where She Felt She Belonged,” Washington Post, April 20, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/04/20/suncha-kim-atlanta-spa-shooting.

8 Michelle Ye Hee Lee, “Atlanta Shooting Victim’s Biracial Sons Seek to Unite Black, Asian Communities in Shared Fight Against Hate,” Washington Post, August 8, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/atlanta-spa-shootings-yong-ae-yue/2021/08/08/9b8460b0-d1fb-11eb-9f29-e9e6c9e843c6_story.html.

9 Board of the Association for Asian American Studies, “Response to the Atlanta Murders,” Association for Asian American Studies, March 2021, https://aaastudies.org/response-to-the-atlanta-murders.

10 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 121–39.

11 Lisa Hagen, “‘Sex Addiction’ Cited as Spurring Spa Shooting, but Most Killed Were of Asian Descent,” NPR, March 17, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/03/17/978288270/shooter-claimed-sex-addiction-as-his-reason-but-most-victims-were-of-asian-desce.

12 Kimmy Yam, “Racism, Sexism Must Be Considered in Atlanta Case Involving Killing of Six Asian Women, Experts Say,” NBC News, March 17, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/racism-sexism-must-be-considered-atlanta-case-involving-killing-six-n1261347.

13 “Page Law (1875),” Immigration History, 2019, https://immigrationhistory.org/item/page-act.

14 Kerry Abrams, “Polygamy, Prostitution, and the Federalization of Immigration Law,” Columbia Law Review 105, no. 3 (April 2005): 695–96.

15 Mari Uyehara, “The Roots of the Atlanta Shooting Go Back to the First Law Restricting Immigration,” The Nation, March 22, 2021, https://www.thenation.com/article/society/atlanta-shooting-history.

16 Uyehara, “The Roots of the Atlanta Shooting.”

17 Abrams, “Polygamy, Prostitution, and the Federalization of Immigration Law,” 663.

18 US Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, “The Burlingame-Seward Treaty, 1868,” https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/burlingame-seward-treaty.

19. Abrams, “Polygamy, Prostitution, and the Federalization of Immigration Law,” 690–91.

20 K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 128–29.

21 Bill Ong Hing, Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993).

22 According to University of California, Berkeley Library’s “We’re Here, We’re Queer, and We’re in the Public Record! The LGBTQ Movement and Life as Seen Through Government Information”: “It was still legal to ban people living with HIV from immigrating; this ban was not overturned until January 2010. In 1994, ‘homosexuals’ were added as a social group that could qualify for asylum, but LGBTQ+ people still face significant barriers to receiving refuge. Though federal recognition of same-sex marriage in 2015 extended the protections of immigration laws for lawfully married people to LGBTQ+ couples, groups that don’t fit heteronormative models, such as trans* immigrants, face disproportionate discrimination.” See “Immigration,” in “We’re Here, We’re Queer, and We’re in the Public Record! The LGBTQ Movement and Life as Seen Through Government Information,” University of California, Berkeley Library, 2018, https://exhibits.lib.berkeley.edu/spotlight/queer/feature/immigration.

23 Abrams, “Polygamy, Prostitution, and the Federalization of Immigration Law,” 648.

24 Herb Wong, Deborah Gee, and Pamela Porter, Slaying the Dragon, video (San Francisco: CrossCurrent Media, NAATA, 2007). Originally broadcast by KQED, San Francisco, in 1987.

25 A Special Edition of 20/20, season 43, episode 18, “Murder in Atlanta,” ABC News, aired March 19, 2021.

26 Kerri Lee Alexander, “Anna May Wong,” National Women’s History Museum, 2019, https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/anna-may-wong. See also Karen Leong, The China Mystique: Pearl S. Buck, Anna May Wong, Mayling Soong, and the Transformation of American Orientalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); and Shirley Jennifer Lim, Anna May Wong: Performing the Modern (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2019).

27 Edward Sakamoto, “Anna May Wong and the Dragon-Lady Syndrome,” Los Angeles Times, July 12, 1987, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-07-12-ca-3279-story.html.

28 Sakamoto, “Anna May Wong and the Dragon-Lady Syndrome.”

29 Alexander, “Anna May Wong.”

30 Josephine Lee, “Yellowface Performance: Historical and Contemporary Contexts,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature, February 25, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.013.834.

31 Shruti Mukkamala and Karen Suyemoto, “Racialized Sexism/Sexualized Racism: A Multimethod Study of Intersectional Experiences of Discrimination for Asian American Women,” Asian American Journal of Psychology 9, no. 1 (2018): 32–46, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/aap0000104.

32 Kerri Lee Alexander, “Patsy Mink,” National Women’s History Museum, 2019, https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/patsy-mink.

33 Sarah Pruitt, “How Title IX Transformed Women’s Sports,” History, June 11, 2021, https://www.history.com/news/title-nine-womens-sports.

34. Gwendolyn Mink, “My Mother Was One of the First Women to Run for President,” Time, June 9, 2016, https://time.com/4362066/hillary-clinton-democratic-nominee-patsy-mink.

35 Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, “The Dead, the Living, and the Sacred: Patsy Mink, Antimilitarism, and Reimagining the Pacific World,” Meridians 18, no. 2 (2019): 310.

36 Alexander, “Patsy Mink.”

37 “H.Res. 683 (112th): Expressing the Regret of the House of Representatives for the Passage of Laws That Adversely Affected the Chinese in the United States, Including the Chinese Exclusion Act,” GovTrack, June 18, 2012, https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/hres683/text.

38 Brian Niiya, “Mazie Hirono,” Densho Encyclopedia,https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Mazie%20Hirono.

39 “About Mazie,” Mazie K. Hirono, https://www.hirono.senate.gov/about.

40 Kamala Kelkar, “Obama Signs Bill Eliminating ‘Negro,’ ‘Oriental’ from Federal Laws,” PBS, May 22, 2016, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/obama-signs-bill-eliminating-negro-spanish-speaking-oriental-from-federal-laws.

41 “House Passes Meng Resolution to Denounce Anti-Asian Sentiment Related to the Coronavirus,” Rep. Grace Meng, September 17, 2020, https://meng.house.gov/media-center/press-releases/house-passes-meng-resolution-to-denounce-anti-asian-sentiment-related-to.

42 Jessica Smith, “Sen. Duckworth: Anti-Asian Hate Crimes ‘Notoriously Underreported,’“ Yahoo! Finance, April 9, 2021, https://news.yahoo.com/sen-duckworth-anti-asian-hate-crimes-notoriously-underreported-152929640.html.

43 “Historic Senate Rules Change Allows New Parents to Bring Their Children onto Senate Floor for First Time,” Tammy Duckworth, April 18, 2018, https://www.duckworth.senate.gov/news/press-releases/historic-senate-rules-change-allows-new-parents-to-bring-their-children-onto-senate-floor-for-first-time.

44 Kimmy Yam, “Congresswoman Wears Hanbok at Swearing-In Ceremony, Honors Korean Immigrant Mom,” NBC News, January 4, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/congresswoman-wears-hanbok-swearing-ceremony-honors-korean-immigrant-mom-n1252786.

45 Yam, “Congresswoman Wears Hanbok at Swearing-In Ceremony.”

46 Yam, “Congresswoman Wears Hanbok at Swearing-In Ceremony.”

47 Marilyn Strickland (@RepStricklandWA), Twitter, January 3, 2021, https://twitter.com/repstricklandwa/status/1345913491186716672?lang=en.

48 Jacob Kim (@fullofhype), Twitter, January 3, 2021, https://mobile.twitter.com/fullofhype/status/1345872010694565892, quoted in Yam, “Congresswoman Wears Hanbok at Swearing-In Ceremony.”

49 Miran  Kim (@mirankinsays), Twitter, January 4, 2021, https://twitter.com/mirankimsays/status/1345997140410167297?s=20, quoted in Yam, “Congresswoman Wears Hanbok at Swearing-In Ceremony.”

50 Scott Wilson (@RScottWilson), Twitter, January 3, 2021, https://twitter.com/RScottWilson/status/1345933064950583300.

51 Olivia B. Waxman, “The Story Behind Time’s Cover on Anti-Asian Violence and Hate Crimes,” Time, March 18, 2021, https://time.com/5947622/time-cover-anti-asian-american-violence-atlanta-shooting.

52 Waxman, “The Story Behind Time’s Cover on Anti-Asian Violence.”

53 Waxman, “The Story Behind Time’s Cover on Anti-Asian Violence.”

54. Lauren Messman, “‘I Still Believe in Our City’: A Public Art Series Takes On Racism,” New York Times, November 2, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/02/arts/design/public-art-covid-race-subway-html.

55 Waxman, “The Story Behind Time’s Cover on Anti-Asian Violence.”

CONCLUSION: 1869: THESE WOUNDS

1 Hua Hsu, “Corky Lee’s Photographs Helped Generations of Asian-Americans See Themselves,” New Yorker, January 30, 2021, https://www.newyorker.com/culture/postscript/corky-lees-photographs-helped-generations-of-asian-americans-see-themselves.

2 Emil Guillermo, “Chinese American History Professors Gave Photographer Corky Lee His Calling,” Diverse Issues in Higher Education, February 2, 2021, https://www.diverseeducation.com/demographics/asian-american-pacific-islander/article/15108588/chinese-american-history-professors-gave-photographer-corky-lee-his-calling.

3 “Introduction,” Chinese Railroad Workers in North America Project, Stanford University, 2018, https://web.stanford.edu/group/chineserailroad/cgi-bin/website/virtual. See also Gordon H. Chang and Shelley Fisher Fishkin, eds., The Chinese and the Iron Road: Building the Transcontinental Railroad (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019).

4 Junru Huang, “Not on the Menu: Corky Lee’s Life and Work,” video, https://vimeo.com/65482946.

5 Ming Lin and Alexandra Tatarsky, “Corky Lee ‘Was Chinatown to Me,’“ Vulture, February 3, 2021, https://www.vulture.com/article/corky-lee-photographer-obituary.html.

6 “Photographic Justice: Rest in Power Corky Lee,” Center for Asian American Media, February 24, 2021, https://caamedia.org/blog/2021/02/24/photographic-justice-rest-in-power-corky-lee.