Introduction
1. See the works of historians Roosevelt, Lincoln, Norris, and Ely cited in the chapters. Their excellent contributions have yet to be incorporated into social or general history. Ropert, La misère et la gloire, focuses on ideas, literature, and architecture.
2. For a masterful example of not ignoring those works, see Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read.
3. Becker, Art Worlds, passim.
4. Williams, Long Revolution, 45.
5. Ocherki russkoi kultury XIX veka, 5. For discussions of the public sphere and the arts in eighteenth-century Europe, see Blanning, Culture of Power, 2; and Crow, Painters and Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Paris.
6. Weintraub and Kumar, Public and Private in Thought and Practice, 17; and Weintraub, “The Theory and Politics of the Public/Private Distinction,” ibid., 101-42. Weintraub’s term for what I mean by public space is “sociability,” which requires no politics, no mutual obligations, or even solidarity—except the momentary one of a shared experience. It often requires social distance alongside physical proximity. On this see Lovell, Summerfolk, 41 n. 40.
7. Rogger, National Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century Russia.
8. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1; Riasanovsky, Nicholas I and Official Nationality; idem, Image of Peter the Great; Gasiorowska, Image of Peter the Great in Russian Fiction; Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education.
9. Lotman, Besedy o russkoi kultury; idem, Roman A. S. Pushkina "Evgenii Onegin"; idem, Semiotics of Russian Cultural History; idem, Velikosvetskie obedy; see also Todd, Fiction and Society in the Age of Pushkin; idem, Literature and Society in Imperial Russia.
Chapter 1. Town and Country
1. The Sollogub quip, “Petersburg is a dot on the map of Russia; the fashionable world is a dot on the map of Petersburg,” is from an 1840 society tale cited by Pursglove, “V. A. Sollogub and High Society” in Cornwell, Society Tale, 71.
2. Volkov, St. Petersburg, 44; Lincoln, Sunlight at Midnight.
3. Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg, 80-83; “Russkii Muzei: Avtobiografiya,” St. Petersburg TV, Channel 2, January 22, 1998; Russkii Muzei Imperatora Aleksandra III; Petrov, Russkii Muzei; Russian Museum; Ivanova, “Mikhailovskii Dvorets,” 256-58; Stites, “Circles on a Square.”
4. See Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, vol. 2, for addresses. The older chatty and charming works of popular writers such as Pylyaev, Yatsevich, and Stolpyansky—full of errors as they are—entwine the topographical with the anecdotal and biographical, and give the reader a sense of historical place. Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka and Staryi Peterburg i Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite and Zabytoe proshloe okrestnostei Peterburga.
5. Rozanov, Muzykalnyi Pavlovsk; Massie, Pavlovsk. On these and other important sites of entertainment, see Lovell, Summerfolk. The Russian word vokzal, from the eighteenth-century London entertainment complex, Vauxhall, came to mean simply railway station.
6. Goncharov, “Pisma stolichnogo druga k provintsialnomu zhenikhu” in Oksman, Feletony sorokovykh godov, 39-84; Lotman, “Russkii dendizm” in Besedy o russkoi kultury, 90-102, 123-35. For a minute description of the round in bonne societe, see Arnold, Vospominaniya, 1:16-21.
7. Karamzin, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” in Segel, Literature of Eighteenth-Century Russia, 1:421; Tyutcheva cited in Shevyrëv, “Kulturnaya sreda stolichnogo goroda” in Ocherki russkoi kultury XIX veka, 122 n. 58; Khvoshchinskaya in Clyman, Russia Through Women’s Eyes, 81. Club and restaurant life allowed a much looser mode of social behavior. See Stoletie S.-Peterburgskago Angliiskago sobraniya.
8. Bourdieu, Distinction.
9. Karlinsky, Gogol, 109.
10. Skalkovskii, Vospominaniya, 1-9; Lincoln, Vanguard of Reform, 16-17, 20; Wirtschafter, Structures of Society; idem, Social Identity in Imperial Russia.
11. Krestovskii, Peterburgskyya trushchoby. This book reproduces authentic slum jargon and captures big-city underlife with its scenes of misery in jails and hospitals. For this, Krestovsky was accused by some of “photographing reality.” Ashcroft, ''Peterburgskie trushchoby," 163-75; Elets, Biografiya Krestovskogo, 63-75.
12. Shevyrëv, “Kulturnaya sreda stolichnogo goroda,” 73, 78.
13. Custine, Letters from Russia, 49; graphics in RNBOE; Shevyrëv, “Kulturnaya sreda stolichnogo goroda,” 75.
14. Jahn, ''St. Peterburger Heumarkt," 162-77.
15. Cited in Shevyrëv, “Kulturnaya sreda stolichnogo goroda,” 119 n. 38. Though done a few years after this period, P. Vereshchagin’s canvas of a Moscow market scene captures its vitality: Ovsyannikov, Kartiny russkogo byta, 294.
16. Herzen, My Past, 10.
17. Gershenzon, Griboedovskaya Moskva, 73-79.
18. Edwards, Russians at Home, 346-48; Moskovskoe Kupecheskoe Sobranie, 11-13; Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, the memories of Elizaveta Yankova (1768-1861).
19. The literature on merchants is huge. See Buryshkin, Moskva kupecheskaya; Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia; Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia; Ruckman, Moscow Business Elite, 8-9. West, Merchant Moscow; Kelly, “Teacups and Coffins” in Marsh, Women in Russia and Ukraine, 55-77.
20. Sollogub, Tarantas, 84. Moskovskoe Kupecheskoe Sobranie, 14-25. For other clubs: Butorov, Sobirateli i metsenaty Moskovskogo Angliiskogo Kluba; Smith, Working the Rough Stone; Bremner, Excursions in the Interior of Russia, 1:216; Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 34-35. Merchants at English gentry affairs were put in roped-off areas at concerts and clubs well into the nineteenth century: Bramsted, Aristocracy and the Middle Classes in Germany, 150-99. Sumptuary laws, though not enforced, dictated that carriages of burghers be one-horse: Gurowski, Russia as It Is, 145-61.
21. Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 81-82 Moscow Business Elite, 1-48, for social identity, relations, and imagery.
22. Edwards, Russians at Home, 155-57; Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia, 23.
23. Ruane, “Caftan to Business Suit,” 53-60. For attitudes to dress in the Zamoskvorechie District of Moscow, see Alexander Ostrovsky’s ironic sketch in his Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1:34-35.
24. Herzen, My Past, 82, 94; Dmitriev, “Studencheskiya vospominaniya,” 225-33; Friedman, “In the Company of Men,” 129-30. Universities’ jails in fact represented a degree of independence from the state’s law-enforcement agencies.
25. For an engaging account of the French emigration, see Haumant, Culture française en Russie, especially chaps. 14-16 and p. 337; Piggott, John Field, chaps. 3-7; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 597 n.
26. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate; Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia, 349.
27. GASO, f. i, op. 7, d. 9; Lincoln, Vanguard of Reform, 150-32.
28. Rak, “Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Shakhovskoi” in Levitt, Early Modern Russian Writers, 348-55 (qu. 351).
29. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate; Cavender, “Nests of Gentry.”
30. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 144; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 17; Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 45-46; Zhdanov, Putevyyazapiskipo Rossii, 130-31.
31. Some middle and poor nobles, masters of a hundred souls or less, engaged grotesquely in social mimicry by nailing up four Doric columns topped by a classical pediment to their humble wooden cabins as a sign of their membership in the “well-born caste”: Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 273.
32. Ocherki russkoi kultury, 5-ii; V. A. Koshelëv, “O 'literaturnoi' provintsii i 'literaturnoi provintsialnosti',” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 37-55 (qu. 49).
33. Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 121, citing serf prices in selected provinces; Petersburg house serfs sold for three hundred to seven hundred rubles in the 1790s: Stolpyanskii, “Torgovlya lyudmi v starom Peterburge,” 214; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 30; Jones, Emancipation of the Russian Nobility; Confino, Domaines et seigneurs en Russie; Raeff, Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia.
34. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate; Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 265377; Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa.
35. Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka.”
36. Keppen, Devyataya reviziya, 199-200, 207-8; Kolchin, Unfree Labor, 161.
37. Field, End of Serfdom, 44.
38. Troinitskii, Serf Population in Russia, 13, 73-79.
39. The provincial figures are estimates for 1859 in D. M., ''Neskolko slov o dvorovykh lyudyakh," 46-54 (s.p.): Kursk, 43,017; Orël, Ryazan, Tambov, Tver, Tula, 20-40,000; Vilna, Vladimir, Voronezh, Kaluga, Moscow, Novgorod (an error: Nizhny Novgorod is undoubtedly meant), Penza, Poltava, Pskov, Saratov, Simbirsk, Kharkov, Yaroslav, 10-20,000; Vitebsk, Grodno, Ekaterinoslav, Kazan, Mogilev, Novgorod, Orenburg, Perm, Samara, St. Petersburg, Kherson, Tauride, 5-10,000. A study of Tver Province counts 43,000 house serfs as against a gentry population of about 10,000 for 1847: Cavender, “Nests of Gentry,” 20. For distribution of provincial orchestras and theaters, see chaps. 2, 3, and 6 of the present book. Merchants also had house serfs which they acquired illegally by registering them in another owner’s name: Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 126.
40. For parade culture on estates, see Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, 20-21; Shipov, “Istoriya moei zhizni”; Sverbeev, Zapiski, 2:7-44; Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 1:159; Merder, “Otzhivye tipy,” 537-52.
41. Marrese, Woman's Kingdom, 125; Bushnell, “Did Serf Owners Control Serf Marriage?”
42. Maza, Servants and Masters in Eighteenth-Century France.
43. Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka”; Arakcheev: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 88-89; Kondakov, Spisok, 385; Wrangel, Vospominaniya; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 184-85, 190-92. A fascinating and learned study of corporal punishment for law-breakers does not touch on the private or domestic beatings that were beyond the reach of the law and claimed many more victims: Schrader, Languages of the Lash.
44. On conscription, see Sverbeev, Zapiski, 2:27-44. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, 3-25, provides a clear picture of the variety and complexity of recruitment practices. Manorial serfs were generally subject to a rota that put men eligible by age and family size up to the front of the line.
45. Herzen, My Past, 13, 15; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 183-89; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 20; Lotman, Semiotics of Russian Cultural History, 57-58; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 100-101 and n. 2. A housemaid in Griboedov’s Woe from Wit speaks of the gentry and “the worst of all, the master’s temper and the master’s love” (Act I): Griboedov, PSS, 2:6.
46. Kolchin, Unfree Labor, 143 (guardianships); Shchepetov, Iz zhizni krepostnykh krestyan, 47 (Pestel); Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 59; D. M., “Neskolko slov o dvorovykh lyudyakh,” 52. Literature on serf abuse: Krepostnichestvo i volya, a collection of atrocity stories; and Melgunov, Krepostnoe pravo.
47. Aksakov, Years of Childhood, 225-27.
48. Wachtel, Battle for Childhood, 105-25.
49. Curtiss, Russian Army Under Nicholas I; Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier; Zelnik, Labor and Society in Imperial Russia; Haywood, Russia Enters the Railway Age. As a corrective to the myth of female owners as more abusive than males, see Marrese, Woman's Kingdom, 231-32.
50. Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya (schooling); Nikitenko, Diary of a Russian Censor, xiii; Purlevskii, “Vospominaniya krepostnago, 1800-1868”; Douglass quoted by Peter Kolchin in the introduction to Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, xvii; Bohac, “Everyday Forms of Resistance”; Kurmacheva records a few scattered cases of resistance and one of flight by educated or artistic serfs (Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 298-99).
51. Zablotskii-Desyatovskii, Kiselëv, 2:255 on Tsar Nicholas; Passenens, Russie et l’esclavage, 2:86 and passim; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya.” Disobedience and debauchery were common verdicts on lower-class suicide in the era of serfdom. See Morrisey, “In the Name of Freedom.”
52. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya; Kurmachëva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, though weighted toward serfs engaged in literary, educational, and scientific-technical realms, also contains useful information on serf artists and an exhaustive historiography.
53. Savelov, “Dvoryanskoe soslovie.”
54. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate; Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby.”
55. The pioneering work is Semevskii, Krestyanskii vopros v Rossii, 1:316-17, 39697, and passim. See Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia; Kolchin, Unfree Labor; Moon, Russian Peasants and Tsarist Legislation, 80-112, for a detailed analysis of the 1847 decree; Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, 17; Moon, Russian Peasantry, 1600-1930, 148 (Sheremetev); Emmons, Russian Landed Gentry, 80 (Unkovsky).
56. Ruud, Fighting Words, 92-93; Melgunov, Krepostnoe pravo, contains excerpts from Herzen, Turgenev, Belinsky, Shevchenko, Shchepkin, Nekrasov, Shchedrin. Grigorovich, and others. For an older view of “abolitionist” literature, see Dodge, “Abolitionist Sentiment in Russia, 1762-1855.” After emancipation, according to Alexander Pypin, some four thousand works on peasants issued forth from the presses in the decades 1858-78, a corpus that awaits analysis: Donskov, Changing Image of the Peasant, 7 n. 2.
57. Belinsky, Selected Philosophical Works, 386-87, 474-75. Belinsky, who spent his youth in Penza Province amid abusive serf owners, put his observations into an unpublished, unstaged, and very talky play, “Dmitry Kalinin” (1831): Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1:417-503; Nechaeva, “'Dmitrii Kalinin’ i krepostnaya deistvitelnost.” See also Vetrinskii, Vissarion Grigorevich Belinskii, 28-29.
58. Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 201.
59. Cavender, “Nests of Gentry,” 164 and passim.
60. Field, End of Serfdom, 44; Dodge, “Abolitionist Sentiment,” 318-44 and passim.
61. Prostakov got his freedom in 1828 at age 80, won the title Free Artist in 1838 for his project of the Church of Christ the Savior in Moscow, and apparently died in 1854 at age 106: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 88; Kondakov, Spisok, 376; Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka,” 749; Turgenev, “Pëtr Petrovich Karataev” in Zapiski okhotnika, PSS, 4:250-5!
62. Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist, 44 (see his impassioned thoughts on serfdom’s evils, 38-48); Shipov, “Istoriya moei zhizni,” 147-48; Jesse, Notes of a Half-Pay, 2:281-82.
63. Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 128-29 (qu. 128), 153-54, 171, 194-95 (qu. 194), and passim. V. M. Nikitenko, the father, was a choral singer for N. P. Sheremetev. He learned languages, law, and music and suffered constantly in servitude. At seventeen his voice changed and he was sent as a clerk to a distant estate. His haphazard education “only fired his imagination.” He became a teacher, got embroiled constantly in litigation, and served in menial, though responsible jobs. A female landowner he worked for reached a point where his efficiency, which advantaged her, was outweighed by the power he had accrued and thus his presumed (and presumptuous) independence which she would not brook: Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 8-11 (qu. 11). 97, and passim.
64. Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 192-93; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 26-28.
65. The entries I examined are Astrakhan, Elets (then in Orël Province), Kaluga, Kazan, Kharkov, the Korennaya settlement, Kursk, Nizhny Novgorod, Omsk, Penza, Poltava, Saratov, Smolensk, Tambov, Tula, Tver, Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma, Voronezh, Yaroslavl—all entered alphabetically in Gagarin, Vseobshchii geograficheskii slovar.
66. See Karlinsky, Gogol, 165-66.
67. Numbers: Lincoln, Vanguard of Reform, 113; spas: Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 202.
68. Alexander, Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia; McGrew, Russia and the Cholera, 45-46, 50-51, 78-79, and passim.
69. For a case study, see Litvinova, “Sozdanie dvoryanskikh soslovnykh organov v voronezhskoi gubernii, 1785-1801 gg.,” 57-77; Yablochkov, Istoriya dvoryanskago sosloviya v Rossii, 541-47; Emmons, Russian Landed Gentry; Aksakov, Years of Childhood. For a sense of small town life in the late eighteenth century, see Stites, “The Veselukha Tower.” I find “Gentry Club” the least unsatisfactory term for this organization, its venue, and its social-cultural function. Variants include House of the Nobility and Assemblée de la noblesse.
70. Buturlin’s unit in Orël in the 1820s: “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 192; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 65-68; Nikitenko, Diary, xiii; Kramsko1: see chap. 8; orgies: ''Orlovskii starozhil," Bylyya chudaki v orlovskoi gubernii, 33; Karlinsky, Gogol, 133; billeting in Ryazan province, 1820s: Rostislavov, Provincial Russia, 182-84.
71. But apparently not everywhere: “social life for the gentry in Tver’ did not revolve around the balls in the provincial and district capitals, though festivities in those towns attracted gentry revelers”: Cavender, “Nests of Gentry,” 344.
72. A. F. Veltman’s novel, Serdtse i dumka, offers a vivid description of a district town ball. For provincial capital balls—including those at election time—see F. v. E. [F. A. von Ettinger], Bashnya Veselukha; Shalikov, Drugoe puteshestvie v Malorossiyu, 154-57; Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 50; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 200-202. Election rules in Romanovich-Slavatinskii, Dvoryanstvo v Rossii, 436-38. For charitable activities: Lindenmeyr, Poverty Is Not a Vice, 116, see also 109-10.
73. Mironov, Russkii gorod v 1740-1860-e gody, 80-193; idem, Social History of Imperial Russia; Koshman, “Gorod i obshchestvenno-kulturnaya zhizn,” 53-54; Kaiser, Reinterpreting Russian History, 272 (market days); Artynov, Vospominaniya krestyanina, 60-61.
74. Christian, ''Living Water," chaps. 2-4, 10-11.
75. Monasteries and pilgrimages: Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 44; Artynov, Vospominaniya krestyanina, 20-27 (Tikhvin); Chulos, “Religious and Secular Aspects of Pilgrimage in Modern Russia,” 21-58 (Voronezh). See chap 6 of the present work for the Korennaya Monastery. Fistfights: among many accounts, see Rostislavov, Provincial Russia, pp. 182-84.
76. Numbers and rules: Kaiser, Reinterpreting Russian History, p. 272; Rozman, Urban Networks in Russia, 119-20; Orlovsky, Limits of Reform, 26.
77. Fëdorov, “Krestyanin-otkhodnik,” one of many treatments of this issue.
78. Zablotskii-Desyatovskii, Kiselëv; Druzhinin, Gosudarstvennye krestyane; Rozen (Rosen), Zapiski dekabrista, 293; Mazour, First Russian Revolution; idem, Women in Exile; and Zetlin, Decembrists, 300.
79. Tsar Nicholas qu. in Koshman, “Gorod,” 40; Istoriya zheleznodorozhnogo transporta Rossii, 1:43-47; Fitzpatrick, Great Russian Fair, 171-72; Melnikov, Stoletie nizhegorodskoi yarmarki, 39-40.
80. Stroganov, “Provintsializm/Provintsialnost” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 30-37. See also Klubkova, “Russkii provintsialnyi gorod i stereotypy provintsialnosti,” ibid., 20-30.
81. Varneke, Istoriya, 451 (Kulikov); Veltman, Serdtse idumka, 49-59.
82. Lounsbery, “No This Is Not the Provinces'.”
83. Vereshchagin, ''Zhenskiya mody aleksandrovskago vremeni."
84. Lotman, “Lyudi 1812 goda,” Besedy o russkoi kultury, 326-30.
85. Gershenzon, Griboedovskaya Moskva, 14-18; Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 391.
86. Evtuhov, “Gubernskie Vedomosti and Local Culture.”
87. Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 125-202; Raab, “City of Perm.”
88. For some recent insights on local studies then and now, see Evtuhov, Kazan, Moscow, St. Petersburg; Raleigh, Provincial Landscapes: Local Dimensions of Soviet Power; Baschmakoff, Modernization in the Russian Provinces. Baschmakoff takes up marginal and didactic discourses, spatial self-representation, and travel literature in her work. See also her “Lokalnyi tekst, golos pamyati i poetika prostranstva” (ms.).
Chapter 2. The Domestic Muse
1. The original: Passenens, Russie et l’esclavage, 2:91-92; Yatsevich distorts Passenens in Pushkinskii Peterburg, 110n. Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755-1824) was a prolific composer, famed teacher, and court musician to Marie Antoinette. The concerto in the story is not identified, but an example of one is Kontsert N. 22 dlya skripki’s orkestrom lya minor, and a violin and harp sonata on Vera Dulova, arfa (Melodiya, 33 S-10-13745-6): GTsMMKF. Viotti featured as the admired hero of the fictional Polykarp, serf waiter, butler, and ex-violinist, in Turgenev’s Zapiski okhotnika: PSS, 4:201.
2. Puzyrevskii, Imperatorskoe Russkoe Muzykalnoe Obshchestvo, 3.
3. Corbin, Village Bells, 289 and passim; Lokhanskii, “Russkie kolokolnye zapevy”; Williams, Bells of Russia. For rhapsodic reports of a visitor on the “rich sweetness” of the bell sound, see Bremner, Excursions in the Interior of Russia, 1:121-22.
4. For a sampling of Glinka: Glinka Romances, Patrioticheskaya pesnya, and M. Glinka: romansy. The literature on popular song writers is immense. Nikolai Andreevich Titov was popularly known as “the grandfather of the Russian romance.” Boris Gasparov and Catherine Evtuhov (a descendant), personal communication.
5. Hodge, Double Garland and“Mutatis Mutandis.” See also Brown, “Native Song,” 57-84.
6. Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 132, 135-37, 212; Vorontsov, "Muzyka," 472-80; Vyazemsky: EO, 2:385.
7. Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 148-95; Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 82; Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov, 238.
8. Clementi: Parakilas, Piano Roles, 77-93; Piggott, John Field, chap. 3.
9. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 243. In the United States during this period, pianos where being hauled by mule teams and canal boats across the mountains from the eastern seaboard to Pittsburgh and beyond: Tawa, High-Minded and Low-Down, 71.
10. Ivanov, “List v Rossii” in GTsMMKRO, f. 364, inv. 223, n. 8871.
11. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, i.
12. Lvov, “Zapiski”; Bers, “Lvov”; Korf, “Materialy,” 47; Aleksei Fëdorovich Lvov; Shtakelberg, “Russkii narodnyi gimn”; Shilder, Imperator Nikolai Pervyi, 1:26 and 474 n. 21, lays to rest the notion that Nicholas had and retained a childhood dislike of music. Volkov, St. Petersburg, 25, has Nicholas playing the flute. Lvov also organized summer chorales at Peterhof at which the emperor sang.
13. After Maria Fëdorovna died in 1828, Tsar Nicholas’s brother Mikhail replaced classical music with the sounds of drums and martial music and the spectacle of drill. Charles Timberlake, “Pavlovsk Palace and Park,” MERSH, 27:101-3; Rozanov, Muzykalnyi Pavlovsk, 1-22; Swartz, “Women Patrons and Performers”; Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:138-39; Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 131-32.
14. Severnaya pchela, quoted in Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 146. The editor, the conservative Faddei Bulgarin, elsewhere commented sourly that “even” daughters of lower civil servants and artisans were taking up piano: cited in Khoprova, Ocherki, 4; see Leppert, Music and Image, for class blurring through music and resentment of it in eighteenth-century England. Greene, “Mid-Nineteenth-Century Domestic Ideology,” 78-97.
15. Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 18-19.
16. Family relations: Tovrov, Russian Noble Family; Hammarberg, “Flirting with Words” (qu. 298); Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 141-46; Glagoleva, “Dream and Reality of Russian Provincial Young Ladies,” 64. Glagoleva also cites a real-life gentry woman who bemoaned the time wasted by young girls at the keyboard (p. 54). For domesticity and music elsewhere: Loesser, Men, Women, and Pianos; Leppert, Music and Image; Smith, Ladies of Leisure; Welter, “Cult of True Womanhood.”
17. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 241; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 188; Glinka: Zetlin [Tsetlin], The Five, 27. For European male taboos about music and dance, see Leppert, Music and Image, chap. 2.
18. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 103, 138.
19. Shalikov, Puteshestvie v Malorossiyu, 185; Damskiizhurnal (1823-33). For more on Shalikov, see Hammarberg, “Flirting with Words”; Campbell, Odoevsky, 63-64; Hodge, Double Garland, 191-92, passim; Russkaya elegiya, 223; Schöonle, Authenticity and Fiction.
20. Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 20.
21. Zhdanovich at the Piano (1849). A Soviet art historian, attempting to link the “realism” of Fedotov with Dostoevsky, rather oddly compared Zhdanovich to Varvara in Poor Folk: Rakova, “Russkii kamernyi portret.” It might be more apt to compare her to the girl in Ingres, The Stamatey Family (1818) where the piano is part of the daughter’s identity in the family circle. See also Vanslov, Istoriya russkogo iskusstva, 1:284.
22. Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 153-63; Grigorev, My Literary and Moral Wanderings, 55. See the painter Vasily Tropinin’s Guitarist [GRMFZh, 5230]. The harp, almost always associated with women, declined at the turn of the nineteenth century: Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 150-53.
23. Findeizen, Ocherk, 3-4; Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 104-5, 243-44; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 193-94; Piggott, John Field, chaps. 3-7; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto, 14-15.
24. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 234-44; Natanson, Iz muzykal-nogo proshlogo, 1-38; Karlinsky, Gogol, 12; Belyakov, Opernaya i kontsertnaya deyatelnost, 180; Artynov, Vospominaniya krestyanina, 56.
25. Citron, Gender, 104-8; Bourdieu, Distinction; Chuikina, “Professionalnaya reintegratsiya dvoryanstva.”
26. ME, 1:223.
27. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:198-202. For one of many examples of intelligentsia views on intellectual enthusiasm, see Annenkov, Extraordinary Decade, 137.
28. Goffman, Presentation of Self.
29. See the standard works on salon and social Brodskii, Literaturnye salony. The psychology of upper-class behavior in society is explored in Lotman, Semiotics of Russian Cultural History, Besedy o russkoi kultury, and Velikosvetskie obedy; see also Shepard, “Society Tale.” A splendid if exaggerated visual treatment of the aristocratic soirée can be seen in the opening of Sergei Bondarchuk’s 1967 film of Tolstoy’s War and Peace.
30. Stasov, Selected Essays, 155.
31. Leppert, Music and Image, 11. Bers, “Lvov,” 158, and references in note 12 above. The son of a serf who played violin as a stiffener in many quartets of the time claimed that Lvov poorly understood the Beethoven Golitsyn quartets: Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” 35.
32. Biographical notes and service records of the brothers in RGALI, f. 191, op. 2, ed. kh. 224 and f. 1925, op. 2, ed. kh. 30; diplomas and honors in IRLPD, f. 50: Vielgorskie. See Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie; Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 138-46; Sokolov, Ryadom's Pushkinym, 131; Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 2:10; “Knyaz kompozitor,” 4. Mikhail’s son Iosif died in spite of Gogol’s loving care in Rome at the age of twenty-three in 1838: Karlinsky, Gogol.
33. Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, qu. 18; Aronson, Literaturnye kruzhki, 193-98, 28587; Brown, Glinka, 80-81; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (Aug. 1890) 272; Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg (1931) 83, 90-96 (qu. 92). Vielgorsky also hosted a musical salon in Moscow in 1823-26.
34. Sollogub, Peterburgskie Stranitsy, 139, 142-43, 211-12 (qu. 212). On Sollogub, see Pursglove, “V. A. Sollogub” in Cornwell, Society Tale. Muravëva, Kak vospityvali russkogo dvoryanina, 131-32, on Vielgorsky’s good manners.
35. Campbell, Odoevsky; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 113; Cornwell, Odoevsky, esp. pp. 121-59, for the musical life; and idem, “Vladimir Odoevskii” in Cornwell, Society Tale, 9-19.
36. Aronson, Literaturnye kruzhki, 171-82, 280-83; Ledkovsky, “Avdotiya Panaeva.”
37. Bramsted, Aristocracy and the Middle-Classes in Germany, 151ff.; Aronson, Literaturnye kruzhki, 70-71(Botkin). At the dawn of the twentieth century, when King Edward VIII took British tea mogul Sir Thomas Lipton on a cruise, someone caustically remarked that the king “had gone yachting with his grocer”: Cannadine, Pleasures of the Past, 157. Norms of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century English etiquette held that music study for men could be not only ungentlemanly, but also unmanly and even un-English—the last due to the rash of foreign teachers: Leppert, Music and Image, chap. 2. Leppert also observes that aristocrats could be portrayed as musicians, but as ones without exertion: 136 and passim.
38. Kuznetsov, Glinka, 38-50 (qu. 43). Further details in Hodge, Double Garland, 217-20 and passim; Aronson, Literaturnye kruzhki, 224-34, 292-96; Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg (1931) 148-53; Nikitenko, Diary, 77. Yury Arnold who once received a grievous insult there offers the most hostile account in Vospominaniya, 2:29, 243-44. Panaev in Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 237-45 and Sollogub in Peterburgskie Stranitsy, 312 are also scorching. One source puts Kukolnik’s flat, nicknamed the Stock Exchange, on No. 8 Glukhoe Street: Shevchenko, Povest, 68. See Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:6-57, 148 and Orlova, Glinka's Life, for other locations.
39. Glinka’s wife: Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg (1931) 149; for an honest discussion of Glinka’s sexual life, see Brown, Glinka. Glinka’s setting of Kukolnik’s verses is on M. Glinka: Proshchanie’s Peterburgom.
40. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:243.
41. A dispassionate but largely negative view of the troika’s evenings is given by Kukolnik’s friend, the Penza Province noble V. A. Insarskii: Zapiski, 71-72, which also attributes Kukolnik’s artistic decline to his wild life.
42. Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:150-51; Belza, Shimanovskaya. Elena Szyma-nowska (Maria's sister): “Dnevnik.” Musical examples of Szymanowska in Szymanow-ska, “Nocturne.” For other salons: Bers, “Lvov,” 158; Levashëva, “Muzyka v kruzhke A. A. Delviga.”
43. Fairweather, Pilgrim Princess; Gorodetzky, “Princess Zinaide Volkonsky”; Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:151-60.
44. Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 172-74; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 1-4 (1897) 237 and 5-8 (1897) 177-78, 549-51, for these and other domestic productions of Italian opera in Moscow; Fairweather, Pilgrim Princess, 194-215; Nechkina, Dvizhenie Dekabristov, 2:433. For the context of women’s salons, see Bernstein, “Women on the Verge of a New Language.” Genishta’s (Jeništa's) setting of Pushkin’s “The Day Star Is Now Extinguished” (Pogaslo dnevnoe svetilo) is recorded on radio by Georgii Vinogradov with Georgii Orentrikher at piano: GTsMMKF.
45. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 133-34; Revyakin, Moskva, 356; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 34; Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 9-10. For Europe, see Young, Concert Tradition, 60-61, and Weber, Music and the Middle Class, 31.
46. Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41(July 1890) 26-29. For Perm Province in this era, see Raab, “City of Perm.” Gatsiskii, “Ulybyshev.” Haydn’s Creation is prominently featured in Ulybyshev’s utopian vision of the future: see chapter 3 of the present work.
47. Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 34 (qu.); Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 21 (qu.).
48. See the argument for the salon as amateur infrastructure in Vienna: Kahn, Cosmopolitan Culture, 157.
49. RBS, 9:532-33; Vigel, Zapiski, 231-32; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 111; Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 393-94; Livanova, Glinka, 1:29.
50. Dolgorukii, Puteshestvie, 86; IRDT, 3:158-59.
51. Lending musicians: Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 64-69, 73-76; Shchepkin story: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 125-26. Whatever the truth of this anecdote, it raises the issue of a perceived or imagined sexual menace from below. The subject of a love affair between a male serf and his master’s wife made it into a play written after the emancipation, A. I. Sumbatov-Yuzhin's Sergei Satilov (1883): McReynolds, Russia at Play, 62. Some gentry women were known to use underlings sexually: Odessa grand ladies would sometimes bring back cavalieri servanti from their visits to Italy: Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Mar. 1884) 450-51.
52. Purlevskii, “Vospominaniya krepostnago”; advertisement reproduced in Kaiser, Reinterpreting Russian History, 295. Teachers: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 51, 106-8; Findeizen, Ocherk, 3-4; Albrekht, Proshloe i nastoyashchee orkestra, 37; Turgenev: PSS, 4:39 and 7:123-295; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 106-8; Karolina Pavlova, “At the Tea-Table,” in Kelly, Anthology, 30-70.
53. Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist, 22; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 9297; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 172; Rybkin, Generalissimus Suvorov, 64; Raikes, City of the Czar, 1:203; the priest: [A. I. Rozanov], “Zapiski selskago svyash-chennika,” RS (Jan. 1880) 67; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41(July 1890) 38-40.
54. Glagoleva, “Dream and Reality of Russian Provincial Young Ladies,” 51-52.
55. Sukhodolov, “Graf N. P. Sheremetev,” 100. See Gronow, Sociology of Taste, 137.
56. Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 2; letter of Mikhail Vielgorsky to Aleksei Verstovskii: GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 81. n.d. The magnate I. D. Shepelev, apparently an exception, treated his Russian professional conductor as a near equal: Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 43. Panchulidze’s orchestra: Gavril Gerakov, Putevyya zapiski, 36. In the 1830s, Panchulidze’s ensemble passed to his son who took it to Penza where it lasted to the 1850s: Ya. K. Evdokimov, “Muzykalnoe proshloe Saratova (do 1917 goda)” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 147.
57. Panaev’s story, “Akteon,” quoted by Ugo Persi, “Traektoriya russkoi muzykalnoi kultury (konets XVIII-pervaya polovina XIX v.” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 66; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 42; Baryatinsky: Fëdorov, Marino, 70-74 and passim; “Knyaz kompozitor,” 4; Galagan: Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Aug. 1884) 622-23.
58. The Tarnovsky estate formed the setting of Shevchenko’s story “Muzykant”: Shev-chenko, Povest, 163, 201. Glinka had come to the region hunting voices for the Court Capella: Orlova, Glinka's Life, 192-205; Pamyati Glinki, 531-32; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, passim; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 30.
59. Burgess, “Russian Public Theatre Audiences,” 168; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 202-3; Shenig, “Vospominaniya,” 303-6; Brown, Glinka, 21; Vinnitskii, “Razskazy”; Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 30-39.
60. Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 120 (with coverage of private orchestras also); Ruban, Zabitye imena, 27; Krylov cited in Kelly, Refining Russia, 70-71; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 103; Brown, Glinka, 143; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 103; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 574-75.
61. Lomakin, “Avtobiograficheskiya zapiski,” RS (Mar. 1886) 645-66; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 104-6; Nikitenko, Diary, introduction; idem, Up from Serfdom, 6-7.
62. Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 67-70; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 240, 284; Herzen’s amusing account: My Past, 539-49. Golitsyn’s father had commissioned quartets from Beethoven.
63. Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 116; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 100-103; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 23-24 (on Dolgoruky); Boiledieu, Le Calife de Bagdad. Spohr even heard a horn band doing a Glück overture: Musical Journeys, 34. Mme. De Staël counted twenty horns in the Naryshkin band, whose players went by the names of the notes they played (do, re, fa, etc.): Henri Troyat, Pushkin, tr. N. Amphoux (New York, 1970) 7.
64. Passenens, Russie et l’esclavage, 2:3; Kelly, Refining Russia, 114 (Derzhavin); Brown, Glinka, 26 and n. 1.
65. Vrangel, “Arakcheev i iskusstvo”; Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 1:17.
66. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 110; Glagoleva, “Dream and Reality of Russian Provincial Young Ladies,” 59; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 163-64; Romanovich-Slavatinskii, Dvoryanstvo v Rossii, 334-36.
67. Pylyaev, “Den Generalissimusa Suvorova” in Staroe zhite, 297-310; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 146-47; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 171; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 96, 98, 110; Passenens, Russie et l’esclavage, 2:90; Bakarev, “Usadba nachala XIX v.,” 257; ''Knyaz kompozitor," 4 (Baryatinsky).
68. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 110.
69. I have found no verifiable details on Kashin’s manumission. Simon Karlinsky claims he was freed because of a concert version of an opera by Sergei Glinka for Alexander I’s coronation: Russian Drama, 191. See Hodge, Double Garland, passim, and chapter 3 of the present work; Fëdorovskaya, Davydov, passim. Fragments on his life in Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 243-44; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 140-41; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto (1994), who calls him probably “the first true Russian nationalist” composer. A sample of his musical folk adaptation is “Variations on a Russian Theme” (GTsMMKF).
70. Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 40; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 157. Prince Alexander Kurakin, the brother of Alexei, was a member of the Petersburg Philharmonic Society: Kratkii obzor, see list of sponsors. Vielgorsky organized concerts to raise Semenov’s redemption money: Sokolov, Ryadom's Pushkinym, 132.
71. Chemerovtsov: Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 160, 341-42 (the deposition). Herzen’s news item in Kolokol (Feb. i, 1859) 280. Comment in Budaev, “Materialy”; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 41. The Vonlyarlyarskys (originally Von Lar-Lar) hailed from the Black Forest in Germany but had been Russianized for centuries. A descendant claimed that his ancestors had been benevolent landowners: Vonlyarlyarskii, Moi vospominaniya. The Kamensky story is from Melgunov, Krepostnoe pravo, 233-34, unreferenced but attributed to “Count Delagard” who may have been one of the Franco-Swedish de la Gardie family (see an alternate version of the murder in chapter 6 of the present book). Elena Kots throughout her 1926 book relates sad cases of talent drowned in alcohol, serfs cheated out of promised freedom, and skilled musicians diverted to other labor.
72. Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 1:156-97. Vaska’s wife, an educated housemaid, suffered similar reversals.
73. Mariya Nikoleva (one of Finogen’s gentry pupils), “Cherty starinnago byta,” 148-49; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 122-23, and 124-26 for a few more victim tales; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 267.
74. Nikitenko, Diary, intro., 211-12 n. 2; idem, Up from Serfdom, 6-8 (qu. 6); ME, 2:182-83; Persi, “Traektoriya russkoi muzykalnoi kultury” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 68-69; Seaman, History of Russian Music, 72-73, 115-16; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossi, 26; Shchepetov, Iz zhizni krepostnykh krestyan, 39.
75. On this painful issue, see Christian, "Living Water". Herzen, My Past, 213.
76. Tourgeneff, Russie et les russes, 1147-53 (qu. 147); Confino, Domaines et seigneurs, 74, 86, 140. Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 1162-63. On the problem of uneven education among serfs, Nikolai Nekrasov built his sad poem “On the Road” around a marriage between a humble coachman and an educated serving girl: Nekrasov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1:889-90. There was no parallel in the American antebellum slave culture to the serf orchestra or theater, although field hands and house slaves would sing or dance on occasion in the master’s home: Tawa, High-Minded and Low-Down, 47, 191, and passim; Peter Kolchin, Unfree Labor.
77. Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 21-26; Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist, 4445; Dolgorukii, Puteshestvie, 196-97.
78. Pavlov, Imeniny. The army-as-freedom theme is anticipated in Alexander Radishchev’s famous antiserfdom travel notes: see “Gorodnya” in Journey, 201-12.
79. Kompozitor Glinka.
80. For the huge Soviet literature on Glinka, see Brown, Glinka. Church bells and composition: Lokhanskii, “Russkie kolokolnye zapevy.” Glinka’s sister reported that, after his European travels, he could never bear to behold the misery of serfdom on his own estate: Shestakova, “M. I. Glinka,” 598.
81. Kann-Novikova, ''Glinka na Smolenshchine," 213-34; Dobrokhotov, “Krestyane sela Novospasskogo o Glinke,” 361-67. The sculptor Stepanov tells of a malicious rumor that Glinka’s musical collaborator was his valet Yakov: [P. A. Stepanov], “Vospominaniya,” 38-58.
82. Kann-Novikova, “Glinka na Smolenshchine”; Abraham, On Russian Music, 256. A fair-minded and informed discussion of “folk” influence can be found throughout Brown, Glinka. Alluding in print to the unquestionable influence of Mozart on Glinka could ruin a Soviet musicologist’s career in Stalin’s time: see Volkov, St. Petersburg, 65.
83. Alfimov, Smoliane, 353-60; Kann-Novikova, “Glinka na Smolenshchine”; Brown, Glinka, 31; Persi, “Traektoriya russkoi muzykalnoi kultury” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 68; Rimskii-Korsakov, ''Iz vospominanii," 2:140-42.
84. Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, xiv. Ironically, Glinka’s home province of Smolensk remained what some would call a backwater in terms of classical music. It had no institutionalized concert life until well after Glinka’s death and the emancipation of the serfs (the first Symphonic Society was founded there in 1909 by a cellist, Yuliya Saburova, and the future Soviet science fiction writer, Alexander Belyaev). Like most creative people, Glinka returned to the capital where he had gotten his schooling. It was the only place—outside Moscow—where his music could have a wide audience and influence over the musical culture of the time.
Chapter 3. In Search of a Concert Hall
1. Johnson, Listening in Paris, 216, 218 (qu.) and passim; idem, “Musical Experience,” 191-226.
2. Quoted in Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 39.
3. See Fradkina, Zal Dvoryanskogo Sobraniya, 40, 53-66, 80, and passim (qu. 54); Serov in MTV, 11 (Mar. 11, 1856) 201-2.
4. Adorno, Sociology of Music, 1-20; Fradkina, Zal Dvoryanskogo Sobraniya, 55-56. Cf. the similar pot-pourri musical performances in early nineteenth-century Lvov and Cracow cited in Pekacz, Music in the Culture of Polish Galicia. Quite a different and untypical impression of Philharmonia programming appeared on a live 1997 Russian television broadcast from the Great Hall in a recreation of an 1847 concert there: Haydn’s Symphony No. 88, an aria from Mozart’s Clemenza di Tito, Beethoven’s Fantasy for Piano, Orchestra, and Chorus, a solo piano piece by Adolphe Henselt, and Mendelssohn’s Midsummer Night’s Dream overture: St. Peterburg TV, Nov. 25., 1997, with commentary and contemporary graphics.
5. At a Petersburg concert in March 1859, the young Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov noted that the conductor declined the audience demand to repeat the scherzo from Mendelssohn’s Midsummer Night’s Dream: Rimskii-Korsakov, ''Iz vospominanii," 2:145.
6. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 3:48-5! Lazarev-Lazareff caused similar scenes in Dresden and Berlin and later spent time in the Balkans where, he claimed, the insurgent Slavs offered him a tsar’s crown: Arnold, 3:51-55.
7. For historical pictures, see Leningradskaya ... Filarmoniya.
8. Láng, Music in Western Civilization, 721-23, 961-62, 970-72; Nettel, Orchestra in England, 73-111; Donakowski, Muse for the Masses; Weber, Music and the Middle Class; Young, Concert Tradition.
9. Findeizen Ocherk, 1-3; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 5-21, 103; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:143. Smith, Working the Rough Stone, 79, says that two of the musical clubs had hundreds of members.
10. Background: Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie, 37-60. Spohr, Musical Journeys, 34; Arnold, Vospominaniya, 1:22. For Karamzin’s 1801 translation of the Haydn libretto, based on Milton and Genesis, see Baehr, Paradise Myth, 268 n. 77. See also Petrovskaya, Muzykalnoe obrazovanie, 296-97.
11. IRLPD, f. 50, n. 173: St. Petersburg Philharmonic Society letter to Mikhail Vielgorskii, May 1, 1852; Spohr, Musical Journeys, 34; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 21-28, on the impact of the Creation on Russian musicians; Johnson, Listening in Paris, for speculation about the Paris reception; Kratkii obzor; Filarmonicheskoe Obshchestvo, 1-5, a very admiring post-Soviet summary; and three useful surveys by violinist and president of the Philharmonia, 1881-86, Evgenii Albrekht: Obshchii obzor (1884), Obshchii obzor (1902), and Proshloe i nastoyashchee orkestra.
Alexander Ulybyshev, in his utopian sketch “Dream” (1819), featured Haydn’s Creation as the appropriate music to celebrate civic rectitude and social justice: the text in Vzglyad skvozd stoletiya, 91-99; tr. in Raeff, Decembrist Movement, 60-66. Commentary in Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, 25 and 260 n. 61.
12. The current name is the Glinka Small Hall, a branch of the St. Petersburg Philharmonia. Concert hall historical placards and program notes for a concert, December 1997; Malyi zal; Sankt-Peterburg—Petrograd—Leningrad; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:20; Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 107n.
13. Albrekht, Obshchii obzor (1884); Filarmonicheskoe Obshchestvo, 6-67; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 22-24; Fradkina, Zal Dvoryanskogo Sobraniya, 7-16; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 232, passim; Malyi zal; Sankt-Peterburg—Petrograd—Leningrad. For the European difficulties in finding permanent concert space, see Kahn, Cosmopolitan Culture, 149.
14. Campbell, Odoevsky, 274; Desyat let simfonicheskoi muzyki, 3; Albrekht, Obshchii obzor (1884) 3-21; Kratkii obzor; Findeizen, Ocherk; ME, 1:450. The total list of 203 concerts from 1802 to 1902 shows that the Philharmonia did not increase its offerings after emancipation.
15. Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 26; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 64; Arnold, Vospominaniya, passim.
16. IRLPD, f. 50, n. 166, membership certificate to the Society for Matvei Vielgorskii, Jan. 29, 1827; and n. 173, a letter to Mikhail Vielgorskii, May 1, 1852; Albrekht, Obshchii obzor (1884) 3-21; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 12: Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:171. An absence report on the theater orchestra of 1859 contained one clearly Slavic name out of eleven: GTsTMRO, f. 222, n. 91a. Court musicians, at least in the time of Paul, were paid professionals, mostly Italian and French: RGALI, f. 872, op. 1, ed. kh. 54, N. P. Yusupov to Paul in 1798 on fees for the musicians playing at Pavlovsk, Gatchina, and Peterhof.
17. Riasanovsky, Image of Peter the Great, 65.
18. Tawa, High-Minded and Low-Down, 125; Blaukopf, Musical Life in a Changing Society, qu. 203; Kahn, Cosmopolitan Culture, passim.
19. The most reliable study is Dunlop, Russian Court Chapel Choir; Ershov, Stareishii russkii khor; Kazachkov, ''Dva stilya," 82-83. The Capella’s 1790s concerts offered the works of Sarti, the court conductor; and Haydn, Mozart, Handel, Gossec, and Pergolesi: Fëdorovskaya, Kompozitor Stepan Davydov; Campbell, Odoevsky, 359 (qu.).
20. Barbier, World of the Castrati; Ruban, Zabitye imena, 27; ME, 3:239-40; Listova, Varlamov, 8-14; Lincoln, Between Heaven and Hell, 96.
21. Russkie kompozitory, 36-42; Dunlop, Russian Court Chapel Choir, 5-15, 109-18, passim; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:147, 255.
22. Dunlop, Russian Court Chapel Choir, 15-26, 114-18; Aleksei Fëdorovich Lvov, 25 (Berlioz qu.); Bers, “Lvov”; Kazachkov, “Dva stilya,” 82-83. In 1839, the Marquis de Custine was powerfully impressed by the Capella’s control of dynamics, its deep emotion, and its “nuances of expression”: Custine, Letters from Russia, 67.
23. V. Bogdanov-Berezovskii's introduction to Glinka, Zapiski, 1-20 (qu. 11). Sollogub,
Peterburgskie stranitsy, 292-93, saw Glinka’s appointment as a humiliation. Dun-lop, Russian Court Chapel Choir, 93. See also Ugo Persi, “Traektoriya russkoi muzykalnoi kultury” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 69-70.
24. Kratkii istoricheskii ocherk ... Patrioticheskago Obshchestva; Pyatidesyatiletie ... Patrioticheskago Zhenskago Obshchestva; Lindenmeyr, Poverty Is Not a Vice, 111. Program of 1837 with names of performers in GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 461; Shalikov in Damskii zhurnal, 5 (May, 1823) 210. Sontag, retired from the stage after her marriage to a titled Italian diplomat, could no longer sing to ticketed audiences.
25. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 68; Ridenour, Nationalism, 11; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 37.
26. Nikoltsev, “Iz istorii,” 110-35; Olkhovskii, Peterburgskie istorii, 160-69. On student life, Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education, 174-76. Schuberth: Campbell, Great Cellists; Rubinstein, Autobiography, 58. By some accounts, Schuberth was the first Russian conductor to face the orchestra, but the singer I. A. Melnikov recalls seeing Schuberth facing the audience and flapping his arms up and down like a bird: Melnikov, “Zapiski,” RS, 137 (Jan. 1909) 63-64. Rubinstein is said to have stood sideways.
27. Ilin, “Borodin,” 340 and passim; Paskhalov, Rubinshtein; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:139.
28. Egorov, “Reaktsionnaya politika tsarizma.” Flynn, University Reform, 204, says that many of the gentry majority were poor until the mid-1830s, after which rich and aristocratic students appeared.
29. Data on the Symphonic Society conflict: Moskovskaya Konservatoriya, 12; Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 69-82; ME, 5:21. In the above-cited letter to Mikhail Vielgorsky of May 1, 1852, the Philharmonic Society thanked him for many years of “la haute protection”: IRLPD, f. 50, n. 173. Matvei: Ginzburg, Russkoe violonchelnoe iskusstvo, 278330; IRLPD, f. 50, n. 125 (Cécile Cherubini to Matvei Vielgorskii, May 18, 1842) and No. 134 (Pauline Viardot to Matvei Vielgorskii, 1845-52); Campbell, Great Cellists.
30. Lunin cited in Eidelman, Conspiracy, 14; Shteinpress, “Matvei Yurevich Vielgor-skii”; Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 69-82; Ginzburg, Russkoe violonchelnoe iskusstvo, 278-330. The Theme and Variations performed on radio in 1965 by Svyatoslav Knushevitsky and Naum Valter: GTsMMKF.
31. Bers, “Lvov,” 146-47, 166; record jacket notes for Lvov, Violin Concerto, SPBKF; Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 172.
32. The Lvov concerto, Concert dans le mode d’une scene dramatique (1840), is played by Sergei Stadler with Vladislav Chernushenko and the Leningrad Philharmonia on A. Lvov; A. Arenskii (SPBKF). The “rediscovery” recalls the 1950 srevival of the Hungarian Carl Goldmark’s violin concerto which, though written in a different era, it resembles in places. The Lvov work was long known to Soviet musicians; the date of the recording (1987) suggests that it was an offshoot of glasnost. See Rosen, Romantic Generation, 590-94, for religious kitsch.
33. Shtakelberg, “Russkii narodnyi gimn”; Aleksei Fëdorovich Lvov, 3-14; Bers, “Lvov,” 146-47; Krutov, Bozhe, tsarya khrani; Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:389-90.
34. Aleksei Fëdorovich Lvov, 3-14 (qu. 11).
35. Albrekht, Obshchii obzor (1884) xi (qu.); Ridenour, Nationalism, 10; Moskovskaya Konservatoriya, 13; Dunlop, Russian Court Chapel Choir, 91; Bers, “Lvov,” 156-57; Filarmonicheskoe Obshchestvo, 6-7.
36. Journal survey in Hodge, Double Garland, 16-17. Kozlovsky dance pieces performed by V. Kornachev and the Vladimir Chamber Ensemble: GTsMMKF, also released on Melodiya S-90 20665 001 (1990). Two of his aria-like songs, “A Cruel Fate” and “Little Bee,” display a wide range of moods (performed by Evgeniya Martynovskaya). Kozlovsky set Derzhavin’s “Let the Thunder of Victory be Heard,” a semiofficial anthem until Lvov’s “God Save the Tsar”: Boris Gasparov, personal communication.
37. Zhilin’s “Waltz” performed by S. Ponyatovskii, viola, and T. Sergeeva, piano; his “Kak na dubochke dva golubtsy” on piano by Dmitrii Blagoi: GTsMMKF. See also Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 91-97; Nikolaev, Dzhon Fild, 13-22, 140-43.
38. Cornwell, Odoevsky, 138, 144 (qu.), 158; Bernandt, "Odoevskii"; Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 47-53. See Odoevskii, Muzykalno-literaturnoe nasledie, 88-102, for a sampling of his reviews and comments. On musical hierarchy: Weber, Music and the Middle Class, for Europe; Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, for the United States. For British sensitivity to imported music, see Young, Concert Tradition, 172-74.
39. Lichtenfeld, “Triviale und anspruchsvolle Musik”; Ridenour, Nationalism, 5-24; Pylyaev, Zabytoe proshloe, 497; Rozanov, Muzykalnyi Pavlovsk, 47-57; Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 42-43; TE, 3:857; Cornwell, Odoevsky, 141, 334 n. 94; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:154, 253; Gerald Seaman, “Moscow and St Petersburg,” 255 (the press).
40. Natanson, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 38-120; Andreev, Moskovskii Universitet, 69, 75, 108-9. For another school concert site, see Medvedev, “Dnevnik,” 119-20.
41. Verstovskii, "Avtobiografiya"; Hodge, Double Garland, 208; GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 463; Shtakelberg, “Russkii narodnyi gimn.” Verstovsky also conducted at a short-lived Moscow Musical Assembly in 1834: Moskovskaya Konservatoriya, 19. Monster concerts: Mikhnevich, Ocherk, 340.
42. GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 73, 77, 81, 188-94, 244; GTsTMRO, f. 222, unnumbered; IRLPD, f. 50, n. 130.
43. Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 1-15. Other details in GTsTMRO, f. 24. I have seen only one of Bezekirsky’s scores, a coronation march in B major for orchestra marked by a predictable gambit: one measure of trombone and tuba, the melodic line repeated in a measure of horns, followed by one of trumpets, and then strings and winds into a tutti: score in GTsMMKRO, f. 170, inv. 3, n. 4821.
44. Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 9-10 (1897) 257. One of many instances of stretching the concept of public performance by aristocrats was a Moscow charity concert of 1840 or 1841 at the Gentry Club with amateur performers and the Bolshoi Theater orchestra doing opera excerpts: ibid., 259-60.
45. Ginzburg, Anri Vetan, 57-60; Katski’s reports to Verstovsky in 1850-54 in GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 188-94; Wieniawski’s for Feb. 2, 1858, GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 66; Reiss, Wieniawski, 40-41 (for Liszt, see below, notes 67-71); Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (Aug. 1890) 255-76.
46. Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 15-18; Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 123-24; Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 2:20-25; Natanson, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 35-37 (Uglich); Panteon, (1852) 7 (Kostroma); Vorontsov, “Muzyka,” 460-80.
47. Ya. K. Evdokimov, “Muzykalnoe proshloe Saratova” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 148-53.
48. Damskii zhurnal, 5 (Jan. 1833) 75-77; Lincoln, Conquest of a Continent, 147-48 (Irkutsk); GTsMMKRO, f. 40, d. 264 (Tobolsk); Shteinpress, “Muzyka v Orenburge 125 let nazad” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 125-42; Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 58-59.
49. Hamm, Kiev, 145; Insarskii, Zapiski, 73-74 (Taganrog); Wieniawski to Verstovskii, Feb. 2, 1858, GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 66; Reiss, Wieniawski, 41.
50. Belyakov, Opernaya i kontsertnaya deyatelnost, 179-86; Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 434-37; Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, 46-53; Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:101-2; Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, 29; Fitzpatrick, Great Russian Fair, 178.
51. Program: GTsMMKRO, f. 40, d. 264. For Alyabev’s instrumental work see Dobrokhotov, Alyabev: kamerno-instrumentalnoe tvorchestvo; Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Mar. 1884) 449-50, 453. Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 17; Katsanov, “Iz istorii muzykalnoi kultury Odessy (1794-1855)” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 393-459 (430-31 on Gold). See Milstein, From Russia to the West.
52. Coldicott, “Performance Practice in Beethoven’s Day,” 87-91; Lichtenfeld, “Triviale und anspruchsvolle Musik”; Weber, Music and the Middle Class, 16-22 (qu. 22), 51, passim.
53. Sennett, Fall of Public Man, 200; for the popularity of virtuosos in Vienna, see Kahn, Cosmopolitan Culture, 150; Weber, Music and the Middle Class.
54. Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie; Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 138-46; Lindenmeyr, Poverty Is Not a Vice, 116-18.
55. An errant French utopian socialist, Dominique Tajan-Roge, who played cello at the Petersburg opera in 1836-48, moonlighted in the salons where he “was paid poorly in rubles and generously in rudeness”: Locke, Music, Musicians, and the Saint-Simonians, 220.
56. Piggott, John Field, chaps. 3-7 (see esp. pp. 28, 41, 97); Nikolaev, Dzhon Fild, 1-70; Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 86, 104-13; Natanson, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 68-69; Kuznetsov, Glinka, 3-8; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto, 10-16.
57. Nikolaev, Dzhon Fild, 69.
58. Musical analysis in Piggott, John Field, chaps. 12-20; Hudson, Stolen Time, 199-211; Kallberg, Chopin at the Boundaries. Meyerhold: Golub, Recurrence of Fate, 138. Ten nocturnes by Field: Svetlana Potanina, piano, 1979: GTsMMKF. The music of Chopin, an active anti-Russian emigré, was not banned in Russia; sheet music circulated and critiques of performances of his music appeared under Nicholas I: Swartz, “Chopin as Modernist.”
59. Belza, Shimanovskaya, 3-124.
60. Taylor, Schumann, 230-31; Stasov, Selected Essays, 142-46.
61. Haugen, Ole Bull, 58 (qu.), 74, 148; Linge, Ole Bull, 102-3; Schwarz, Great Masters, 226 (qu.), 231-32; Herresthal, Norwegische Musik, 17-18; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 63-64.
62. Ginzburg, Anri Vetan, 19-42; Vieuxtemps-Verstovskii, letters of Feb. 17 and 24, 1848: GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 92, 93; Bergmans, Henry Vieuxtemps, qu. 19; Kufferath, Henri Vieuxtemps; Radoux, Vieuxtemps.
63. Schwarz, Great Masters, 226; Reiss, Wieniawski; Duleba, Wieniawski, 38-43, 5969, 150-53, and passim, with clippings and priceless illustrations. His Souvenir: is on Vospominanie o Moskve, SPBKF.
64. Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 7-8. The episode is not mentioned in the Russian or Polish biographies I have seen. Another virtuoso worthy of note, the Belgian cellist Adrien-François Servais (1807-66), called by Berlioz “the Paganini of the 'cello,” made six concert tours in Russia from 1839 until his death, playing in small villages as well as large urban centers. He was lauded by, among others Odoevsky and Nicholas I: liner notes by Kenneth Slowik to the CD: Servais: Souvenirs & Caprices.
65. Gozenpud, Dom Engelgardta, 224-29; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 68-69; Holoman, Berlioz, 383-89; Cornwell, Odoevsky, 151-53; Stasov, Selected Essays, 146 n. 2.
66. Berlioz, Autobiography, 2:257-89 (270 for the Moscow events); undated letter from Berlioz to Verstovsky: GTsTMRO, f. 53, n. 32; Fradkina, Zal Dvoryanskogo So-braniya, 15.
67. Walker, Liszt, 1:286 n. 3, 374-77; Taylor, Liszt, 81-82; Nikitenko, Diary, 86; Stasov, Selected Essays, 121 (qu.), 122.
68. Senelick, National Theater, 353; Ivanov, “List v Rossii,” unidentified clip in GTsMMKRO, f. 364, inv. 223, n. 8871.
69. Weilguny, Liszt, pl. 103; Walker, Liszt, 378.
70. Anecdotes: Taylor, Liszt, p. 83; Walker, Liszt, 378. Two years later, in 1849, those troops put down the Hungarian revolution. Liszt also spoke out for Polish independence, though not in the tsar’s presence.
71. Metzner, Crescendo of the Virtuoso, 292 (for Liszt, see pp. 136-59).
72. The theme of the musical demon was well established in European fiction. In Dostoevsky’s bizarre tale, the mad violinist admires Kukolnik and detests “foreign prodigies,” who he claims are all “Jews running after Russian money”: Dostoevsky, “Netotchka Nezvanova” in The Friend of the Family, 206-358. See Herzen, My Past, 99. In M. L. Mikhailov’s “The Violinist” (1853), the son of a serf, an obsessed musician, tries to steal the superior violin of a visiting nobleman and destroys it instead: “Skripach” in Sochineniya (1915) 2:131-50.
73. On the discordant images of Russia in this age, see Malia, Russia Under Western Eyes; and Goldfrank, Origins of the Crimean War.
74. “Liszt, Schumann and Berlioz in Russia” in Stasov, Selected Essays, 117-42 (qu. 121).
75. Leppert, “Cultural Control” (Schumann qu. 265); Blanning, Culture of Power, 10. I have not been able to include the impact of visiting opera singers and ballerinas, for which see: Buckler, Literary Lorgnette; and Taruskin, "Italyanshchina" in Defining Russia Musically, 186-235.
76. Johnson, Listening in Paris, 263.
77. For a survey of child prodigy performers in Russia, see Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 9498, and throughout Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo.
78. The “Melody,” overplayed for decades, was demoted to semiclassical status by the canon-makers, along with Rachmaninov’s Prelude in C sharp minor and Sibelius’ “Valse triste.” “Zhelanie” (“If This is but a Dream”) often shared billing with “Donkey Serenade,” and “Ah, Sweet Mystery of Life” in American radio concerts. Recordings of Rubinstein, some not easily available elsewhere, are stored in SPBKF and include “Barcarole” (1853), “Pevets” (1849-50), "Noch" (1852), “Zhelanie” (1850), and “Romans-Melodiya.” A revealing contrast between the skills of Glinka and Rubinstein at adapting folk themes are the former’s Kamarinskaya and the latter’s Russkaya (SPBKF), an orchestral excursion into folk dance rhythms and melody.
79. RNBRO, f. 654, A. G. Rubinshtein, opis i, ed. kh. 1, a copy of the baptismal certificate at the Nikolskaya Church in Berdichev, June 28, 1831; Rubinstein, Autobiography, 1-5; Bowen, "Free Artist," 3. For the milieu: Stanislawsky, Tsar Nicholas I and the Jews; Klier, Russia Gathers Her Jews. The best biography, dating from the time of Khrushchev, is Barenboim’s Rubinshtein, a magisterial work based on international archives and a huge source base, though understandably reticent on the Jewish issue, overly negative on Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and somewhat unfair to the musical contribution of aristocratic patrons and amateurs. I have chiefly relied on it for the facts (family background, 1:3-17). Findeizen, Rubinshtein, the first serious biography, is occasionally patronizing on Rubinstein’s Jewish origins but contains important details. Paskhalov, Rubinshtein, is a lighter treatment. The previously cited Autobiography is only moderately self-revealing; Barenboim appends the original in vol. 1 of his work, pp. 397-421.
80. Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:17-27.
81. RNBRO, f. 654, A. G. Rubinshtein, opis 1, ed. kh. 4: notes on first Moscow recital, 11 July, 1839; Findeizen, Rubinshtein, 9; Natanson, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 100; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:28-83; Rubinstein, Autobiography, 40-55.
82. Lincoln, Vanguard of Reform, 148-62; idem, “Circle of Grand Duchess Yelena Pavlovna”; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:84-291. Karl Bryullov’s brilliant portrait, Elena Pavlovna and Daughter (1830), hangs in the Russian Museum.
83. Matvei Vielgorsky wrote to Rubinstein calling him a “first-class talent,” fully deserving the appointment to the court: RNBRO, f. 142, ed. kh. 125; Shcherbakova, Vielgorskie, 83; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:84-160; Rubinstein, Autobiography, 61-2; Muzyka v XIX veke, 26-28.
84. Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:87, 161-219 (Glinka qu., 183-84). The unexpurgated letter to V. P. Engelhardt, Nov. 27, 1855 in Glinka, Polnoe sobranie pisem, 465-66 (qu. 466). Sometime at midcentury, the word evrei replaced zhid as the neutral term and the latter became a slur (Boris Gasparov, personal communication), though it is not clear when that happened and how different kinds of people used the words. Soviet scholars avoided staining the reputation of sacrosanct Russian cultural figures, many of whom were anti-Semitic in a rather routine way. The numerous Soviet Jewish musicologists were probably happy to avoid the vexing Jewish issue in Russian and Soviet life and culture altogether. See also Rubinstein, Autobiography, 77; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto, 21-53 (p. 36); and Olkhovsky, Stasov, 86. In any case, the memory of the Rubinstein brothers suffered no opprobrium even in the worst years of Soviet anti-Semitism, c. 1948-1953.
85. Rubinstein, Autobiography, 81-83; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:161-219; Findeizen, Rubinshtein, 43-47.
Chapter 4. Inside the Capital Stages
1. Senelick, “Theatre,” 264. See the documents illuminating these developments in Senelick, National Theater.
2. Senelick, “Theatre,” 265; Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:181-92; Baehr, Paradise Myth; Custine, Letters from Russia, 73.
3. Borovsky, “Organization of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 41-56; Drizen, Materialy; idem, Stoletie Imperatorskikh Sanktpeterburgskikh Teatrov. Varneke, Istoriya, 1-117, still remains useful. An inferior translation, History, contains material not in the other work. I have consulted both. See also F. G. Volkov; Yartsev, Osnovanie i osnovatel russkago teatra; and Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Istoriya teatralnago obrazovaniya, 1.
4. Bocharnikova, Bolshoi teatr, 4-6; Kuznetsova, Bolshoi teatr, 10-29; Starikova, Teatralnaya zhizn starinnoi Moskvy; Zagoskin, “Kontsert besov”; Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, 205; Seaman, “Moscow and St. Petersburg.” A mockup of the Petrovsky and its rotunda is displayed at the Bakhrushin Theater Museum in Moscow. Lo Gatto, Storia del teatro russo, 1:13 5, apparently believed Maddox’s story that he was once an Oxford professor of mathematics. For a fine summary of the complex eighteenth-century theatrical scene, see Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 2-28.
5. TE, 3:762, 646—both entries by the prolific popularizer of circus and theater history Yu. Dmitriev; Varneke, Istoriya, 106, 127, 316; Senelick, National Theater, 318.
6. The most reliable guide to the houses of St. Petersburg is Petrovskaya, Teatralnyi Peterburg, 71, 81-85, 100-121. See also “Zdanie teatralnoe,” TE, 2:767-79, with excellent floor plans; and the beautifully illustrated Taranovskaya, Arkhitektura teatrov Leningrada, 57-112.
7. Petrovskaya, Teatralnyi Peterburg, 12 5-26, 151-55. Observations of the backstage based on my tour of the Alexandrinsky Theater in April 2002.
8. Raikes, City of the Czar, 1:104; Haumant, Culture française en Russie, 347-51.
9. Kuznetsova, Bolshoi teatr, 35; Varneke, Istoriya, 316-17; Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, 206; TE, 1:642; Burgess, “Russian Public Theatre Audiences,” 169.
10. Bocharnikova, Bolshoi teatr, 6; Kuznetsova, Bolshoi teatr, 45-54; Chayanova, Torzhestvo muz; Shteinpress, Alyabev, 127-32; Zarubin, Bolshoi Teatr, 3 6-37. GTsMMKF: a recording of Alyabev’s portion of the “Prolog” (1825) by the All-Union Radio Chorus and Orchestra. I have not heard Verstovsky’s musical contribution.
11. Istoricheskaya spravka o Bolshom Teatre; Edwards, Russians at Home, 164, 178-86 (qu. 181).
12. Gosudarstvennyi Akademicheskii Malyi Teatr, a brief official introduction; Istoricheskaya spravka o Bolshom Teatre. Observations of the backstage based on my tour of the Maly Theater in December 1997.
13. TE, 1:447; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 40; Taneev, “Iz proshlogo imperatorskikh teatrov,” 851.
14. Mikhnevich, Ocherk, 308-10; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 31-38; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 263.
15. Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 1-4 (1897) 437 and note (qu); Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatrv Rossii, 36-38; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (July 1896), 26-50.
16. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 18, 63, passim; Bezekirskii, Izzapisnoiknizhki, 13-15; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (Aug. 1890) 271-72. The singer Darya Leonova echoed Afanasev’s opinion: “Vospominaniya artistki,” IV (Jan. 1891) 132.
17. Ungurianu, “Zagoskin,” 344-55. Dates differ on Verstovsky’s appointments: see Listova, Varlamov, 25; Verstovskii, "Avtobiografiya," a useful but self-promoting account; “A. N. Verstovskii”; Dobrokhotov, Verstovskii, 13-24; Levashëva, “A. N. Verstovskii”; RGBRO, f. 411, n. 95 (promotion certificate). V. Drezen’s painting in GTsMMKRO, f. 364, op. 218, n. 8871.
18. Dobrokhotov, Verstovskii, 13-24; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 37; Shteinpress, Stranitsy, passim; Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Dec. 1891) 326.
19. Senelick, National Theater, 352; RGBRO, f. 411, n. 333, 415, 421; GTsMMKRO, f. 364, inv. 218, n. 41 and 42. Part of this record was published in ''Perepiska A. N. Verstovskago’s A. M. Gedeonovym" in EIT, 2 (1913) 33-55.
20. Opochnin, Teatralnaya starina, 149-86; Pogozhev, Stoletie organizatsii, 1/1:133-4, 313-16; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 263-65; Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 67-68; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 68-75.
21. Wesling, Napoleon, 1.
22. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Istoriya teatralnago obrazovaniya, 443-52, found data on social origins for only nine of about 150 to 160 pupils at the Imperial Theater School from 1783 to 1800: children of performers, townspeople, a clerk, a servant, and a “Tula musician.” On foundlings in Russia, see Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 31-62. Empress Maria Fëdorovna cut back on the cultural training of foundlings after 1797; consequently, their recruitment probably fell off. See Rosslyn, “Female Employees in the Russian Imperial Theatres,” for an informative account of the social background of eighteenth-century actresses. See also Martorella, Sociology of Opera, 16.
23. Opochnin, Teatralnaya starina, 149-86: Drizen, Materialy, 222-26; Muzalevskii, Russkoe fortepyannoe iskusstvo, 234-35; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 99; Albrekht, Proshloe i nastoyashchee orkestra, 37-62; Listova, Varlamov, 19-51 (qu. 19); Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 36-37 and (Aug. 1890) 272.
24. Senelick, National Theater, 359; Grossman, Pushkin, 24; Ozarovskii, “Khram Talii i Melpomeny," 516-17; Levitt, ”Illegal Staging of Sumarokov’s Sinav i Truvor" The best discussion of authorial identities is in Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 36-47.
25. EO, 2:85; Swift, Loftier Flight; Grossman, Pushkin, 98-131; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 35; Zotov, cited by Adamson, “Russian Imperial Ballet,” 184; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Nov. 1896) 402, 422. For Didelot’s creative side, see Slonimskii, Didlo.
26. Ch. Didelot, “Observations, demandes, et reglements relatifs a la danse,” Mar. 22, 28, 31, 1828, in IRLPD, f. 50, Vielgorskie, ed. kh. 19.
27. Volkov, St. Petersburg, 64; Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:128-30. Another son of Cavos conducted a St. Petersburg orchestra: Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie, 64-65.
28. Malnick, “Shakhovskoi,” qu. 37, 51; Rak, “Shakhovskoi”; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 228-49.
29. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 40.
30. A. V. Karatygin, “Russkii teatr v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra I,” 258; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 23-24, 62, 76; Bezekirskii, Iz zapisnoi knizhki, 24; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 40; Varneke, Istoriya, 421-22.
31. Opochnin, Teatralnaya starina, 34-73; Nikitenko, Diary, 28 and passim; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 23-24, 36, 76; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 106-7; Burdin, “Vospominaniya artista,” 145; Grossman, Pushkin, 10, 49; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Nov. 1896) 412-16; Kubasov, “Teatralnyya intrigi,” 293-96.
32. Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 71; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 52-55, 76; Varneke, Istoriya, 305; Grossman, Pushkin, 50-52.
33. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 26, 37, 57-58. Panaeva’s novel, co-authored with her lover Nekrasov, Dead Lake (1851), describes backstage jealousies and rivalries: see Ruth Sobel’s piece on Panaeva in Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:299-304. Albrekht, Proshloe i nastoyashchee orkestra, 43-44; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 37 and (Aug. 1890) 272; Yurkevich, ''Iz vospominanii," 171-72; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Aug. 1896) 320-21.
34. The opera house in seventeenth-century France was popularly known as the “academy of love”: Blanning, Culture of Power, 81. Opochnin, Teatralnaya starina, 94-112; Malnick, “Shakhovskoi,” 33; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (July 1896) 47-48 and (Aug. 1896) 313. See also Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 25; and Rosslyn, “Petersburg Actresses.”
35. Grossman, Pushkin, 10 (qu.), 54; Dobrolyubov, “Razvrat Nikolaya Pavlovicha,” 64-68. Rafail Zotov tells that the tsar regularly went backstage between the acts to talk to actresses, but is mute on any other relations: “Zapiski,” IV (Aug. 1896) 319.
36. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 38-44, 47. Rafail Zotov claimed that the Miloradovich-Telesheva affair was platonic: “Zapiski,” IV (July 1896) 39. See Rak, “Shakhovskoi,” for a slightly different view. In 1828, Orest Kiprensky painted her portrait and adorned it with symbols of national simplicity, religion, and purity: Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 79 and n. 34, fig. 11. For continuing amorous ballet liaisons in the twentieth century, see Frame, St. Petersburg Imperial Theaters, 105.
A celebrated duel originated in a theatrical liaison. Avdotiya Istomina (1799-1848), dance soloist at the St. Petersburg Bolshoi Stone, had by 1817 become an object of jealousy. After a spat with her lover Vasily Sheremetev, she went off to visit Griboedov, a fervent admirer, and his friend A. P. Zavadovsky. Out of this incident, a four-way duel ensued in which Zavadovsky killed the jealous Sheremetev, the “injured” party and challenger. The second part, between A. I. Yakubovich and Griboedov, took place in Tiflis months later. Yakubovich’s bullet struck Griboedov in the hand—done purposely, some said, in order to ruin his piano playing: Grossman, Pushkin, 54-60; Reyfman, Ritualized Violence Russian Style, 77-78; Kelly, Diplomacy and Murder in Teheran. Ironically, Istomina became a patron herself when as an older woman, she tried to promote her young lover: Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 40-42.
37. R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct. 1896) 38; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 138, misquotes Zotov’s two hundred figure as twenty. In fact some of the weaker Russian ballet graduates ended up in the provinces. Karsavina, Theatre Street.
38. A. E. Asenkova, “Kartiny proshedshago: zapiski russkoi artistki.” See also Varneke, Istoriya, 140-42; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct. 1896) 39. For a vividly contrastive picture of life in a military school, see Krylov, “Kadety sorokovykh godov,” 943-47. The Moscow Theater school admitted serfs as external pupils—a practice unknown in St. Petersburg—into the 1840s: Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 38.
39. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 47-48, 56-57, 66-67; Natarova, “Recollections” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 135-69; V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Jan. 1890) 48-49; Insarskii, “Vospominaniya,” 303-14; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Dec. 1896) 766.
40. See note 39 above, and Swift, Loftier Flight, 108; Natarova, “Recollections” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 40-44n, 73-44, 121-23; Grossman, Pushkin, 53. Stanislavsky, My Life in Art, 97-99.
41. Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 597-98.
42. Vitale, Pushkin's Button, 30 (qu.), 132; Karlinsky, “Russia's Gay History and Literature,” 88 (Pushkin qu.); “Gomoseksualizm v russkoi kulture,” 104-7; and Gogol, 56-58. A few sketchy facts can be found in Healey, “Moscow”; and Tuller, Cracks in the Iron Closet, 88.
43. Viola, “Popular Resistance in the Stalinist 1930s.”
44. Senelick, Serf Actor, 223-24; Herzen, My Past, xvi.
45. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 107-9; Taneev, “Iz proshlogo imperator-skikh teatrov,” 878; Solovev: Senelick, National Theater, 359-61 The actor F. A. Burdin left a favorable and even unctuous view of stage life of the era, stressing the gifts, salaries, medical care, and pensions: “Vospominaniya,” 145-47.
46. Swift, Loftier Flight, 82; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Aug. 1896) 306-7; Natarova, “Recollections” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 158; Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 1:74; Sobel on Panaeva in Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:299-304. An atypical defense of actors as ordinary moral human beings appeared in the light-hearted fashion journal Babochka, 44 (June 1829) 175-76. Actors of the German theaters experienced similar isolation: Gubkina, Nemetskii muzykalnyi teatr, 93-97. In Old Regime France, actors were held excommunicate during their careers on stage: Blanning, Culture of Power, 80.
47. Vigel, Zapiski, passim; Senelick, National Theater, 318 n. 2 (with different terms); Burdin, “Vospominaniya,” 148; TE, 2:868. For the fluid social context of these ranks, see Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, 32, 34, 76-77, 135, 137, 173 n. 37.
48. Nikitenko, Diary, 193; Senelick, National Theater, 380-81 and n. 1 (qu.). Viardot: Meshcherskii, “Iz moei stariny,” 496; Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 79-80, 82.
49. The negative view of A. V. Karatygin, “Russkii teatr v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra I,” 258-59 is countered by V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Mar. 1890) 563-64. Further glosses in Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 50-51; Grossman, Pushkin, 9; Varneke, Istoriya, 138-40.
50. Varneke, Istoriya, 134; Medvedeva, Ekaterina Semënova; Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 25. Bolina: Vigel, Zapiski, 258-59. Dozens of French, Italian, and Iberian performers married titled men in this era.
51. The most interesting treatment of Russian opera audiences is Buckler, Literary Lorgnette. The theater encounter between Natasha Rostova and Anatol Kuragin occurs in Book VIII, chap. 9 of War and Peace.
52. Lighting caused numerous fires until gas arrived in 1863: Kuznetsova, Bolshoi teatr, 76; Grossman, Pushkin, 14-16; Ozarovskii, "Khram Talii i Melpomeny," 516-17 (qu.). Seating terminology varies widely in and out of Russia: see Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov, 238-39; Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 26-27.
53. Grossman, Pushkin, 26-29 (quotes 29); Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 151. Almost all evidence of the size and makeup of audiences is impressionistic. Even in the best-documented theaters in the world for this period, those of London, exact computation is impossible: Donohue, Theatre in the Age of Kean.
54. Edwards, Russians at Home, 181, commenting on the reopened Moscow Bolshoi in 1856. In the late eighteenth century, Moscow theater subscribers were expected to illuminate, furnish, and even wallpaper their own loges to which they were given keys: Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 254. Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, passim.
55. Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 28; Grossman, Pushkin, 17 (qu.); Varneke, History, 68 (qu. Empress Elizabeth). Tolchënov: David Ransel, private communication (and see chapter 6 of the present work); in the eighteenth century, commoners were allowed into court performances when the royal family was not in residence: Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 14. Ignatov, Teatr izriteli, 72-73.
56. R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct. 1896) 31; Lough, Paris Theatre Audiences, 188, 195, 226 (qu.); Grossman, Pushkin, 20 (qu.). For earlier appeals to the parterre in Russian theaters, see Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 45.
57. Lower attendance in September-October prevailed because merchants were still busy at the fairs and the “shuttling” landowners were waiting for snow to provide transportation to the capitals: Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 72-73; Petrovskaya, Teatralnyi Peterburg, 119, 121. In 1839, the Moscow Bolshoi had five tiers with sixteen boxes. Sumarokov, Progulka po 12-ti guberniyam, 90-91.
58. Ably analyzed in Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 32-33. Bulgarin refers to no particular theater.
59. Dobrokhotov, Verstovskii, 24; Petrovskaya, Teatralnyi Peterburg, 126-27 (Nekrasov qu. 126). See Von Geldern, Entertaining Tsarist Russia, 47. Gogol’s vignette on ticket fever at the Alexandrinsky box office has been quoted endlessly.
60. Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, 203.
61. Finland and Russia, 509, quoting Custine; Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 49; Herzen, My Past, 41 and n. 4. Pushkin episodes: Kelly, Refining Russia, 74; Grossman, Pushkin, 63. Griswold, Renaissance Revivals, 111.
62. Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 60; Elixir: Edwards, Russians at Home, 185-86 (for the coronation, see Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 2:44); Lough, Paris Theatre Audiences, 192ff., 200; Burgess, “Russian Public Theatre Audiences,” 164.
63. Grossman, Pushkin, 54; A. V. Karatygin, “Russkii teatr v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra I,” 258; Vitale, Pushkin's Button, 28.
64. Accounts of the episode (but not the punishment) vary. See A. V. Karatygin, “Russkii teatr v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra I,” 272 (his son V. A. Karatygin was a participant); Kubasov, “Teatralnyya intrigi,” 296-304; Shatskov, "Katenin," 107-18.
65. Panaeva, Vospominaniya, 38-39. The brothers were sons of Jehuda Leib ben Noah (or Lev Nikolaevich Nevakhovich, 1776-c. 1831), a converted and assimilated spokesman for Jewish enlightenment and emancipation who, while still a Jew, advocated tolerance and had patriotic plays staged in St. Petersburg: Fishman, Russia's First Modern Jews, 127-28; Klier, Russia Gathers Her Jews, 51-52, 125-26; EE, 11:622-24; Haberer, Jews and Revolution, 5. Mikhail Nevakhovich’s (1817-50) Jumble ( Eralash) was the first caricature collection in Russia (St. Petersburg, 1846-47). Through his daughter, he was the grandfather of Ilya, Ivan, and Lev Mechnikov: REE, 2:322. Alexander, with Rafail Zotov, worked in the Repertoire Department of the Imperial Theater in the 1830s and 1840s: V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Apr. 1890) 103-4. The Jewish origin of the Nevakhovich brothers was not an issue in these disputes.
66. Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 71-72; Burgess, “Russian Public Theatre Audiences,” 179-80, 166. For a lively view of American theater audiences, see Levine, Highbrow/ Lowbrow.
67. Pustynnik, “Teatralnaya publika.” The author, later speaking of the Bolshoi Stone, used the term gulyane (“folk fair”) to describe the audience’s exit. Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 33-35, offers an imaginative and convincing literary reading of this piece.
68. Burgess, “Russian Public Theatre Audiences,” 171, 175; Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov, 240; Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 24-25; EO, 1:106; 2:4; Edwards, Russians at Home, 164-85; Mally, Revolutionary Acts, 18; Zaitsev, Taras Shevchenko, 45.
69. Grossman, Pushkin, 33-34; Pustynnik, “Teatralnaya publika,” 750; Johnson, Listening in Paris, 29.
70. Lough, Paris Theatre Audiences, 209, passim; Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 70-73; Grossman, Pushkin, 16; Otello: Rosen, Romantic Generation, 602; Don Giovanni: Gertsen, Sochineniya, 1:337. Levine cites similar instances in Highbrow/Lowbrow, 30.
71. P. V. Medvedev, “Dnevnik,” 67 and passim; Kostenetskii, “Vospominaniya iz moei studencheskoi zhizni,” RA, 1 (1887) 105; Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka,” IV (May 1907) 468.
72. Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 114; Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 28, citing Danilov in O teatre.
73. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, ix-x and passim. See my discussion of sociability in the introduction to this book. Dramatist Gnedich naively believed that “some good plays and actors could imperceptibly change the way of thinking and behavior of our servants, artisans, and workers and could get them out of the pubs and into the theater”: Grossman, Pushkin, 28.
74. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, Book XXII, 11-12, in EO, 1:106; Raikes, City of the Czar, 1:105; Pustynnik, “Teatralnaya publika,” 750. For visual treatments of the coachmen’s pavilions in the early nineteenth century, see Pushkinskii Peterburg. pls. 77-78. Close-up views can be seen in an 1820s lithograph by K. P. Beggrov (ibid., pl. 83); and in one by Vasily Sadovnikov from 1836 reproduced in Shevchenko, Povest, 224-25. See also Nouvelle collection: quarante-deux vues de Saint-Petérsbourg et de ses environs (St. Petersburg, 1826) in RNBOE, Sobranie I. I. Rybakova, E1-227.
75. Edgerton, “Ambivalence as the Key to Kniazhnin’s Tragedy”; Wachtel, Obsession with History, 19-45. For a brief overview of censorship in this period, see Drizen, Materialy, 93-149.
76. Borovsky, “Emergence of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 79; Olinka: Pylyaev, Staroe zhite 256-57; Drizen, Materialy, 123-24; Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 134-35 (qu. 135), puts the Dido episode in a larger context. See also “Tsenzura v tsarstvovanie Imperatora Nikolaya I,” RS (July 1901) 151-67; and Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 25-28.
77. Drizen, Materialy, 124; Swift, Popular Theater, 128; Senelick, Russian Comedy, ix-x; idem, National Theater, 355; “Tsenzura v tsarstvovanie Imperatora Nikolaya I,” RS (Sept. 1901) 643-68.
78. V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Jan. 1890) 45.
79. Smirnova, “Iz zapisok,” 79 n. 2. This is an amusing anecdote, but I found no such anachronistic passage in the play: Aksakov, Osvobozhdenie Moskvy.
80. Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 134-35; Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, xxv (qu. from censor), 29-59; and Serf Actor, 179-80. See also Nikitenko, Diary, 85; and Choldin, Fence Around the Empire.
81. IRDT, 2:27 (qu.), and see pp. 27-31 for more on journalism. Translated excerpts from Pnin in Raeff, Russian Intellectual History, 126-58. Vestnik Evropy, Severnyi vest-nik, Dramaticheskii vestnik, and Zhurnal dramy were among periodicals that covered theater in the first decades of the century. See Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe,” 212-29; TE, 2:707 and 5:135-38.
82. Grossman, Pushkin, 18; Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 33-36; Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, xviii.
83. Ruud, Fighting Words, 65; Schleifman, “Russian Daily Newspaper”; V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Mar. 1890) 566-68 (qu. 568); (Apr. 1890) 92-115; Nikitenko, Diary, 94 (Viardot incident); Drizen, Materialy, 136-37; Evreinov, Kre-postnye aktëry, 19 n. 1 (Gedeonov).
84. Zhikharëv, Zapiski; Cassiday, “Reflections of the St. Petersburg Theater”; Vigel, Zapiski; Christoff, Introduction, vol. 3: Aksakov, 10.
85. Stolpyanskii, Muzyka, 33-36. As late as the 1930s, British censors forbade suicide in plays, since it suggested a lapse of British justice: Roger Lewis, Laurence Olivier, 181. Preliminary censorship was not abolished there until the late twentieth century.
86. Frame, St. Petersburg Imperial Theaters.
87. Gnedich cited in Zhikharëv, Zapiski, 2:196-97; Aksakov in Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 122-27; Christoff, Aksakov, 12; Listova, Varlamov, 31.
88. Galakhov, "Literatumaya kofeinya v Moskve,“ RS, 17 (Apr. 1886) 181-98; Senelick, Serf Actor, 70-71; Feoktistov, ”Glava iz vospominanii''; Dmitriev, “Studencheskiya vospominaniya,” 3-5 (s.p.).
89. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 20; Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa, 236-85.
90. Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 393-96; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 57-60; Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 25; Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 127-28.
91. Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, 204; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 199; Grot in Clyman, Russia Through Women’s Eyes, 8; Arnold, Vospominaniya, 1:25-26; Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 23, 116-17; Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist, 15-16; “Legkii sposob ustroistva domashnyago teatra,” RP, 7 (1842) 58-60, 77 (s.p.). For many more examples of home performances, see Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate.
92. Cited in Mally, Revolutionary Acts, 215.
93. Velyashev, Opisanie prazdnika. For the context, see Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:15-34; and Baehr, Paradise Myth, passim.
94. Borovsky, “Organization of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 47; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 265; Kelly, Refining Russia, 27 (Smolny); Ramazanov, “Vospominaniya o Karle Pavloviche Bryullove,” 26; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 147; Giesemann, Kotzebue in Russland, 9; Karlinsky, Gogol, 12-13.
95. Skalkovskii, Vospominaniya molodosti, 112-14; Natanson, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 86, 88. Senelick, Serf Actor, 108. For student off-campus theater in Kharkov in 1840, see Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Jan. 1884) 295.
96. Catriona Kelly, “Popular, Provincial, and Amateur Theatres, 1820-1900” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 137; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 217 and passim.
97. Translated in Von Geldern, Entertaining Tsarist Russia, 95.
98. Lotman, Semiotics of Russian Cultural History, 67-94; Thompson, “Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture,” 382-405 (qu. 389); Maza, Servants and Masters in Eighteenth-Century France, 238-41, 294-95.
99. Elias, Civilizing Process, 16 and passim; Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1; Parizhskie teatry; Sennett, Fall of Public Man, 174-76; Wortman, “Theatricality, Myth, and Authority,” 48-52.
100. Ozarovskii, "Khram Talii i Melpomeny," 516-17, describes an 1829 handbook, Bouquet, a Pocketbook for Theater Lovers, which contained information about the theater houses, habits, and costumes, the last largely French. See also Hughes, “From Caftans to Corsets,” 17-32.
101. Goscilo, “Keeping A-Breast of the Waist-Land.”
Chapter 5. An Unfolding Drama
1. Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, xvii, 24 (qu.); Griswold, Renaissance Revivals, 6-9.
2. Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 104; Varneke, Istoriya, 100-110. To take three male stars of the eighteenth century: Shusherin was the son of a poor official, Pomerantsev aspired to be a clerk, and Plavilshchikov came from a merchant family. When Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 254, called these three “actor aristocrats,” he was referring to their status in the theater, not their social origin. See also Zhikharëv, Zapiski, 1:272-73 (commentary).
3. Varneke, Istoriya, 91-97, 315; Buckler, “Divas in the Drawing Room,” 79.
4. Grossman, Pushkin, 42-47; Shatskov, "Katenin," 107-18; Sirotinin, “Semënova,” 481. Pushkin claimed that Alexandra Karatygina admitted not understanding a word of her lines if written in verse: Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, 6.
5. The prominent prerevolutionary (and later Soviet) theater scholar, Vsevolod Vsevolodsky-Gerngross, in his earliest analysis of actors’ performance in this era, gave more or less equal weight to social and educational factors: Teatr v Rossii, 105-9. In the Soviet years, however, he tilted towards a more sociological explanation of actors’ performance.
6. A factor even in modern times. Actor Laurence Olivier, the Anglican, and director Ingmar Bergman, the Lutheran, both imbibed the oratorical styles of their preacher fathers: Lewis, Laurence Olivier; Bergman, The Magic Lantern.
7. Senelick, National Theater, 372-74. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Iskusstvo deklamatsii, traces its musical and poetic genealogy.
8. Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 96; Mimica (Mimika) excerpted in Senelick, National Theater, 216-18; Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 228: Senelick, Serf Actor, 28; a performance of Talanty i poklonniki at the Maly Theater, Moscow, October, 1997.
9. Zhikharëv, Zapiski, 2:206; Grossman, Pushkin, 86 (qu.).
10. A common plot idea from Dostoevsky’s “Netochka Nezvanova” to Clifford Odets' Country Girl.
11. Varneke, Istoriya, 428-43 (cf. pp. 437-36 of this book with his History, 262); Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 107; TE, 3:979-83; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 542 (qu.); Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 37-38.
12. Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe,” 223-24; TE, 3:645-49; Senelick, Serf Actor, 59-60.
13. Dmitriev, “Studencheskiya vospominaniya,” 233-39; Galakhov, “Literaturnaya kofeinya v Moskve,” RS, 17 (Apr. 1886) 188-97.
14. Varneke, Istoriya, 422-28, 440-42, 499 (qu.); Volkov, St. Petersburg, 27-28; Monas, Third Section, 96; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 542 n. i.
15. “Zhurnal P. A. Karatygina” in GTsTMRO, f. 108, n. 14; Honour, Neo-classicism, 34. The story inspired many eighteenth-century century visual and literary works. A translation by Catherine II and others of Marmontel’s novel on the subject reached its fifth edition by the early nineteenth century: Zorin, Kormya dvuglavogo orla, 183. The work was still a hit in popular theaters at the turn of the twentieth century: Swift, Popular Theater, 161. Donizetti’s opera Belisario (1836) gained renown in Europe as well, but I have seen no record of its Russian performance. In 1836, in faraway Mexico City, General Santa Ana is said to have dreaded going to this interminable opera, but was encouraged by an aide who told him there would be horses on stage! Harrigan, The Gates of the Alamo, 177.
16. Varneke, Istoriya, 442 (Grigorev qu.); see Aksakov’s verdict in Senelick, National Theater, 333-34; Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe” 224; Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 110-ii; TE, 2:137-39; Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:177-78 (banquet); Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 542.
17. Senelick, Serf Actor, 26-29; Malnick, “Actors Shchepkin and Sosnitsky,” 295-96; Varneke, Istoriya, 498.
18. Mikhail Semënovich Shchepkin, 1:198 and 2:386 (quotes). For a scrupulous charting of Shchepkin’s complexity and growth through the years, see Senelick, Serf Actor, 129-47.
19. Skonechnaya, Moskovskii Parnas, 102; Senelick, Serf Actor, 130. Review of Sailor by V. A. Dyachenko (1843) in Senelick, National Theater, 338-39, and Belinsky’s appreciation, ibid., 337-38.
20. Reminiscences about Shchepkin and others at the Pechkin coffee house by Afanasy Fet in Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 362-65; Dmitriev, “Studencheskiya vospominaniya,” 233-39; Moskovskii Universitet, 98, 109, passim. See also Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 121; Shchepkina, Vospominaniya, 193-247; Senelick, Serf Actor, 70, 108 (Moscow life) and 197-202, 221-22 (Herzen); Mikhail Semënovich Shchepkin, 1:198 (qu.); Malia, Herzen, 392.
21. Schuler, Women in Russian Theater, 61-68.
22. Stanislavsky, My Life in Art, 10 (qu.), 80-88.
23. A prime example is Aseev, “Zhivye traditsii.” See Senelick, Serf Actor, passim, for a corrective.
24. Cited in Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 308-9. On Grech, see Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 330-31.
25. Zorin, Kormya dvuglavogo orla, 31-64; Vrangel, “Romantizm v zhivopisi aleksandrovskoi epokhi,” 380; Grossman, Pushkin, 11. For the classical background, see Wes, Classics in Russia; Harold Segel, “Classicism”; Kahn, “Readings of Imperial Rome.”
26. G. S. Kirk in Homer, The Iliad, tr. R. Fitzgerald (Oxford, 1984), xv (qu.); Bruford, Culture and Society in Classical Weimar, 360-69.
27. Green, “Italian Scandal as Russian Tragedy,” 394 (qu).
28. “V. A. Ozerov” in Gerbel, Russkie poety, 121-27; Mark Altshuller, “Ozerov”; Karlinsky, in Russian Drama, 207-13, argues homosexuality as a reason for Ozerov’s mental breakdown and other miseries.
29. Sergei Uvarov describes the rehearsal atmosphere at Olenin’s in Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 39-42. Wes, Classics in Russia, 132-33; Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education, 15; Stuart, Aristocrat-Librarian. A painting of the Olenin estate interior shows that his company also engaged in such nonaesthetic pastimes as cards and sewing: Roosevelt, “Country House as a Setting and Symbol,” 50.
30. Edip vafinakh, tragediya v 5 d. in Ozerov, Tragedii, 1-59; Altshuller, “Ozerov”; A. D. P. Briggs, “Writers and Repertoires, 1800-1850” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 86; Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 136; Shevchenko, Povest, 90; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 1-4 (1897) 400-401.
31. Honour, Neo-classicism, 65; Tolstoy, The Tolstoys, 169.
32. Cassiday, “Northern Poetry for a Northern People,” 240-66 (qu. 251).
33. Fingal, tragediya v 3 d. in Ozerov, Tragedii, 60-101. Karlinsky’s assessment in Russian Drama, 199-200. Incidental music and monologue from Fingal: GTsMMKF, orchestral original, Mag-1612.
34. Briggs, “Writers and Repertoires” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 89.
35. Dmitrii Donskoi, tragediya v 5 d. in Ozerov, Tragedii, 102-73 (qu. 106). See also Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 200-201; Altshuller, “Ozerov”; Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe,” 217-19; A. V. Karatygin, “Russkii teatr v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra I,” 262; Sirotinin, “Semënova,” 475. Rapturous reports on Donskoi’s reception in Zhikharëv, Zapiski, 2:88-96 and Vigel, Zapiski, 255. In the 1820s, V. V. Selivanov and his brother read, reread, memorized, and declaimed whole scenes from Ozerov’s Donskoi, and even got to perform in it: Predaniya i vospominaniya, 171.
36. Ignatov, Teatr izriteli, 59.
37. Karatygin, “Yakovlev”; Grossman, Pushkin, 86-88.
38. Grossman, Pushkin, 74; Zetlin, Decembrists, 118. The best biography: Medvedeva, Ekaterina Semënova, which lists all her roles with illustrations of costumes and gestures. See also Sirotinin, “Semënova,” 475-77.
39. Varying accounts in Medvedeva, Semënova; Haumant, Culture française en Russie, 207-9. See also Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:23-24.
40. Pushkin in Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, 5; Grossman, Pushkin, 85; Sirotinin, “Semënova,” 480-503; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 543-44.
41. Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe,” 213 (qu.); N. V. Koroleva, in “Dekabristy i teatr,” insists that the Decembrists admired only the historical models and not the style of classical drama. See Lotman, Semiotics of Russian Cultural History, 95-149; Volk, Istoricheskie vzglyady Dekabristov, 193; Anatole Mazour, First Russian Revolution, 131.
42. Lough, Paris Theatre Audiences, 242, passim.
43. Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 1:474.
44. Karlinsky, Gogol, 147-48. The tragedies of Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov had little impact on the theatrical life of their own time. Lermontov’s romantic and tragic masterpiece Masquerade (1835-36), which treated aristocratic decadence and the jealousy-induced murder of an innocent wife, was censored for its “indecent criticism of costume balls at the Engelhardts’ house” (Varneke, History, 237) and it remained unstaged in its original form until 1862. Pushkin’s Boris Godunov (1825) and the “little tragedies”—universally recognized works of genius—had little success.
45. Kostenetskii, “Vospominaniya,” RA, 3 (1887) 346.
46. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, passim; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 281-96. For the nationalist background, see Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries.
47. Kryukovskii, Pozharskoi; Zhikharëv, Zapiski, 2:315-18. See Dunning, Russia's First Civil War, for the historical background. For intelligent commentary: Zorin, Kormya dvuglavogo orla, 157-186 and his “ 'Beskrovnaya pobeda’ Knyazya Pozharskogo.” Pozharskoi was chosen to open the Alexandrinsky Theater in 1832.
48. Hodge, “Susanin, Two Glinkas, and Ryleev”; Ginzburg, Russkii muzykalnyi teatr, 234-38; Rak, “Shakhovskoi”; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct. 1896) 48. The last minute Cossack rescue device would endure and resurface many times in popular war melodrama: see Stites, Russian Popular Culture, 36, for a film example from World War I.
49. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 156; Krasovskaya, Istoriya russkogo bal-eta, 35. The two parts are often cited as a single unified work with one title: Universal Militia, or Love of Country ( Vseobshchee opolchenie, ili Lyubov k otechestvu); Varneke, Istoriya, 345. The term “universal” refers to the liability for service of all.
50. Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia, 191 (qu.); Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries, 60ff., 98, and passim.
51. Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 283-85; Lotman, “Lyudi 1812 goda” in Besedy o russkoi kultury, 330; Vrangel, “Romantizm v zhivopisi,” 384.
52. Martin, “Response of the Population of Moscow.”
53. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:256 (qu.); IRLPD, f. 371, N. V. Kukolnik, opis 1: “Kratkaya biograficheskaya spravka N. V. Kukolnika”; Kukolnik, ''Iz vospominanii"; Gerbel, Russkie poety.
54. Kukolnik, Ruka vsevyshnyago otechestvo spasla, in Sochineniya dramaticheskiya, 1:141-238; IRLPD, f. 371, n. 141, censor’s copy with a few parts crossed out; Rydel, “Kukol'nik.” The anti-Polish feelings among a broad spectrum of educated Russians were exacerbated by Europe’s negative reaction to the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1830.
55. Danilov, Ocherki, 248-49 (qu.); Senelick, National Theater, 359 n. 3; Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:388-95. On the wave of dynastic loyalty in 1866, see Gleason, Young Russia, 329-34. A recent scholar argues somewhat unconvincingly that the work's popularity has been overstated: an impressive sixteen performances in 1834, but only seventeen in the years 1835-48: Kiseleva, “Zhizn za tsarya,” 176.
56. Kukolnik, Knyaz Mikhail Vasilevich Skopin-Shuiskii in Sochineniya, 1:239-48 (qu. 245). For the tangled roles of Skopin-Shuisky and Lyapunov in the Time of Troubles, see Dunning, Russia's First Civil War.
57. Kukolnik, Knyaz Daniil Vasilevich Kholmskii in Sochineniya, 2:375-511. Its music is on the cassette: Glinka, Aragonskaya khota, Vals Fantasiya, Simfoniya na dve Russkie temy. Musical analysis in Brown, Glinka, 164-73.
58. On Sannazaro (Yakobi San Nazaar, in Russian), see Clark, Landscape into Art, 5657. I have not read the play. Turgenev, PSS, 4:206. Materials on the later life in IRLPD, f. 371: N. V. Kukolnik: Opis i: “Kratkaya biograficheskaya spravka N. V. Kukolnika.” See also Sazhin, “Iz biografii pisatelya N. V. Kukolnika,” and Kirichinskii, Zabytyi poet-nationalist, a panegyric.
59. Hodge, “Susanin”; idem, Double Garland, 150-52 and passim; Glinka, Zapiski, 1-20; Yurkevich, “Iz vospominanii,” 163 (qu.).
60. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:128-30. A reviewer for the Northern Bee reported a comment Glinka made while writing Susanin:"Cavos? Russian music? Only imitation, no more'': Yurkevich, “Iz vospominanii,” 163. Zetlin, The Five, 33; Glinka, Zapiski (1953) 1-20.
61. Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 3, 7; Haskell, Attentive Listener, 103, on various reactions to the opera; Christoff, Introduction, vol. 1: Xomjakov, 77.
62. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:128-30, claims that the opera was originally titled A Death for the Tsar.
63. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:390-95; Kiseleva, “Zhizn za tsarya,” 173-85.
64. Nikitenko, Diary, 47-48; Ruud, Fighting Words, 70; White, “Polevoi”; Mikhail-ova, “Vopros o teatralnoi monopolii,” 84.
65. Polevoi, Dedushka russkogo flota, Dramaticheskiya sochineniya, 97-162; Parasha Sibirachka, ibid., 47-96, both with commentary. Background on Brandt in Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, 81. Herzen, My Past, 116-17; TE, 3:456, for a Soviet assessment.
66. Figures from Volf, Khronika peterburgskikh teatrov, 2:iv-v of the appendix; Polevoi, Ugolino (St. Petersburg, 1838).
67. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 156 (qu.); see also pp. 147-71 for the “Moral Monarchy.” plays. Her “Drama and Society in Imperial Russia, 1740s to 1790s” (ms.) contains some additional detail. Polevoi’s speech and merchant orientation: Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia, 19, 235 n. 86.
68. Herzen, My Past, 291 and n. 10.
69. Swift, Popular Theater, 281.
70. Ungurianu, “Zagoskin”; RPis 2:304-6. During the Crimean War the house serf Bobkov witnessed an unnamed 1855 drama repeating the familiar theme of landlords praising recruits and recruits shouting their willingness to die for Russia: Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka,” IV (June 1907) 741.
71. Cumberland, The Jew; Karantin in Khmelnitskii, Sochineniya, 2:275-327 (qu. 278). It featured music by Verstovsky.
72. Levitina, Russkii teatr i Evrei, 1:34, 67, 119-20, 127-28, 137-39, 142, 231 n. 17. In the incidental music for Kholmsky, Glinka composed a “Jewish” melody for Rachel in a singing contest with a Russian woman: Brown, Glinka, 167. This curious scene highlights the widely held prejudice of many Russians that Jews could not really release themselves in gaiety (in the eyes of Russian males, this alleged reserve was the result of temperance): Kukolnik, Kholmskii, Sochineniya dramaticheskiya, 2:415-17.
73. Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 151-52; Lough, Paris Theatre Audiences, 237-38 (Beaumarchais); Varneke, Istoriya, 191 (Plavilshchikov).
74. Mandel, Kotzebue; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 191-92; Stites, “Misanthrope.”
75. Kotzebue, Menschenhass und Reue in August von Kotzebue: Schauspiele, 43-126 (qu. 72). The earliest Russian translation I found is Nenavist k lyudyam i raskayanie, 4th ed. (Orël, 1826). German, but not Russian, audiences were scandalized by the forgiveness of Meinau’s wife: Coleman, “Kotzebue and Russia,” 342.
76. Giesemann, Kotzebue in Russland, 104, 119, 175; Aksakov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1:325; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Istoriiarusskogo teatra, 2:29, 58-59, 64-65; Karatygin, Zapiski, 91-92; Varneke, Istoriya, 431-32.
77. Küchelbecker quoted in Istoriia russkoi dramaturgii, 258; R. M. Zotov in Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Istoriya russkogo teatra, 2:30. A contemporary claimed that young Moscow merchants read all of Kotzebue’s plays in translation more than once: Selivanov, Predaniya i vospominaniya, 248-49. The provincial peasant-merchant Alexander Artynov is rhapsodic in his memory of a Moscow performance in the late 1820s of Kotzebue’s Child of Love: Vospominaniya krestyanina, 86.
78. Dyukanzh [Ducange], Tereza, ilizhenevskaya sirota, melodrama, tr. of Thérèse, ou l’orphéline de Genève. See Stites, “Misanthrope” for additional references.
79. Caigniez, Pie voleuse. The title page also indicates a ballet as well as music by Piccinni. Commentary in Rahill, World of Melodrama, 56-63; and Ginisty, Mélodrame, 121-38, 219.
80. The Russian translation by Valberkh is Soroka-Vorovka, ili palezosskaya sluzhanka (St. Peterburg, 1816). See also IRDT, 2:280, 288; Gozenpud, Opernyi slovar, 389-90; Kimbell, Italian Opera, 358, 563; Osbourne, Rossini, 198-201; Weinstock, Rossini, 498, 77.
81. TE, 3:787-90.
82. Laqueur, “Bodies, Details, and the Humanitarian Narrative.”
83. R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct. 1896) 32-33 and (Nov. 1896) 419, 422.
84. Senelick, Russian Comedy, ix.
85. Maza, Servants and Masters in Eighteenth-Century France, 229-43 and passim.
86. Varneke, History, 64-65.
87. Newlin, “Rural Ruses,” 307, and idem, Voice in the Garden, 13, 20, 24, passim.
88. Berkov, Istoriya russkoi komedii, 318; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 99-101; Varneke, Istoriya, 186-87, 198-99. See also Rogger, National Consciousness, 141. The term bobyl also implies a loner.
89. Simmons, English Literature and Culture in Russia, 158 (qu.) and passim; Baehr, Paradise Myth, 151-52; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 188-92; Fanger, “Peasant and Russian Literature,” 239; Van Regemorter, “Deux images idéales de la paysannerie russe.” Donskov, Changing Image of the Peasant, gives a useful review of the literature on the subject and a learned discussion of rustic language in drama.
90. Quoted in Donskov, Changing Image of the Peasant, 38. The italics, quite appropriate, are Donskov’s.
91. Anyuta: Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 87. Libretto by Mikhail Popov and music by Evstignei Fomin (1761-1800) or by Vasily Pashkevich (Paszkiewicz; 1742-1800). See also Shatz, “Noble Landowner in Russian Comic Operas,” 26-27.
92. Nikolev, Rozana i Lyubim (1778, music by Ivan [Iosif] Kertselli) in Rossiiskii featr, unnumbered volume, 1-109 (qu. 32); Abraham, On Russian Music, 256. Wirtschafter, in Play of Ideas, counts thirty-four performances of Rozana in Moscow in 1778-1800 and four in Petersburg in 1780-82: p. 229 n. 18.
93. Knyazhnin, Sochineniya, 2:109-38, tr. in Segel, Literature of Eighteenth-Century Russia, 2:374-93. The music is by V. A. Pashkevich. Shatz, “Noble Landowner in Russian Comic Operas,” 31-32.
94. Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 144. For this play and others on recruitment, soldiers, and soldiers’ wives, see Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 89-95, 229 n. 26.
95. Borovsky, “Emergence of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 74; Woodhouse, “Tales from Another Country.” For the limits of permitted satire in visual culture, see Dianne Farrell, “Laughter Transformed: the Shift from Medieval to Enlightenment Humor in Russian Popular Prints” in Bartlett, Russia and the World of the Eighteenth Century, 157-70.
96. Excerpts in Von Geldern, Entertaining Tsarist Russia, 57-65. See Wirtschafter, “Drama and Society”; Dostoevsky, House of the Dead, 184-204.
97. Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 122-23.
98. Ibid., 95 (qu. on Sumarokov), 172-76 (on Chicanery); Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 133-35, 238-39 n. 50; idem, “Drama and Society” (performance history).
99. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 118-20. See her discussion of this play and of G. N. Gorodchaninov’s Mitrofanushka in Retirement (1800) in “Military Service and Social Hierarchy.” On the psychological urge that sent some nobles into voluntary service, see Newlin, Voice in the Garden, 66.
100. This play, Modnaya lavka, and Lessons to Daughters in Krylov, Sochineniya, 2 v. (Moscow, 1956) 1:333-438. See Senelick’s witty translation of the first, The Milliner’s Shop, in his Russian Satiric Comedy, 25-65; Stennik, “Krylov.” For eighteenth-century Gallophobia, see Rogger, National Consciousness.
101. Quoted in Borovsky, “Russian Theatre in Russian Culture” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 11.
102. Shakhovskoi, “Polubarskie zatei,” undated ms., SPBGTB; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 52-60. See also Rak, “Shakhovskoi”; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 232; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 151-52. The earliest known spoof of amateur theater was the anonymous 1790 comedy, A Queer Gathering: Varneke, History, 110, 141. Baumgarten, Spätklassische russische Komödie, offers a detailed analysis of sources, formal structures, and intertextuality. For Mikhail Zagoskin’s Noble Theater (1827), a send-up of gentry amateur theatricals, see chap. 6 of the present work.
103. Confino, Société et mentalités collectives, 99-133 (qu. 122). See also Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia, 409-12.
104. Shakhovskoi, Pustodomy, in the collection of comic stage works by various authors Stikhotvornaya komediya, 2:231-363. At least one eighteenth-century play, Volkov’s Upbringing, saw the promotion of “improved methods of cultivation” as a legitimate aspect of noble service: Wirtschafter, “Military Service and Social Hierarchy,” 227.
105. Shakhovskoi, New Sterne (excerpts), tr. in Von Geldern, Entertaining Tsarist Russia, 31-41.
106. For example Sheridan’s School for Scandal (1777); Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 232-34.
107. Shakhovskoi, Urok koketam, ili lipetskie vody in Stikhotvornaya komediya, 2:7-146 (qu. 48). For the literary background, see Rak, “Shakhovskoi”; Whittaker, Origins of Modern Russian Education, 29-33; Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 235-39; Grossman, Pushkin, 132-40 (qu. 132).
108. Sumarokov, Progulkapo 12-tiguberniyam, 138-41.
109. Julie Cassiday expertly analyzes the connection between the spa as social site and Shakhovskoi’s treatment of it: “The Lipetsk Spa: Placing the 'Caustic Shakhovskoi’ in Context” (ms.). See also the introduction to Cornwell, Society Tale; and Joe Andrew, “Another Time, Another Place: Gender and the Chronotope in the Society Tale” ibid., 127-51.
110. See Moser, Antinihilism.
111. Potekhin, Sochineniya, 12:322.
112. “Emansipirovannaya zhenshchina,” RP, 2 (1845) 219-40. On George Sand in Russia, see Stites, Women's Liberation Movement, 19-25. Shakhovskoi offered an ironic panorama of social-cultural images for the ideal wife in The Married Fiancée (1818): bluestocking, dummy, housekeeper, party girl, and gushy sentimentalist: Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 240-44.
113. Matinsky: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 112-13. The opera: Ginzburg, Russkii muzykalnyi teatr, 83-99 (summary and excerpts); and Mooser, L'opéra comique français en Russie, 175. The music was written by Pashkevich.
114. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 107.
115. Ibid., 97-100. Chernavskoi’s plot remarkably resembles that of the 1916 Evgenii Bauer film, Life for a Life.
116. Varneke, Istoriya, 200. Plavilshchikov wrote at least one other play on this theme: Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 42 and 97-100, for a discussion of the genre.
117. Tsinkovich-Nikolaeva, “Kupecheskaya tema v repertuare,” 110-26 (qu. 117).
118. TE, 2:158. Karlinsky, Gogol, 171-72, 184 (qu.). I have regrettably read no works by Grigorev.
119. Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 274 (qu.); Varneke, Istoriya, 364-92; Kosny, “Vodevil D. T. Lenskogo”; Rodina, “L'évolution du théâtre russe.”
120. Batyushkov quoted in Kozlyakov, “''Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 134. Zagoskin, G-n Bogatonov, ili provintsial v stolitse (the saucy Anyuta’s lines: 8788, 102, 113); M. N. Zagoskin: biograficheskii ocherk, 26-30 (qu. 29); Syn otechestva, 39 (1817) 88-102. See also Ungurianu, “Zagoskin”; and Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 262, who delightfully translates Bogatonov as Moneybags. Molière, Le bourgeois gentilhomme (1670; Paris, 1998).
121. “Dom na Peterburgskoi Storone,” in RP, 2 (1843) 92-119 (qu. 118). See comment in Lovell, Summerfolk, 52 n. 83, and 55-56 for satires on dacha life.
122. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:174; A. F. Koni, Vospominaniya o pisatelyakh, 11-12. F. A. Koni, Peterburgskie kvartiry in Teatr F. A. Koni., 2:1-110. Belinsky, who famously hated most light entertainment, admired this play. Renting and apartment living became a regular feature of graphics in popular periodicals, such as the Illustrated Family Pages in the 1850s (Illyustrirovannyi semeinyi listok, 1859-61, passim).
123. See Galakhov, “Literaturnaya kofeinya v Moskve” (Apr. 1886) 185 and Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 89, for Lensky’s offstage sociability.
124. Borzikov (from borzoi, a Russian breed of hound) was a code name for Koni since the censors did not allow Lensky to use the name “Loshadka” (kon and loshad are Russian words for horse): Beskin, “Lev Gurych Sinichkin.” An excellent translation of Sinichkin is available in Senelick, Russian Comedy, 1-58. See also Karlinsky, Russian Drama, 276-77.
125. As described by friend and admirer Mikhail Buturlin in “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 543.
126. Kosny, “Towards a Poetics of Classical Russian Vaudeville,” 190-99. See also his “Vodevil D. T. Lenskogo,” 367.
127. Swift, Popular Theater, 140; Beskin, “Lev Gurych Sinichkin”; and Lev Gurych Sinichkin, WMNB Video.
128. Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, esp. ix-x, 13, 173 (qu.), 174-76, 207 n. 41; idem, “Drama and Society.”
Chapter 6. Playing the Provinces
1. Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 5. See also McReynolds, Russia at Play, a study that reinforces Petrovskaya’s opinion and which she also quotes.
2. Sennett, Fall of Public Man, 207; Heather Nathans, “Forging a Powerful Engine”; Sterne, A Sentimental Journey (1768; London, 1995), 23. For provincial theater, in addition to the notes below, one may start with the chapters entitled “Provintsialnyi teatr” in vols. 1-4 of IRDT; Danilov, Russkii dramaticheskii teatr, 1: 147-58 and 2:156-70; Petrovskaya, Teatr izritelprovintsialnoi Rossii, 5-102 (covering 1850 to 1870). For an old but detailed province-by-province bibliography, see A. M. Bryanskii, “K istoriografii russkogo provintsialnogo teatra,” in Danilov, O teatre, 153-76.
3. Video: The Pyatnitsky Folk Ensemble, on Russian Folk Song and Dance.
4. Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 35. Serious research on serf theater, manorial and otherwise, began in the early Soviet period: Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya; and the Dynnik book. Many of the anecdotes about abuse of serf performers can be traced to Evreinov, Krepostnye aktëry, and further back to Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, and to Ekaterina Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” which draws heavily from De Passenens (1822), Vigel, and other travelers. M. D. Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, includes theatrical serfs.
5. The print in Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 69; Burgess, “Fairs and Entertainers in 18th-Century Russia,” 99. To world audiences, the best-known depiction of serfs performing for the masters is in Tchaikovsky’s opera Eugene Onegin (1879). On the Tolstoy episode, see Figes, Natasha's Dance.
6. Yu. V. Sobolev, manuscripts in RGALI, f. 860, op. 1, ed. kh. 348; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 35-37; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 129-53 (esp. 139) and passim. The most recent work expands Dynnik’s narrow definition to include cases of amateurs, professionals, and serfs performing together in looser manorial settings: Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa, 236-85. Her table, pp. 466-519, adds some items to Dynnik but is also incomplete.
7. Grossman, Pushkin, 62; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 279; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 66.
8. Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 255, 276; Mikhnevich, Ocherk, 303-4; Blagovo, Razskazy babushki, 203. See also Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 39-45; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 52; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, passim; Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 399.
9. IRDT, 2:205-6; N. P. Sheremetev, 1792 correspondence with I. A. Dmitrevsky and S. A. Sandunov on their training of his serf actors: RA (May 1896) 202-6; Senelick, Serf Actor, 9-10; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 64-65, 135-37; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 45; Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 396-98; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 154-56; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 252. On Shcherbatov, fierce defender of serfdom and noble rights but a foe of luxury, see Walicki, History of Russian Thought, 26-31.
10. Herzen, My Past, 67; Varneke, History, 103; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 20; Milyukov, Dobroe staroe vremya, 93-95 (qu. 95).
11. Karta krepostnogo teatra, wall map, in GTsTMRO; V. A. Koshelëv, “O 'literaturnoi' provintsii i 'literaturnoi provintsialnosti',” in Belousov, Russkaya provintsiya, 4950.
12. Ryabkov, Smolenskii krai, 66ff.; Ivanov, “Pervye spektakli,” 3; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 41; Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 27 (qu.).
13. IRDT, 2:16; Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 108-9; Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 52; Senelick, “Russian Serf Theatre”; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 158-59, a reproduction of the affiche; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 44.
14. Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 278; Anchipolovskii, Staryi teatr: Voronezh, 92 (Turgeneva); Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 51.
15. Leskov, “Make-Up Artist.” Leskov’s narrator is unsure which of the Kamensky counts the events concerned. See also McLean, Leskov, 438-41; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 201; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 41; Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 11-12.
16. Tula: Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 126-28; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 153; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 237-38; Ryazan and Ryumin: Rostislavov, Provincial Russia, 213.
17. Rybkin, Generalissimus Suvorov, 64; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 95-96; Borovsky, “Emergence of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 63; Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 405-6.
18. RBS, 2:566-69; IRDT, 2:417, mistakenly limits the theater’s lifetime to the years 1806-29; Kollar, “Ocherk istorii muzykalnogo teatra v Nizhnem Novgorode”; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 51-52; Feoktistov, “Glava iz vospominanii,” 101-4; Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (July 1890) 38-40 and (Aug. 1890) 258-59; Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 435; Murav, “Theater of Sukhovo-Kobylin,” 16-17; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 145-46; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 138-39.
19. Saratov: Gerakov, Putevyya zapiski, 35-36; Ya. K. Evdokimov, “Muzykalnoe proshloe Saratova” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 147-49. Simbirsk: Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 262-63; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 44. Penza: Vigel, Zapiski, 91, 147-49; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 141-42; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 131; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 46.
20. Fëdorov, Marino, 68-69; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 27-31; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 63, 118; Nikitenko, Up from Serfdom, 161-62.
21. Shalikov, Puteshestvie v Malorossiyu, 74-85, 215-52. Though he does not touch on this incident, Andreas Schonle’s analysis of Shalikov’s journeys helps explain why such self-absorbed sentimental travelers rarely perceived the realities of serfdom: Authenticity and Fiction, 88-98.
22. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 263; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 47: Krasovskaya, Russkii baletnyi teatr, 77-78. I have not inquired into Polish manorial theaters in Ukraine and Belorussia.
23. Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, 9-19; Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 403-6; Melnikov, Stoletie nizhegorodskoi yarmarki, 23-24; Kollar, “Ocherk istorii muzykalnogo teatra v Nizhnem Novgorode,” 295.
24. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 139 (qu.); and Belyakov, Opernaya i kontsertnaya deyatelnost, 1-16.
25. Gerakov, Putevyya zapiski, 21; Melnikov, Stoletie nizhegorodskoi yarmarki, 49; Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, 9-19; Selivanov, Predaniya i vospominaniya, 165-67; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 258-62.
26. Vigel, Zapiski, 172-74; Aksakov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1: 318-27; Pylyaev, Staroe zhitie, 264 (Tatars).
27. Vyazemskii cited in Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 129-30; Vigel, Zapiski, 148. See also Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 276-77; Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 141-42; Varneke, Istoriya, 126; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 195; IRDT, 2:420.
28. Chernov, Literaturnye mesta orlovskoi oblasti, 33-34.
29. First-hand accounts: Ertaulov, “Vospominaniya”; Buturlin, “Teatr grafa Kamenskago v Orle,” 1707-12; Zhirkevich, “Zapiski,” 565-73, 579-80. Other details in Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 14-15; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 142-45; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 266-72; and Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 165.
30. Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 19-20, is the only source for this.
31. Mikhail Semënovich Shchepkin, 2:153; Gertsen, “Soroka-Vorovka: povest,” Sochineniya, 1: 327-50, 502-7. For more detail, see Stites, “Misanthrope.” Chernov, “Krepostnye aktrisy orlovskogo teatra”; Putintsev, “Krepostnaya aktrisa Kuzmina,” 190-95; Grits, “K istorii 'Sorokivorovki',” 655-60; IRDT, 2:288, 423-26, 523.
32. Gerakov, Prodolzhenie putevykh zapisok, 122-23; Ertaulov, “Vospominaniya”; Dolgorukii, Puteshestvie, 6; and the sources in notes 30 and 31 above. One of the earliest provincial newspapers, Drug Rossian (1816-18), reviewed the performances at the Orël theater.
33. Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” 64-89; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 141-42; Moser, Pisemsky, 3, 5; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 97-107.
34. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 127; Sobolev, RGALI, f. 860, op. 1, ed. kh. 348.
35. Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 106, 232-34; Leichtentritt, Music, History, and Ideas, 182 (Cherubini); Mooser, L'opéra-comique français, 123-36; Lepskaya, Repertuar Sheremetevykh krepostnykh teatrov, 8-51, and the catalogue of performances.
36. Vigel, Zapiski, 82-83. Semi: Kuznetsov, Iz istorii, 67-70 (illust., p. 69). Krasovskaya, Istoriya russkogo baleta, 7; Mikhnevich, Ocherk, 307; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 1-4 (1897) 400-401, 420-21.
37. Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 164, and Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 22627, both citing Zhurnal dramaticheskii.
38. Zagoskin, Blagorodnyi teatr, 31 (qu.).
39. Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 1: 83-86, 157.
40. Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 163; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 279.
41. For the impact of gentry private power on the condition of the serf population, see Pipes, Property and Freedom, 190-200. See the thoughtful comments on motivations by Wortman: “Theatricality, Myth, and Authority,” 48-52.
42. V okrestnostyakh Moskvy, 327-32; Varneke, Istoriya, 483-84; Kelly, Refining Russia, 92 and n. 22. Largesse and ruinous spending were of course the habits only of those possessing great wealth, as Michael Confino has emphasized: Société et mentalités collectives, 375.
43. Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 399 (Wilmot); Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 7778; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 153; Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 275-76.
44. Komarovskii, “Iz zapisok,” 1278-79; Haxthausen, Russian Empire, 1: 227 (in fact the actors he saw were ex-serfs—see below); Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 28; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 134; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 167; Goffman, Presentation of Self, 22-24; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” passim. For the extent of mixed serf-amateur production, see Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa, 259-60 and the table, 466-519.
45. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 105-6; idem, “Emerald Thrones and Living Statues”; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 20 (serf ball); Herzen, My Past, 13; Hodge, Double Garland, 185 (hunchbacks).
46. [A. I. Rozanov], “Zapiski selskago svyashchennika,” RS (Jan. 1880) 67-68; Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 28; Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 108-9.
47. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 263; Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 24-34 (qu. 29); Nikulina-Kositskaia, “Notes,” 140-41.
48. Kugushev, Kornet Otletaev, 216 and 206 quotes. Pylyaev cites Kugushev’s relative, V. S. Taneev, as the model for this tale: Staroe zhite, 278. For a nuanced note on Kugushev: RPis, 3:196-97. Later novels, both set at the time of the Crimean War, took up the theme. Sergei Atava’s Menacing Shadows (1888), an expose of gentry evil seducers, drew on his own prereform life: Atava [S. N. Terpigorev], Potrevozhennyya teni, also an expanded version in Sobranie sochinenii, 3:5-72! G. A. Machtet’s And One in the Field Is a Warrior (a reference to a once famous Friedrich Spielhagen novel) combines all the horrors of theatrical erotic bondage, as seen though the eyes of a lackey: I odin v pole voin in Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 5:5-185 (see pp. 112-13).
The misuse of female serf performers was taken up in Soviet ballets: ballet master Fëdor Lopukhov and composer K. A. Korchmarev, The Serf Ballerina (1927); and L. M. Lavrovsky, Katerina (193 5), with the music of Anton Rubinstein and Adolphe Adam: Krasovskaya, Istoriya russkogo baleta, 25; Lopukhov, Shestdesyat let v balete.
49. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 107-9, with portrait by N. I. Argunov; Mal-nick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 408; IRDT, 2:212-13; Sukhodolov, “Graf N. P. Sheremetev”; Douglas Smith, personal communication.
50. Sibiryakov: Negorov, “Krepostnoi teatr,” Teatr i iskusstvo, 7 (Feb. 15, 1911) 153; Guseva: Medvedev (her nephew), Vospominaniya, 137.
51. IRDT, 2:217.
52. Qu. in Pylyaev, Staroe zhite, 260. Dolgorukii rendered a slightly more qualified judgment on the serfs of the Kamensky theater a few years later: Dolgorukii, Puteshestvie, 7-10, 197-98.
53. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 136, 138 (qu.); Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr 9-19; Senelick, “Erotic Bondage,” 30-31 Illustration of a punishment instrument in Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 403.
54. See IRDT, vols. 2, 3, and 4, for numerous examples of successful actors; Vyazem-sky's views cited in Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa, 275; Evreinov, Krepostnye aktëry, 4, 24, 39, and passim; Malnick, “Russian Serf Theatres,” 393 (qu.), 407-8.
55. Hoch, Serfdom and Social Control; Field, Rebels in the Name of the Tsar; Frierson, Peasant Icons.
56. Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 171-72; Bystrov: Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 1: 30; Turgenev, PSS, 4:86; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 54. Raisonneur: in a play, the voice of moral judgment.
57. A prime example is Shchepetov, Iz zhizni krepostnykh krestyan, 41-43. See also the contrasting but mutually complementary views of Priscilla Roosevelt and Laurence Senelick in RR, 50/1 (Jan. 1991) 1-34.
58. Catherine cited by Roosevelt in Russian Country Estate, 138.
59. Borovsky, “Organization of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 45; idem, “Emergence of the Russian Theatre,” ibid., 64; Wirtschafter, Play of Ideas, 18-19; Sakhnovskii, Krepostnoi usadebnyi teatr, 9; Smith, Working the Rough Stone, 77-78; Varneke, Istoriya, 117-32; IRDT, 2:191-204, covering the years 1800-1812.
60. Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 118-19, 123, 133, 145; idem, “Dream and Reality of Russian Provincial Young Ladies,” 36-41; Bernstein, “Women on the Verge of a New Language,” 210-ii.
61. Lavrov, Stsena, 121.
62. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 136, 138; Edwards, Russians at Home, 163.
63. Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 73-76; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 9096; IRDT, 4:220-21; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 193-95; Yaroslavskiya gubernskiya vedomosti, (Mar. 3, 1856) 73. See also (Feb. 4, 1856) 39-41, (Mar. 3, 1856) 74, and (Mar. 10, 1856) 83. Information on topography and population in provincial towns as of 1843 is drawn from Gagarin, Vseobshchii geograficheskii slovar, and Shaw, Landscape and Settlement in Romanov Russia, 257.
64. Zhdanov, Putevyya, 48; Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka,” IV (June 1907) 738.
65. Koshman, “Gorod i obshchestvenno-kulturnaya zhizn,” 35; Selivanov, “Teatr v Tambove,” 22-27 (s.p.); Zhdanov, Putevyya, 77; Lavrov, Stsena, 86-97, 103.
66. Vigel, Zapiski, 88; Ocherki istorii voronezhskogo kraya, 444-52 (qu. 446) and 460-80; Anchipolovskii, Staryi teatr: Voronezh, 1-120; IRDT, 4:38-40.
67. Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 23, 123-25; Gerakov, Prodolzhenie putevykh zapisok, 153; Kvitka, “Dvoryanskie vybory”; Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 306-7; Lavrov, Stsena, 135-38.
68. Lavrov, Stsena, 142-43; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 48-62; Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1: 104 (Miloslavsky); Glagoleva, Russkaya provintsialnaya starina, 124-27 (qu. 126).
69. Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 8 (1898) 536; Smirnova, “Iz zapisok,” 77; Senelick, Serf Actor, 171; Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 36.
70. Murzakevich, Istoriya goroda Smolenska, 113-20; Ryabkov, Smolenskii krai, 66ff.; A. Ivanov, “Pervye spektakli”; GASO, f. I, op. 1, d. 186.
71. Putevoditel ot Moskvy do S.-Peterburga i obratno, 108-21; Haywood, Russia Enters the Railway Age, 1842-1855.
72. Haywood, Beginnings of Railway Development, 75; Gohstand, “Geography of Trade,” 333-39; Fitzpatrick, Great Russian Fair, 174; Melnikov, Stoletie nizhegorodskoi yarmarki, 1-95.
73. Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, 21-24; Belyakov, Opernaya i kontsertnaya deyatelnost, 19-23; Kollar, “Ocherk istorii muzykalnogo teatra v Nizhnem Novgorode,” 298-99; Bremner, Excursions in the Interior of Russia, 2:213-16. The son of one of Shakhovskoi’s actresses, Alexei Mikhailov (1818-60), was freed no later than 1838 and went on to the Academy of Arts to study with Bryullov: Gosudarstvennyi Russkii Muzei, Zhivopis XVIII-pervoi poloviny XIX vekov, 46.
74. Zhdanov, Putevyya, 202-3; Haxthausen, Russian Empire, 1:228; Belyakov, Opernaya ikontsertnaya deyatelnost, 19-28; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 181 (Queen Mary); Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, 33-37, 44-45.
75. For similar events in the United States at this period, see Preston, Opera on the Road, 99-148. Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:58.
76. IRDT, 3:161-66 and 4:223-25; Kruti, Russkii teatr v Kazani, 90-149; Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:103-7.
77. E. V. Maiburov, “Muzykalnaya zhizn Ekaterinburga” in Shteinpress, Iz muzykalnogo proshlogo, 22-77; IRDT, 4:240-42; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 194.
78. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 194, 216-48; Lavrov, Stsena, 106-7; IRDT, 4:22223.
79. Moser, Pisemsky, 68; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 213; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 25253.
80. Vsevolozhskii, Puteshestvie, 1:10; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 97.
81. Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 1:14-19; Kurskii oblastnoi dramaticheskii teatr; Vnukova, “Kurskii dramaticheskii teatr”; Kursk: kraevedcheskii slovar-spravochnik, 140-42; IRDT, 2:225-26; Senelick, Serf Actor, 11, 18, 103; Lavrov, Stsena, 155-61.
82. Klinchin, Rybakov, n-24; Lavrov, Stsena, 155-61; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 101-4.
83. Flynn, University Reform, 153-54. Disorders among students—drink, theft, fighting—were common at the time. Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Jan. 1884) 259-60; IRDT, 4:227 (Rosen qu.); Haxthausen, Russian Empire, 1:396.
84. Senelick, Serf Actor, 38-39, 46-47; Lavrov, Stsena, 133; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 131; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 142-46.
85. Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 101; Hamm, Kiev, 147 and passim; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 150, 161-62; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 592; Gerakov, Prodolzhenie putevykh zapisok, 85; Panteon (1852) 3; “Bogdanov Artistic Family” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 197; IRDT, 4:226 (Engelhardt).
86. De-Ribas (the grandson of a Neapolitan consul in Odessa), Staraya Odessa, 88-93 and passim; Herlihy, Odessa, 137, 141-42; idem, “Commerce and Architecture in Odessa.” Opera: Gozenpud, Russkii opernyi teatr; Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically, 188-90; Buckler, Literary Lorgnette, 4-5; Zipperstein, Jews of Odessa, 65-66. Memoirs: Jesse, Notes of a Half-Pay, 1:199; Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Mar. 1884) 451-52; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 5-8 (1897) 28; Vsevolozhskii, Puteshestvie, 1:100; Gerakov, Prodolzhenie putevykh zapisok, 64-78.
87. IRDT, 4:229-36; Senelick, Serf Actor, 173-74.
88. Panteon (1852) 11 (Kishinëv); IRDT, 4:228-29; Senelick, Serf Actor, 174-76; Lavrov, Stsena, 114-20.
89. Pskov is mentioned as a stopping point for troupes, but I have no details. The observant Zhdanov, Putevyya, 22, cites the absence of gentry in the town of Novgorod; Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 76-78 (Vologda); Parkinson quoted in Hartley, Social History, 194; Giesemann, Kotzebue in Russland, 73-74.
90. Borovsky, “Organization of the Russian Theatre” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 54, and “Emergence of the Russian Theatre,” ibid., 65 (qu.); IRDT, 4:242-45.
91. Filonov, “V novo-cherkasskom teatre,” 69-82; Klinchin, Rybakov, 51; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 63-71, 148-76.
92. Mikhailova, ''Vopros o teatralnoi monopolii," 76-86; Danilov, Russkii dramaticheskii teatr, 2:156; Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritelprovintsialnoi Rossii, 29. My list: Archangel, Astrakhan, Dunaburg, Dvinsk, Ekaterinburg, Irbit, Kazan, Kerch, Kharkov, Kherson, Kiev, Kishinëv, Kostroma, Kursk, Mogilev, Morshansk, Nikolaevsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Novocherkassk, Odessa, Orël, Orenburg, Penza, Perm, Poltava, Pskov, Rostov-on-Don, Rybinsk, Saratov, Sevastopol, Shemyaka, Simbirsk, Simferopol, Smolensk, Staraya Rusa, Stavropol, Taganrog, Tambov, Tula, Tver, Ufa, Vilna, Vladimir, Vologda, Voronezh, Voznesensk, Vyatka, Vyshny Volochok, Yaroslavl, Zhitomir.
93. Lavrov, Stsena, 168-70; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 128-47, 177-88; Gorbunov, Sochineniya, 3:24, 224, passim. I have found no connection between Barsov’s Inn and the serf actors of that name, nor data on when the hiring hall began functioning. A Kursk scholar believes that the connection is probable but not provable: Yurii Bugrov, conversation, Kursk, July, 2003.
94. Lavrov, Stsena, 103, 143-44. M. L. Mikhailov’s novel Perepletnye ptichki, Sochineniya (1915), 2:83, vividly describes a colorful three-wagon caravan full of costumes and effects. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 192-93, 268; Zhdanov, Putevyya, passim; Fitzpatrick, Great Russian Fair, 172.
95. Gohstand, “Geography of Trade,” 329 (qu.); Rozman, Urban Networks, 120; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:43; Burgess, “Fairs and Entertainers in 18th-Century Russia,” 95-113; Nekrylova, Russkie narodnye gorodskie prazdniki.
96. Dolgoruky cited in Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 147, 151. The prince noted some years later that in Ukraine the streets were also a Babel of languages: Dolgorukii, Puteshestvie, 87-88. Shalikov, Drugoe puteshestvie v Malorossiyu, 89-95; Herzen, My Past, 171-73 (Tyufyaev); Christoff, Introduction, vol. 3: Aksakov, 64-65. An exciting evocation of days at a country fair is offered in Egor Klassen’s novel, Provintsialnaya zhizn, 3 v. (Moscow, 1843) 1:53-131. See also Selivanov, “Teatr v Tambove.”
97. Herlihy, “South Ukraine as an Economic Region,” 316; Gohstand, “Geography of Trade,” 339-46 (map, p. 340); Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 47; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 113.
98. Lysykh, “Istoriya kurskoi korenskoi yarmarki,” 7-8; Ieromonakh Leonid, “Korennaya yarmarka”, 34-35; Gohstand, “Geography of Trade,” 344; Rozman, Urban Networks, passim; Zhdanov, Putevyya, 97-99; Lavrov, Stsena, 161-63; Senelick, Serf Actor, 25. The fair still functions.
99. Gorshkov, “Serfs on the Move: Peasant Seasonal Migration.”
100. Szwankowski, Teatr Wojciecha Boguslawskiego, 212, 239; see also Ratajczak, “Teatr prowincjionalny i prowincja teatralna”; Saunders, Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture; IRDT, 2:399-402.
101. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Teatr v Rossii, 151; IRDT, 2:402-10, 461; TE, 5:92526; Senelick, Serf Actor, 35-39.
102. IRDT, 3:166-77; TE, 3:868-69.
103. Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 157-59; Senelick, Serf Actor, 1-20, 136 (qu.); Shchepkin, “Zapiski”; Osykov, Ya rodilsya v sele Krasnom.
104. Senelick, Serf Actor, 20-54; Shchepkin, “Zapiski,” 93-128; Malnick, “Actors Shchepkin and Sosnitsky,” 293.
105. Senelick, Serf Actor, 69-248 passim; Laskina, Mochalov, 152; Rybakov in Lavrov, Stsena, 132; Rossiev, “M. S. Shchepkin, gastroler,” 60-67.
106. Klinchin, Rybakov, passim; Lavrov, Stsena, 124-30; IRDT, 3:193-99.
107. Ivanov, “Vospominaniya”; Haywood, Beginnings of Railway Development, 1-17(Rybinsk and the river systems).
108. Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 67, 71-72; (Nov. 1891) 323-32, and passim.
109. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 27-28, 75-87, 97-107, 120, and passim; TE, 3:758.
110. Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 98; Mikhailov, Perepletnye ptichki, Sochineniya (1915), 2:1-296. Boborykin, Za polveka, 327. See also Fateev, Mikhail Mikhailov, 128-30. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 138-43, 183-86; Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Nov. 1891) 338-45 and (Dec. 1891) 583-88; IRDT, 4:252-53; Kruti, Russkii teatr v Kazani, 102.
111. Lavrov, Stsena, 7-40, 48-78 (qu. 50 and 67). As a member of the meshchanstvo (a townsman) he was required constantly to account for his movements to the police.
112. Ibid., 86-97, 103-5, 114-24.
113. Ibid., 94, 10 5, 120-21, 144, 161-63.
114. Ibid., 164-66 (list of his provincial roles), 196-206 (qu. 197), 217-18. Not all provincials passed their Moscow auditions. An earlier actor, anticipating Ernst Neizvestny’s famous confrontation with Khrushchev, responded thus to criticism of his “realistic” delivery: “Your Excellency, a general’s rank does not suffice to make judgments on art.” He was dismissed: Efros, Shchepkin, 27.
115. TE, 1:1052; IRDT, 3:201-3.
116. Nikulina-Kositskaia, “Notes,” 109-57.
117. Bulgarin, Ivan Vyzhigin, 3:131; Nikulina-Kositskaya, “Notes,” 150. This version corrects the biographical dates in the original: “Zapiski.” For the Volga references, see RS (Feb. 1878) 296-97. See also Varneke, Istoriya, 579-81.
118. “Bogdanov Artistic Family” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 188-213; Insarskii, Zapiski, 132-33; Illyustrirovannyi semeinyi listok, 63-64 (Feb. 14, 1860) 103-6; RB, 65-66.
119. Arnold, Vospominaniya, 2:101-3; Selivanov, “Teatr v Tambove,” 27; R. M. Zotov, “Zapiski,” IV (Oct., 1896) 36.
120. Panteon (Mar. 1852) 2 (s.p.); Anchipolovskii, Staryi teatr: Voronezh, 95 (Sokolov). Entrepreneur N. I. Ivanov describes how personal connections worked in getting into the Moscow theater: “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 85-87. The pathway from provincial circuits to stardom in the capitals was common throughout Europe. From the provinces Isidoro Maiquez (d. 1820) went to Madrid; Karoly Megyeri (1799-1842) and Marton Lendvay (1807-58) to Pest; Johann Brockmann (1745-1812) to Vienna; Ludwig Devrient (1784-1832) to the Royal Theater in Berlin; and Edmund Kean from Wales and Exeter to London. For the last, see Donohue, Theatre in the Age of Kean.
121. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 132.
122. Lavrov, Stsena, 133; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 234, 261-62; Vnukova, “Kurskii dramaticheskii teatr” 59 (tavern drinking). Artists were not above cheating. One provincial performer signed on to play twenty-four instruments which turned out to be twenty-four drums: “Bogdanov Artistic Family” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 194-95. Managers and actors used cheap devices to fill the seats, such as affiches showing fires, bridges destroyed, daggers, poison, and other horrors that appeared nowhere in the production: Filonov, “V novo-cherkasskom teatre,” 80. One actor chose for his benefit a work centered around 1812; he borrowed cannons from the garrison and placed them in front of the theater to suggest a lavish spectacle, thus angering the full house when no ordnance appeared on stage: Lavrov, Stsena, 160-61.
123. Bulgarin, Ivan Vyzhigin, 3:115-42 (qu. 124). The novel was translated as Ivan Vejeeghen and excerpted in Von Geldern, Entertaining Tsarist Russia, 65-74.
124. Veltman, ''Provintsialnye aktëry" Biblioteka dlya chteniya, 10 (183 5) 108-43. The vaudeville, Neistovyi Roland v bezumnom dome, was a translation of Roland furieux, a send-up of Ariosto. Soviet scholars, unwilling to admit such a humble provenance for the idea behind Gogol’s masterpiece, instead attributed it to a twenty-word fragment by Pushkin. But the similarities between Veltman’s tale and Inspector General are too obvious to be ignored.
125. Mikhailov, Pereplëtnyeptichki, Sochineniya (1915), 2:1-296. The Soviet edition, Sochineniya (1958) 2:124-392, contains useful commentary, pp. 550-57. Except for tales of exploitation, most Soviet accounts of provincial theater tend to ignore the life of actors outside their stage roles. The narratives of theater life are male-dominated and thus incomplete and even distorted. Gender in the postemancipation period is skillfully explored in Schuler, Women in Russian Theater, and her present research holds promise for a deeper understanding of life on stage in the pre-emancipation period.
126. Petrovskaya, Teatr izritelprovintsialnoi Rossii, 38-39; Drizen, Materialy, 132-33; Mikhailova, ''Vopros o teatralnoi monopolii"; Golub, Recurrence of Fate, 134 (Woe from Wit); Danilov, Russkii dramaticheskii teatr, 2:158; IRDT, 3:152-53. Enterprising scholars seem to find more illegal performances of Woe from Wit each year.
127. To take but two comparative examples, see Pies, Theater in Schleswig; Pekacz, Music in the Culture of Polish Galicia.
128. For the complete list, see Artynov, Vospominaniya krestyanina, 140.
129. Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 74; Moser, Pisemsky, 55; Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:56-59; IRDT, 3:150-51; Seletskii, “Zapiski,” KS, 8 (Jan. 1884) 259-60.
130. At a performance in Kaluga of Dmitry Donskoi in the 1830s, the gallery clapped with furor to recall the lead who appeared in sandals and bowed to the four corners of the theater with his hand over his heart: Smirnova, “Iz zapisok,” 79.
131. IRDT, 3:151; Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow, 15 and passim.
132. Ozarovskii, "Khram Talii i Melpomeny," 522-23.
133. Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaya starina, 436; Gatsiskii, “Aleksandr Dmitrievich Ulybyshev,” 55-56, 66.
134. Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 257-59; Senelick, Serf Actor, 76; M. I. Semevskii [Mikhail Sevskii], “Progulka v Nizhnii Novgorod,” RV (Aug. 1860) 295-96 (Rybinsk); Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 70 and (Nov. 1891) 333, 340.
135. Senelick, Serf Actor, xiii (qu.), 53. See also IRDT, 3:153-58.
136. Filonov, “V novo-cherkasskom teatre”; IRDT, 3:169-73, for one of numerous examples cited throughout these volumes; Kruti, Russkii teatr v Kazani, 97 (Aksakov). For a sample of Belinsky on theater, see an excerpt in Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, 60-70.
137. Kapkanishchikov: “Kniga pamyati Alekseya Petrovicha Kapkanishchikova,” Iz istorii voronezhskogo kraya, 181-206 (see 188-89, 201-2). Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:56-59; the Kursk peasant: Bugrov, Svet kurskikh ramp, 1:25-26. For Popular Theaters—enterprises created by the intelligentsia, state, church, and private organizations to promote culture for the lower classes—see Swift, Popular Theater, especially pp. 266-84; and Thurston, Popular Theater, who discusses peasant reactions to theatrical performances and readings in the 1860s to 1880s (pp. 10, 68-73, 101-15). For parallels in reading tastes, see Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read.
138. Tolchënov: Ransel, “Eighteenth-Century Russian Merchant Family”; idem, “Enlightenment and Tradition.”
139. Orlovskii starozhil, Bylyya chudaki, 14-15 (Kamensky); Ivanov, “Vospominaniya,” IV (Oct. 1891) 71 (Shiryaev); Merzlyakov, “Poseshchenie teatra,” on divinity students. It seems unlikely that the Jewish theatergoers were only those under the influence of the growing Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement flowing in from Austria and the Germanies. For the breadth of audience reception in the Popular Theaters of later times, see Swift, Popular Theater, 205-31. Though seldom noted, acting (and dancing for females) outside the calendric ritual cycle was considered sinful in the norms of peasant culture: Dmitrieva, Zhizn usadebnogo mifa, 276.
140. Senelick, Serf Actor, 11.
141. “Bogdanov Artistic Family” in Wiley, Century of Russian Ballet, 192-93.
142. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:306-8 and passim. Under Nicholas I, governors in some towns appointed local directorates composed of minor officials to oversee theater schedules and repertoires, while leaving artistic management to theater staff. The social power system of the Imperial Directorate was only roughly replicated. Directors had their female “favorites,” and actors who insulted one could be dismissed. More often they got detailed to guard duty, as in Voronezh where, in Medvedev’s words, “nearly everyone in town would come to see Hamlet on duty in the watchtower.” Memoirs testified to the decency of most officials toward theater people: IRDT, 3:25; Medvedev, Vospominaniya, 195 (qu.) and passim; Lavrov, Stsena, 139.
Chapter 7. Academic Vistas
1. The eighteenth-century European art flow into Russia is told in splendid illustrative detail in Cracraft, Petrine Revolution in Russian Imagery.
2. Repin, Dalëkoe blizkoe, 121. The description comes from my visits in 1989 and 1997-98 and from three illustrated books: Litovchenko, Nauchno-issledovatelskii muzei; Lisovskii, Akademiya khudozhestv; and Imperatorskaya Akademiya Khudozhestv (1997). Plakhov, Coachmen's Room at the Academy of Arts: GRMFZh, 5204. See the painting of the antique gallery by G. K. Mikhailov from the 1830s in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 215.
3. Prehistory in Cracraft, Petrine Revolution in Russian Imagery, 234-42. See also note 2 above, and McConnell, “Catherine the Great and the Fine Arts”; Munro, “Academy of Fine Arts.” Mikhail Piotrovsky, Director of the State Hermitage Museum, lecture on October 8, 1999 at the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington, D. C.
4. Quote: Finland and Russia, 484; ISAKh, 13-14. Unlike the Paris Academy, the Petersburg Academy housed all the arts in one building: Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 228. See also Boime, Academy and French Painting. For foundlings, see chap. 4 and Ransel, Mothers of Misery, 31-62.
5. Painting reproduced in Shevchenko, Povest, 290. Administrative details and biographies: Kondakov, Yubileinyi spravochnik. See also Limonov, Rossiya pervoi poloviny XIX v. glazami inostrantsev, 713 n. 19.
6. ISAKh, 21-32; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 19-44; Choiseul-Gouffier, Historical Memoirs, viii; Stroganov: Sarabianov, Russian Art, 12; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 83-86; Hunter-Stiebel, Stroganoff, 145-56; Petrov, Sbornik materialov, 1:44.
7. Solntsev, “Moya zhizn,” RS (Feb. 1876) 311-23, a favorable account; A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 73, a more critical one. A good balanced study in English is Stuart Aristocrat-Librarian, see pp. 111-12. For Labzin’s mystical contacts, see Etkind, “Umirayushchii sfinks”; and Labzina, Days of a Russian Noblewoman.
8. Korf, "Materialy," 45; ISAKh, 32-46.
9. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 4-7. In 1840, the closing of the boarding school reduced the educational level of Academy students.
10. ISAKh, 29 (both qu.); Kondakov, Yubileinyi spravochnik, 1:288; Yunge (his daughter), “Iz moikh vospominanii”; idem, Vospominaniya, the book version; and Tolstoy, Tolstoys, 146-72 and passim (silhouette, 175).
11. Nikitenko, Diary, 45; Yunge, “Iz moikh vospominanii,” VE, 40/1-2 (Jan.-Feb. 1905) 804 (qu.).
12. Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 1-25; ISAKh, 24.
13. Perkins, “Mobility in the Art Profession,” 225-33 (230 n. 29); Solntsev, “Moya zhizn,” RS (Jan. 1876) 116-28.
14. Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 117-18; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 9; A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 77. For a detailed administrative history of the Academy to 1863, see Petrov, Sbornik, vols. 1-3.
15. Flynn, University Reform, 75-80. See also Friedman, ''In the Company of Men, 25, 29-30, 61ff. Obligated classes: those who were taxable and liable for military service.
16. Ruban, Zabitye imena, 28 (qu.), 29. Subsequent rulings in Petrov, Sbornik, 1:93-94, 114-15.
17. A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 73; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 52. Similar arrangements involved, apparently, no tension: cf. the Smolensk landowner who sent a young house serf to the Moscow English Club to learn culinary art in order for him to return to employment in his kitchen: Mariya Nikoleva, “Cherty starinnago byta,” RA, 10 (1893) 169. See also Gray, Russian Genre Painting, ix.
18. The decree: Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 111; Vrangel, “Arakcheev 1 iskusstvo,” 439-71 (qu. 458). See also Jenkins, Arakcheev.
19. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 347 n. 32, reproduces only a somewhat misleading portion of this correspondence with Arakcheev. The full version is in “Aleksei Nikolaevich Olenin,” esp. 284-88, letter of Olenin to Arakcheev, Dec. 16, 1817 (qu. 286-87). Additional comment in Stuart, Aristocrat-Librarian, 103-4. A decade later, reacting to the suicide of a serf art student, General Benckendorff, chief of the political police, echoed Olenin’s view that “only free men should be allowed to study the fine arts.” Morrisey, “In the Name of Freedom,” 289 (see chapter 8 of the present work).
20. Stuart Aristocrat-Librarian, 148.
21. V. I. Semevskii, Krestyanskii vopros v Rossii, 1:399.
22. Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 104.
23. Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries, 98.
24. A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 73; Petrov, Sbornik, 3:3.
25. Selected data on social origins from 1764 in Petrov, Sbornik, 1:159-71. Other eighteenth- and all nineteenth-century figures: Perkins, “Mobility in the Art Profession,” 225-33 (her figures for 1833-39 refer only to state-supported students). In contrast to the eighteenth century, very few graduates of serf origin became prominent. Other sources show the children of merchants of various guilds as Academy students. See also Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 1-25.
26. Perkins, “Mobility in the Art Profession”; Maegd-Soep, Emancipation of Women, 97; Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:350; Kondakov, Spisok, 192; Petrov, Sbornik, 1:426.
27. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 20-21; Shevchenko, Povest, 38 n. 21; Stuart, Aristocrat-Librarian, 99-100; Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 1-3; Yakovkina, Istoriya russkoi kultury, 212-13.
28. Solntsev, “Moya zhizn,” RS (Jan. 1876) 116-28 and (Feb. 1876) 315-16, 318; Moleva, Pedagogicheskaya sistema Akademii Khudozhestv, 135; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 39. The Blagoveshchensky (later Nikolaevsky) Bridge between Vasilevsky Island at the Academy and the English Embankment did not open until 1853: lithograph in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 110.
29. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 14.
30. Seryakov, “Moya trudovaya zhizn.” Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 52, 78-83, like most others who wrote about Seryakov, omits Bulgarin’s role. Throughout, the capitalized term “Academician” refers to an honorific title granted by the Academy which came with government rank and the chance of a low-ranking teaching post. I use “academician” in the usual sense of one teaching at or professing the norms of the Academy.
31. Solntsev, “Moya zhizn”; Belozerskaya, “Fëdor Grigorevich Solntsev.”
32. Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 41-57, 115, passim; Shevchenko, Povest, 39 (qu.), 116-18. This autobiographical novella of 1855 (The Artist in English) offers a colorful picture of life inside the Academy.
33. F. F. Lvov, “Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhnikov,” 633-54 (qu. 635).
34. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, passim; Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 1-25; Ramazanov, “Vospominaniya o Karle Pavloviche Bryullove,” 19; Solntsev, “Moya zhizn,” RS (Jan. 1876) 119-28; Boime, Academy and French Painting, 19-21; ISAKh, 24-25.
35. Alekseeva, Venetsianov, 28-29. The drawings got Venetsianov’s application for an Academy position rejected: Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 89.
36. Petrov, Sbornik, 1:119; Kondakov, Yubileinyi spravochnik, 1:159; Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 1-6; Stuart Aristocrat-Librarian, 99; Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 70.
37. Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 35.
38. Edwards, Russians at Home, 346-47.
39. Mme. de Staël's Corinne, a Story of Italy; Sarabianov, Russian Art, 44.
40. Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 122-23; Taylor, “Russian Painters and the Pursuit of Light”; Kondakov, Spisok, 5, 126.
41. Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 12 (ill.); Shevchenko, Povest, 335; Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:288 (Kologrivova); unsigned and unidentified newspaper clipping in RGALI, f. 191, ed. kh. 2057 (scandals).
42. ISAKh, 42 (qu.); Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 123.
43. Mai, “Poussin, Felibien, und Lebrun: zur Formierung der franzosischen Historien-malerei an der Academie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in Paris” in Mai, Historien-malerei in Europa, 9-25; Pevsner, Academies of Art, 89-101: Barrell, “Public Prospect and the Private View,” 35; Burke, English Art, 90-119, 236-39; Leppert, Art and the Committed Eye, 41.
44. Shevchenko, Povest, 166.
45. For interesting commentary, see Savinov, “Akademicheskaya zhivopis.”
46. Reproduction in Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, pl. 44. The Notbek hangs in the Circular Gallery of the Academy (see also Litovchenko, Nauchno-issledovatelskii muzei, 13). For an interesting speculation on viewers of homoerotic art, see Collins, Leonardo, 180-81 and passim.
47. Ramazanov, “Vospominaniya o Karle Pavloviche Bryullove”; Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 179; Gagarin, “Vospominaniya,” 899.
48. Edward Bulwer-Lytton's once world-famous novel, The Last Days of Pompeii, appeared a year after Bryullov completed his canvas and was translated into Russian in 1836. Gagarin, “Vospominaniya,” 899; Pacini, L'ultimo giorno di Pompeii, score and libretto. Commentary in Sarabianov, Russian Art, 58-60; Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 125.
49. RGALI, f. 191, ed. kh. 2057 (P. A. Efremov, materials on Karl Bryullov); Hudson, Rise of the Demidov Family, 113-14; MERSH, 9:52-54; Volkov, St. Petersburg, 62.
50. Olkhovskii, Peterburgskie istorii, 17 (Nekrasov); Swift, Popular Theater, 37-38 (circus).
51. Unsigned, “Gigant russkago iskusstva,” RGALI, f. 191, ed. kh. 2057; Ramazanov, “Vospominaniya o Karle Pavloviche Bryullove,” 1-4; Savinov, Bryullov, 102.
52. On patroness-ward relationship among the Russian gentry, see Kelly, Refining Russia, 43-44. For the Bryullov-Samoilova liaison, see Regina, “Karl Briullov’s Portrait.”
53. The poet Yuliya Zhadovskaya, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1:138; Nikitenko, Diary, 78.
54. Insarskii, Zapiski, 74-75; Shevchenko, in The Artist, often gives an impression of Bryullov’s moderation; Sarabianov, Russian Art, 62.
55. RGALI, f. 191, ed. kh. 2057 (revival). According to some accounts, Bryullov once gave up waiting for Tsar Nicholas I to appear for a portrait sitting when the monarch was twenty minutes late. The artist explained his breach of court etiquette by saying that he knew of the tsar’s punctuality and therefore thought that he was not coming at all: Sarabianov, Russian Art, 57.
56. Baehr, Paradise Myth, and Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1; Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 23; Paulson, Beautiful, Novel, and Strange, 305.
57. RKh, 220-22 (Egorov).
58. OZ (Mar. 1858) cited in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 284; Boborykin, Vospominaniya, 1:176; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 107-9. The agony of Ivanov’s composition is summarized in Sarabianov, Russian Art, 70-72. Commentary: Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 127-28.
59. Werner Busch, "Über Helden diskutiert Man nicht: zum Wandel des Historienbildes im englischen 18. Jahrhundert'' in Mai, Historienmalerei, 57-76.
60. Kondakov, Spisok, 116; Hamilton, Art and Architecture, 228; Lebedev, Russkaya istoricheskaya zhivopis, unpaginated; Cracraft, Petrine Revolution in Russian Imagery, 246-47.
61. Tr. in Segel, Literature of Eighteenth-Century Russia, 1:459-69 (qu. 459). For other contemporary articles along these lines, see Vrangel, “Romantizm v zhivopisi aleksandrovskoi epokhi,” SG (July-Sept. 1908) 383.
62. A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 70.
63. ISAKh, 28, Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 28.
64. Vrangel, “Romantizm v zhivopisi,” 383-87; Aptekar, Russkaya istoricheskaya zhivopis; Zorin, Kormya dvuglavogo orla, 160-61.
65. Ivanchin-Pisarev, Otechestvennaya galleriya, 1:153 and 2:1-77; Kohlman, On Senate Square, December 14, 1825. Reproduced many times: see Shevchenko, Povest, 228. A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 70.
66. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 51, 53, 143-44. The battle paintings (a so-named branch of the art profession) dealing with more recent events were much better but not much more interesting.
67. Pevsner, Academies of Art, 234; IIRR, 11.
68. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 26; Leppert, Art and the Committed Eye, 9, 165, and idem, Music and Image, chap. 8. For self-control as a badge of nobility, see Elias, Civilizing Process.
69. Galagin: Ruban, Zabitye imena, 38-39; the Kochubei picture may have been commissioned by his survivors since he died in 1834 and the piece is roughly dated to the mid-1830s: Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 213; Glebov: Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 296, 309.
70. See Portretnaya miniatyura, 1. Among many treatments, Andreeva, Pervye khudozhniki Peterburga, and Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 114-15. I have also drawn from Grand Duke N. M. Romanov’s Russkie portrety XVIII i XIX vekov, which contains about one thousand portrait reproductions. For its importance, see Cockfield, White Crow, 77.
71. Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy, 27-34.
72. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, 154. Ironically, many of the portraits of the Stalin era possessed exactly this quality.
73. Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 119 and pl. 71; Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg, 27-28. Comment and reproductions in Baehr, Paradise Myth, 80-82, 121; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 126-27; Portret v russkoi zhivopisi XVIII-XIX vekov. Hamilton, Art and Architecture of Russia, 229.
74. Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 114; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 127-28; Portret v russkoi zhivopisi, unnumbered reproduction. Kurakin the censor: Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 81 n. 44. See also Richard Brompton’s 1781 portrait showing a cross-legged Kurakin with a walking stick, leaning on a rocky surface in a very vague landscape. Here the subject is so obviously happy that he has gone beyond the conventional restraint: Cross, By the Banks of the Neva, 308-13 (111. 313).
75. Reproduction: plate ix of IRI, 1. See Leppert, Music and Image, 161-62. Borovikovsky’s enchanting miniatures in Portretnaya miniatyura, 1:120-32.
76. The painter became a devotee of Ekaterina Tatarinova, Lutheran-born and Smolny-educated widow of a military hero. She hosted a “ship” or chapter of the Petersburg Khlysty and Skoptsy religious sectarians, the latter known for their practice of self-castration. Along with Nikita Fëdorov, a peasant prophet and musician from the Cadet Corps, she conducted “raptures” in the Mikhailovsky Castle, where adepts attired in white garments sang and uttered prophecy: Sarabianov, Russian Art, 27; Yatsevich, Pushkinskii Peterburg, 118-20. For the mystical currents, see Etkind, “Umirayushchii sfinks” and Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom, 41.
77. Sarabyanov, Kiprenskii; Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 173-74; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 68-69. There are many versions of the murder story. Reproductions: Portret v russkoi zhivopisi, unnumbered; Portretnaya miniatyura, 2:16.
78. The question which of three Davydov brothers is here represented is still debated. IRI, 1, pl. xi; Kirsanova, Kostyum v russkoi khudozhestvennoi kulture, 158-60; idem, Rozovaya ksendreika, and Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov.
79. Sarabianov, Russian Art, 30, 32.
80. Rosenthal, Prospects for the Nation, 1-12 and passim.
81. Barrell, “Public Prospect and the Private View”; Ann Pullan, “For Publicity and Profit” in Rosenthal, Prospects for the Nation, 261-84. Other British scholars have interpreted the panoramic outlook as rational or leveling and opposed to the “organic” and picturesque views which represented the natural development of English politics: Ann Bermingham, “System, Order, and Abstraction: the Politics of English Landscape Drawing around 1795” in Mitchell, Landscape and Power, 83.
82. Honour, Neo-classicism, 161.
83. See for example his Pastoral Landscape (c. 1650) and comment in Janson, History of Art, 592-93; Clark, Landscape into Art, 54-73.
84. Newlin, “Rural Ruses,” 307; idem, Voice in the Garden, 20, 24, 41, 104-5 (water-colors), and passim.
85. IIRR, pl. 46 and text.
86. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 83, 127-28.
87. Some of the dates and attributions are contested. Illustrations in Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 76, 170, 293; Shevchenko. Povest, 162; IIRR, pls. 78-80, 90, 94, 136. See also Roosevelt, “Country House as a Setting and Symbol,” 43 -44; and Shchepetov, Iz zhizni krepostnykh krestyan, 49.
88. See for example Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate; and Cavender, “Nests of Gentry.”
89. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 111 (Poltoratsky); IIRR, pls. 110 and 129 ( View of a Town with Fortress Wall is undated and anonymous). For more on suburban representation, see Lovell, Summerfolk.
90. On the urban genre in early modern Europe, see Burke, Eyewitnessing, 84. For an introduction to the literature on the Petersburg myth and “text,” see Hellberg, Imperial Imprints; Kaganov, Images of Space; and Sidney Monas, “St. Petersburg and Moscow as Cultural Symbols” in Stavrou, Art and Culture, 26-39.
91. Volkov, St. Petersburg, 16.
92. Pushkinskii Peterburg.
93. Sadovnikov, Vidy Peterburga, a set of twenty-four unnumbered reproductions. See also Panorama Nevskogo Prospekta, lithographs based on Sadovnikov’s watercolors, 1830-35. The most spectacular book of reproductions, Gusev, Sankt-Peterburg, privileges the official city and gives some attention to the humbler quarters. See also Lure, Blistatelnyi Peterburg.
94. RKh, 673; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 84-85. The Chernetsov canvas contains a remarkable gallery of notables, including many of the people in this book.
95. Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 32. Parade on Palace Square: GRMFZh, 3726. Additional parade scenes: “Paradnyi Peterburg” in Gusev, Sankt-Peterburg, 59-71.
96. Since no residences except the royal family’s Marble Palace faced Mars Field, it was hard to find interior spaces from which to view the spectacle. The opera singer Darya Leonova wangled a place in the Pavlovsk Guards barracks to see a parade there: Leonova, “Vospominaniya artistki Imperatorskikh Teatrov,” IV (Jan. 1891) 133. See also Nouvelle collection in RNBOE, Sobranie I. I. Rybakova, E1-227. For more on the routines, costumes, and functions of parade culture, see Keller, Prazdnichnaya kultura Peterburga. The magnificence of the uniforms of that era is illustrated in Bespalova, Kostyum v Rossii, 173-206.
97. Herzen, My Past, 290; Kondakov, Spisok, 222; see a portrait of Shebuev at work in 1831 by I. I. Vistelius in Portretnaya miniatyura, 2:94.
98. Savinov, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 28-35; Lisovskii, Akademiya khudozhestv, 3-10; and Litovchenko, Nauchno-issledovatelskii muzei.
99. Yunge, ''Iz moikh vospominanii," VE, 40/1-2 (Jan.-Feb. 1905) 805-6; Timofeev, Khudozhnik.
100. Pevsner, Academies of Art, 221-23, 239 (qu.). For commentary on the European shift, see also Friedlaender, David to Delacroix, 129.
101. Sarabianov, Russian Art, 11.
102. Macleod, Art and the Victorian Middle Class, 11.
103. West, “Romantic Landscape in Early Nineteenth-Century Russian Art.” A British critic, commenting on a Russian art exhibit in London in 1862, observed “a collection of all the various influences under the weight of which Russian art has developed to its present, very inferior level.” Cited in Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 57.
104. Savinov, “Akademicheskaya zhivopis”; idem, Akademiya Khudozhestv, 19; Vrangel, “A. V. Stupin i ego ucheniki,” 435.
105. L. M. Tarasov, “Pavel Antonovich Ritstsoni” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1958), 263-74.
106. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 20-31, 36-44; Hunter-Stiebel, Stroganoff; Gorodetzky, “Princess Zinaide Volkonsky,” 101. Shevchenko and friends were once politely turned away at the Yusupov Palace: Povest, 232. In its proposal of 1824, the Society for the Encouragement of Artists stated that “the glory of Russia or its reputation demands the establishment of a Russian museum or gallery devoted to the Russian school of art. . . . A Russian museum would strengthen in the public mind its love for art and would engender respect for our own natural talents”: Komelova, “Peterburgskoe Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv”; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 249.
107. Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 96, 100; Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 122; Vrangel, “Iskusstvo i gosudar Nikolai Pavlovich,” 53-163 (qu. 57); Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 31 (Sapieha). Nicholas also purged the works of Ivanov père from the Academy: Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 183.
108. Shevchenko, Povest, 230 (with a reproduction of the ticket); Ge cited in Shumova, Russkayazhivopis, 26. Ilya Repin, on entering the Academy in 1863, was told by Fëdor Lvov that the frock coat rule was long gone: Repin, Dalekoe blizkoe, 124. See also Kuznetsov, Ermitazh; Shapiro, Ermitazh i ego shedevry and Ermitazh: putevoditel. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 19, dates the end of the ticket system to 1866.
109. Wes, Classics in Russia, 134; Stuart Aristocrat-Librarian, passim; Batyushkov, “Progulka v Akademiyu Khudozhestv,” 160 (qu.). See also Serman, Konstantin Batyushkov, 106-8.
110. Solntsev, “Moya zhizn,” RS (Feb. 1876) 313; Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 95-96; Nikitenko, Diary, 20; Raikes, City of the Czar, 1:66; Ramazanov, “Vospominaniya,” 56. The ragged but steady evolution from a limited audience into an art public in France is meticulously traced in Crow, Painters and Public Life.
111. Alpers, “Museum as a Way of Seeing,” 26; Carol Duncan, “Art Museums and the Ritual of Citizenship” in Karp, Exhibiting Cultures, 88-103; Becker, Art Worlds, 119; Cracraft, Petrine Revolution in Russian Imagery, 252-7.
112. Perkins. “Noble Patronage”; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:115 (art shops). The provincial icon market, however, flourished: Veliky Ustyug in the far north, famous for its icons, had five market squares, a Gostiny Dvor, hundreds of kiosks, and an annual three-day fair in June where a large quantity of art changed hands: Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 43-44.
113. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, n.p. (Pzhetslavsky). Fiction about artists, modeled after the German Kunstlernovellen and other forms, became popular in Russia in the 1830s and 1840s. N. A. Polevoi’s “The Painter” (1833) deals with an idealistic, romantic painter of a minor official family and his conflicts with aristocratic society: White, “Polevoi.”
114. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 45-68; Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 117.
Chapter 8. Exploring the Interior
1. Ely, This Meager Nature, 19 and passim.
2. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 58. This book is especially incisive on European models and influences, particularly of the Dutch masters and the contemporary Diisseldorf school, on Russian art.
3. Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 25, 203-4.
4. Stupin, “Sobstvennoruchnyya zapiski”; Kornilov, Arzamasskaya shkola zhivopisi; idem, “Aleksandr Vasilevich Stupin”; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 171-94; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 20, 56-58, 73-77.
5. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 189; numbers: Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya Rossii, 112.
6. Zaitsev, “Vospominaniya starogo uchitelya,” 667-68 (qu.).; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 187. The punishment meted out in a church school in Arzamas in 1848 provides a stark contrast to the humanism of Stupin’s establishment: see Freeze, Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia, 138; and the school scenes in Rostislavov, Provincial Russia. Myasnikov: Stupin, “Sobstvennoruchnyya zapiski,” 409; Zaitsev, “Vospominaniya starogo uchitelya,” 669; Kornilov, Arzamasskaya shkola zhivopisi, 9-10. Morrisey, “In the Name of Freedom,” has produced fascinating speculation about motives and understandings of this episode. The motive of another suicide is not recorded: Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 205-6.
7. Morrisey, “In the Name of Freedom,” 281; ISAKh, 40; Zaitsev, “Vospominaniya starogo uchitelya,” 668-69; Kondakov, Spisok, 190; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 56; Vrangel, “A. V. Stupin i ego ucheniki.” Maria Zhukova (1804-55), daughter of a minor civil servant family in Arzamas, studied drawing at the school, earned money as an artist, and did copying at the Hermitage: Tomei, Russian Women Writers, 1:183-18. Sollogub, Tarantas, 134.
8. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 69. For the life: Leonteva, Venetsianov. The storage attic of the Russian Museum contains his portraits which are rarely seen in the public collections. Soviet curators naturally privileged the artist’s genre and peasant studies. For some of the originals: GRMFZh, 5170, 5178, 3633, 3638, 5149, 5173. Reproductions of these and others in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki shkoly Venetsianova, tr. as Venetsianov and His School, passim. Some of the reproductions in Alekseeva are woodcuts or other versions of Venetsianov’s pictures by his disciples.
9. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 195-219 (qu. 197, 198, 199).
10. Aleksei Gavrilovich Venetsianov (1957), 3. For additional details, see Mashkovtsev, “Venetsianov”; Savinov, Venetsianov.
11. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 80.
12. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 204-n (qu. 206); Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 5-180.
13. Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 175-79; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 3 51-2; Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 208-12; Zhitnev in Portretnaya miniatyura, 2:230, and in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 185.
14. Makarov: Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 304, 307-m (qu. 309); Nadezhdin: ibid., 310-14 (qu. 312), 382-83 n. 13; Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 112. The sample of social origins is very selective, since few data are given for the others in a list of about one hundred. The most obscure provincial art school, in Voronezh, was founded in the 1810s by F. F. Churikov, an Academy graduate: Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 315-17.
15. The name indicates Polish origin, possibly Bojalski. See Kondakov, Spisok, 27; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 317-19, 384 n. 22.
16. Sumarokov, Progulka po 12-ti guberniyam, 80.
17. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 326-30 (qu. 326-27); Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 8-29.
18. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 335; Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 12-15.
19. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 60, 82 (qu.); Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 157. The Stroganov school, resembling a military barracks, trained artisans for the porcelain and faience factory: Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 58; Sumarokov, Progulka po 12-ti guberniyam, 80.
20. ISAKh, 42 (qu.); Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 26-27, 48. I have not seen the texts of any promissory documents made by serf owners.
21. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 75-76.
22. Ibid., 28-29; Pogodin letter, excerpted in Kohn, Mind of Modern Russia, 60-68.
23. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 27-28, 73; Valkenier, “Intelligentsia and Art,” 156. For Shevyrëv's exaltation of Russian nature, see Ely, This Meager Nature, 118-21.
24. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 18, 34-39, 57-58; RNBRO, f. 861, I. I. Shishkin, n. 2, ms. biography of Mokritsky. For Zaryanko’s theoretical positions, see Muratov, Zaryanko, 93-109.
25. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 51-53.
26. RNBRO, f. 861, I. I. Shishkin: n. 1, "Biografiya" from Knizhki Nedeli (Nov. 1899) 7-35 and (Dec. 1899) 42-68; n. 165, ticket, 1855, from Ministry of the Court School of Painting and Sculpture of the Moscow Art Society to Shishkin for a trip to Vyatka to show his works; Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 53; RKh, 702-7.
27. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 326-41; Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 3-4 and passim.
28. Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 78-81; P. V. Medvedev, “Dnevnik,” 8 and passim. Purchase by private patrons by no means meant that the pictures were widely seen. One patron, General Samsonov, doted on the pupils and bought up their works, but stored them in a large empty mansion in the suburbs of the city: Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 47.
29. Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 101-3 and passim; idem, Decentralization and Self-Government in Russia; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 319 and passim.
30. As claimed by Koshman, “Gorod i obshchestvenno-kulturnaya zhizn,” 32.
31. Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 198; Buturlin, “Zapiski,” RA, 1-4 (1897) 400-401; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 77-78.
32. Ruban, Zabitye imena, 27-28; Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 125.
33. West, “Romantic Landscape in Early Nineteenth-Century Russian Art,” 38 n. 16.
34. Sivkov, “Krepostnye khudozhniki.”
35. Argunovs: RKh, 41-42, and Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 62-63; Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 120. Shibanov: RIIE, 565-66, and Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 200. Sazonov: Kurmacheva, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 130; Haxthau-sen, Russian Empire, 1:235.
36. Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 47-50; Ruban, Zabitye imena, 35; Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 290-91; Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 204.
37. [A. I. Rozanov], “Zapiski selskago svyashchennika,” RS, 27 (Mar. 1880) 465-66; Semevskii, Krestyanskii vopros v Rossii, 1:396-97; Letkova, “Krepostnaya intelligentsiya,” 177. The agonizingly romantic hero of A. V. Timofeev’s novel, Khudozhnik, progresses from serf lackey to freeman, struggling along the way from physical punishment, lost love, poverty, class tension, and dilemmas about genres. On suicide: Morrisey, “In the Name of Freedom.”
38. The earliest source for this case is a footnote in Ramazanov, “Vasilii Andreevich Tropinin,” 54 n. 1. N. N. Vrangel wrongly conflated the two Polyakovs by inserting material about A. V. Polyakov (see below) into Ramazanov’s footnote which he quotes: Venok mertvym, 64-65. The two lives had radically different outcomes, and Ramazanov would certainly have known enough about A. V. Polyakov’s case to have identified him properly. Ramazanov also tells of a serf who hanged himself in the master’s garden.
39. Prilezhaeva-Barskaya, Krepostnoi khudozhnik; Ramazanov, “Vasilii Andreevich Tropinin.”
40. Petinova, Tropinin.
41. Ibid. In this otherwise sound study, the author argued unconvincingly that Tropinin’s Moscow female subjects resembled characters in the plays of Ostrovsky. The notion seems to be an effort to link Tropinin with Moscow cultural nationalism. There are such links, but the Ostrovsky one is not. In any case, Tropinin’s reputation as a Russian national artist rests as much on his genre depictions of the everyday and of humble Russian social types such as A Poor Old Man (1824). See also Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 63-68; Kondakov, Spisok, 199; RKh, 613-16; G. V. Zhidkov, “Vasilii An-dreevich Tropinin,” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1954), 221-38; and Volgina, Vasilii Tropinin.
42. For the life and work: Obukhov, Soroka; and A. N. Savinov, “Grigorii Vasilevich Soroka, 1823-64.” Pictures: Obukhov, Soroka, 46 fig. 19; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 329; Portret v russkoi zhivopisi.
43. Obukhov, Soroka, 51, reasonably suggests that this work displays an internal spiritual and emotional life in turmoil.
44. Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 207-9; Krestyanskoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1796-1825 gg., 659.
45. Savinov, “Grigorii Vasilevich Soroka,” 644; Aleksei Gavrilovich Venetsianov (1980), 41, 304 n.1.
46. With Alexander Sanin in the title role: Yury Tsivian, personal communication.
47. Kondakov, Spisok, 174; RKh, 547-49; Sadovnikov, Vidy Peterburga, introduction.
48. Ruban, Zabitye imena, 29-30.
49. Timofeev, Khudozhnik; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 31, 51, 53-54.
50. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 334; Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe Uchilishche, 25.
51. Stolpyanskii, Staryi Peterburg i Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv, 3-9 (qu. 5), a valuable account, though containing errors. Sobko, Kratkii istoricheskii ocherk Imperatorskago Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv, 3-ii; Komelova, “Peter-burgskoe Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv,” 34-36; Golubeva, “Iz istorii Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhnikov,” 67-72. The change of the last word of the society’s names from “Arts” to “Artists” accounts for the variation in these titles.
52. Komelova, “Peterburgskoe Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv,” 34.
53. Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 221.
54. Perkins. “Noble Patronage,” 439; Sobko, Kratkii istoricheskii ocherk Imperatorskago Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv, 7-10; Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 126-27; Stolpyanskii, Staryi Peterburg i Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv, 56-75.
55. Nekrologiya ... Tomilova; Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis. The twenty-nine numbered pages of text are followed by several hundred unnumbered pages, in no chronological or alphabetical order, of reproductions and commentary. My references to this part of the book thus contain no page numbers.
56. Stolpyanskii, Staryi Peterburg i Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv, 56-57; Golubeva, “Iz istorii Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhnikov,” 71-72 n. 18; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 41; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 376 n. 6; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 71-72; Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 205.
57. Ruban, Zabitye imena, 28 (ellipsis in the original).
58. See note 38 above; Kondakov, Spisok, 156; Kots, Krepostnaya intelligentsiya, 71; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 223-24, 376 n. 7; Golubeva, “Iz istorii Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhnikov”; Sokolov, Ryadom's Pushkinym, 297-99. Svinin: Danilov, “Dedushka russkikh istoricheskikh zhurnalov.”
59. Zaitsev, Shevchenko. Shevchenko’s autobiographical novella The Artist provides sometimes imagined details: Shevchenko, Povest, 35-38, 45, 49, 51. 71. All quotations are my translations of the Russian text.
60. Seletskii, “Zapiski,” in KS, 8 (Aug. 1884) 621-22.
61. Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 28-38 (qu. 35, 37). Zaitsev (ibid., 225-26) cites F. P. Tolstoy’s daughter, who wrote that their home “had been the real headquarters for all the efforts that had been made to free Shevchenko”; Shevchenko, Povest, 82-138 (qu. 82). The novella spins out the story in slow stages, with many pauses and setbacks, as in a melodrama. See also Sokolov, Ryadom's Pushkinym, 132.
62. Shevchenko, Povest, 77-268; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 165-219.
63. Boime, Academy and French Painting, 136; Christiana Payne, “ 'Calculated to Gratify the Patriot': Rustic Figure Studies in Early-Nineteenth-Century Britain” in Rosenthal, Prospects for the Nation, 61-78 (qu. 64). See also Sam Smiles, “Dressed to Till: Representational Strategies in the Depiction of Rural Labour, c. 1790-1839,” ibid., 7995.
64. Solkin, “The Battle of the Ciceros”; Bermingham, “Reading Constable,” 100.
65. Ely, This Meager Nature. This superb study meticulously traces the changing views of landscape in fiction, travel literature, and art. Many of the landscapes he discusses and that I do not treat are either unpeopled or date from after emancipation. See also his “Critics in the Native Soil,” 254, 260.
66. Custine, Letters from Russia, 26.
67. Kondakov, Spisok, 213 (Khudyakov). The works cited in the following pages are found in printed reproductions, and on the walls of the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg, and a few other museums. Works in the Russian Museum’s unhung storage collection are referenced by painting number in parentheses as [GRMFZh]. My selection is, I believe, representative of the hundreds of canvases and other graphic works I studied there.
68. V okrestnostyakh Moskvy, pls. 163-64.
69. The opening paragraph of “Kasyan's Krasivoi Mechi,” Zapiski okhotnika, PSS, 4:114-33.
70. IIRR, introduction and plates. Except for Venetsianov, the painters named in this paragraph are not treated in Ely, This Meager Nature.
71. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, 21-22. See Ely, This Meager Nature, for Savrasov and other early landscapists.
72. IIRR, pl. 68.
73. Chernetsov, Puteshestvie po Volge; G. V. Smirnov, “Grigorii Grigorevich Chernet-sov (1802-1865); Nikanor Grigorevich Chernetsov (1805-1879)” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1954) 545-70; Moleva, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya shkola, 223 and pl. 152; Ely, This Meager Nature, 76-78; idem, “Origins of Russian Scenery.”
74. Ely, This Meager Nature, 165.
75. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 137; Nochlin, Realism, 34, 47, 57; Brettell, Painters and Peasants, 14-18 and passim.
76. Barrell, Dark Side of the Landscape, 5, 21-22, 89-129, and passim; Alun How-kins, “Land, Locality, People, Landscape: the Nineteenth-Century Countryside” in Rosenthal, Prospects for the Nation, 97-114. A historian, Howkins intertextualizes the visual material with literary works.
77. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 72. I have not seen these works.
78. For a sense of that reality, see Hoch, Serfdom and Social Control.
79. Barrell, Dark Side of the Landscape, 12, 16 (qu.); Clarke, Absolute Bourgeois, 93; Brettell, Painters and Peasants, 34-35.
80. Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 212-14; Zapotocky, “Venetsianov and the Slavophiles”; Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 176; see also Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, passim; Hilton, Russian Impressionism (qu., n.p.).
81. Cited in Ely, “Critics in the Native Soil,” 259.
82. Newlin, “Rural Ruses,” 306. See also idem, Voice in the Garden, passim.
83. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 45.
84. Ibid., 55, 61, 71.
85. Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy, 77-81.
86. Netting, “Images and Ideas in Russian Peasant Art.”
87. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 41, 59, 64, 96, and female nudes, 310-11; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 80; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 229.
88. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 49 and 50-51; Leonteva, Venetsianov, 23-24, 31.
89. Venetsianov’s Girl with a Sickle (1820) corrects the error but takes the subject no closer to the task suggested by that implement: Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 81, 95, 98.
90. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 63. See also Roosevelt, “Country House as a Setting and Symbol,” 48-49.
91. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 170-71.
92. IIRR, pls. 100, 102; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 291. 292-93, 295-96, 326.
93. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 219 fig. 156.
94. Repr. in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 285-87; Obukhov, Soroka, 22-23 fig. 5.
95. Sosnina, Russkii traditsionnyi kostyum, 23-24.
96. IIRR, pl. 68; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 156-60; Kondakov, Spisok, 55.
97. Myrone, Representing Britain, 42; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 101, 137-39; Brettell, Painters and Peasants, 13-17.
98. Plakhov: Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 195, 206 (and see also 198. 199, 204, 205). Plakhov may have been inspired by various European models: Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 128 fig. 36. Cf. the English work by Joseph Wright, Iron Forge (1772), which is far more animated and dramatic, with the smith’s family proudly looking on: Myrone, Representing Britain, 54.
99. Sadovnikov, Vidy Peterburga, introduction.
100. Harris, Great Urals, 11-13.
101. Hudson, Rise of the Demidov Family, 113 and passim; Vedenetsky: Kondakov, Spisok, 34; pictures, IIRR, pls. 62, 74. Demidov also used other members of the Khudoyarov serf family to paint operations of the factory: Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 204-5.
102. IIRR, pl. 73. Such scenes were rare in painting, nor did artists try to portray the steam engines or the railways and tramlines that roared and hissed in a few factories and mines in the Urals and elsewhere: Haywood, Beginnings of Railway Development, 51-61. For social makeup and status of industrial serfs, see Zelnik, Labor and Society in Imperial Russia; and Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy, 64. Apparently no fiction presented the factory devouring the soul of robotic workers until Kuprin’s “Moloch” and Alexander Serafimovich’s “At the Factory”—both 1899.
103. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 153 fig. 52, 73 fig. 6, 74 fig. 7. For other domestic scenes, see Venetsianov’s Nastya andMasha (1820s) in Alekseeva, Venetsianov, 16; and Rostislav Felitsyn, On the Cabin Porch (1855), a somewhat folksy study of two little village girls in a salon-style treatment of everyday life (GRMFZh, 3828). Bowl-dipping was standard practice among clergy as well as peasantry and no indicator of poverty: Rostislavov, Provincial Russia, 84.
104. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 249.
105. See also his View of Yuriev Monastery on the Volga (1851) in RKh, 672; and Tropinin, Wedding in the Village of Kukavka, in Podolia.
106. Traktir (via Polish from the Latin tracto= “I treat” or “take care of”); variants on this were called kharchevnya, kabak, piteinyi dom, pogrebka, or, in Ukraine, shinky and korchny: Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov, 227-30; Christian, "Living Water".
107. Reproduced also in IIRR, pl. 138. The taboo on tavern scenes in eighteenth-century century British painting was part of a rule (often broken) that represented the peasant way of life as hard-working and deserving of “honest” relaxation. Hogarthian rampage was allowed only in prints.
108. Turgenev, Zapiski okhotnika, PSS, 4:225-44.
109. L. M. Tarasov, “Pavel Antonovich Ritstsoni” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1958) 263-74, with illustrations (qu. 267, 271); Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, n.p. After looking at Chernetsov’s works, Nicholas left the exhibition saying that the Academy “needs stricter examinations and awards”: ISAKh, 44. It is not clear that all these tavern scenes were set in rural areas.
110. IIRR, pls. 140, 145; Shevchenko, Povest, 194-95 (Sternberg); Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, n.p. (Popov).
111. Besides Hoch and Rostislavov, see, for a later period: Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton, 1991); idem, Possessed: Women, Witches, and Demons in Imperial Russia (Dekalb, 2001); and Frank, Crime, Cultural Conflict, and Justice in Rural Russia.
112. Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 105; Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 218.
113. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, 22-23, 34, and passim.
114. Fedosyuk, Chto neponyatno u klassikov, 197; Kondakov, Spisok, 22.
115. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 154-55.
116. Alekseev’s Poltava in a woodcut version in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 241; Krendovsky’s in ibid., 237-40.
117. Hilton, Russian Folk Art, 25, 203-4; Cracraft, Petrine Revolution in Russian Imagery, 248; Ransel, “Neither Nobles nor Peasants.”
118. Yaroslavskie portrety XVIII-XIX vekov, 5-15 and figs. 119, 51, 101. See Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 159.
119. Yaroslavskie portrety XVIII-XIX vekov, passim; Romanov, Russkie portrety XVIII i XIX vekov. On merchant dress and status, see Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia, 10, 23; and Ruane, “Caftan to Business Suit.”
120. Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 125.
121. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 218.
122. Portret v russkoi zhivopisi, unnumbered reproduction.
123. Discussion and illustration in Kelly, Refining Russia, 96-97.
124. Valkenier, “Intelligentsia and Art,” 158; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 137 (qu.); Sarabyanov, Fedotov; Kirsanova, Rozovaya ksendreika, 111-12.
125. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, 8, 11; A. O., “Neskolko slov o Fedotove” in Svetopis, 12 (Dec. 1858) 229-31.
126. Volodina, Russian Interior, 24; Demidenko, Interer v Rossii, 137; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 125-30 (qu. 26); Sarabianov, Russian Art, 53-55.
127. Dynnik, Krepostnoi teatr, 175-76.
128. See for example the 1850 interior by an unknown artist on the estate of the Filosofovs: Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 174.
129. Ya. P. Balmen in the 1830s thus recorded estate life in Chernigov Province: Marasinova, “Kultura russkoi usadby,” 331-33.
130. I wish to thank Kira Vladimirovna Mikhailova of the Russian Museum for an inch-by-inch analysis of this large canvas.
131. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 180.
132. Rand, Intimate Encounters; Myrone, Representing Britain.
133. Bowlt, “Russian Painting,” 128-29.
134. A survey of high society table habits contains many menus, but very few pictures of dining: Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy.
135. For this and other interiors, see Demidenko, Interer v Rossii; Volodina, Russian Interior; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 94 fig. 22, 126 fig. 34; Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 269.
136. Shevchenko, Povest, 104-5, 163; Roosevelt, “Country House as a Setting and Symbol,” 50.
137. For example, in Turgenev’s Notes of a Hunter and Gogol’s Dead Souls.
138. Karlinsky, Gogol, 154; Sarabianov, Russian Art, 88-89; A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 79; Valkenier, “Intelligentsia and Art,” 158 (Maikov); Hamilton, Art and Architecture of Russia, 242.
139. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 136 fig. 39.
140. Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 333. Chernyshev, the son of a soldier, had been an NCO trainee. With the help of V. A. Perovsky, the military governor of Orenburg, he was discharged from service due to ill health in 1841. The Society for the Encouragement of Artists helped him enter the Academy: Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, n.p.
141. Cf. Philip Reinagle’s Members of the Carrow Abbey Hunt (1780) and hundreds of hunting prints in eighteenth-century England where that sport was already institutionalized and clubby: Myrone, Representing Britain, 48. Russian hunt clubs emerged only after emancipation: McReynolds, Russia at Play, 82-87.
142. Roosevelt, Russian Country Estate, 177. See also Duck Hunt, by an unknown artist, showing three hunters firing as a peasant loads their guns, a crude popular blend of landscape and genre: IIRR, pl. 92.
143. IIRR, pl. 118; Kondakov, Spisok, 102.
144. IIRR, pls. 84, 85. Turgenev, Zapiski okhotnika, passim. On the hunt, see the interesting remarks in Brouwer, Character in the Short Prose of Turgenev, 79-90; idem, “Turgenev's Sportsman's Sketches as an Artistic Whole,” 71-72, 77; and Ely, This Meager Nature, 129-32.
145. Komelova, “Peterburgskoe Obshchestvo Pooshchreniya Khudozhestv,” 34-36; Golubeva, “Iz istorii Obshchestva Pooshchreniya Khudozhnikov,” 67-72; Kondakov, Spisok, 230 (Shchedrovsky); Kozlyakov, “Kulturnaya sreda provintsialnogo goroda,” 159. D. Begichev’s Provincial Scenes (1840) was illustrated by K. K. Klodt; for those who illustrated Gogol’s Dead Souls, see Agin, Sto chetyre risunki.
146. Pushkinskii Peterburg. There are two versions of this book, both published in Leningrad in 1974, but with different paginations. For more art depicting the capital in this era, see Sadovnikov, Vidy Peterburga; Neva Symphony; Vues de Pawlowsk par Thurner (n.p., c. 1820), etching or eau-forte works; RNBOE, unnumbered and untitled chromolithograph views of St. Petersburg, 1820s: RNBOE, Sobranie I. I. Rybakova, En-237k. Some of the pictures here cited can now be found in the recent Gusev, Sankt-Peterburg; Buckler, Mapping St. Petersburg, appeared too late for me to incorporate its rich observations.
147. Pushkinskii Peterburg, pl. 33.
148. V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Feb. 1890) 324-27.
149. Pushkinskii Peterburg, pl. 42 (see also pls. 5-6, 9-10, 13, 14, 29, 32, 34; Gorod glazami khudozhnikov, 62-63, 73-74; and “Reki i kanaly” in Lure, Blistatelnyi Peter-burg, 269-93.
150. Frank, Dostoevsky, 119: Fanger, Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism, 134-36 and passim.
151. Volkov, St. Petersburg, 37-38.
152. RKh, 444-46; Belza, Shimanovskaya, 91; Pushkinskii Peterburg, pls. 64 and 65 (see also pls. 66 and 67); Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 197. Orlovsky’s 1809 Views of Popular St. Petersburg Shopkeepers and Russian Cries, both published in London, are cited in Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 154. Another collection came out in 1825-26: Notebooks on the Theme of Russian Popular Life (Tetrady na temu russkogo narodnogo byta). Grigorii Kaganov has noted the “hidden villages and provincial towns inside St. Petersburg”: lecture, Renvall Institute, Helsinki University, November 13, 2001.
153. See chapter 4 and note 74 there.
154. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 185 and passim. See also Gohstand, “Geography of Trade,” 355-57.
155. See two examples by Sadovnikov in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 80 and 81; and the lithograph of an urban street force, wares on head, made in the 1830s in Cris de Petérsbourg: RNBOE: Kollektsiya I. I. Rybakova, papka 10.
156. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 78; Alekseeva, Venetsianov, pls. 11, 12; Hare, Art and Artists of Russia, 176. Other trading scenes: Gusev, Sankt-Peterburg, 276-83 (especially the unflattering lithographs of merchants at Gostiny Dvor and elsewhere by R. K. Zhukovskii, part of his series Russian National Life, pp. 278-79).
157. See chapter 1.
158. Pushkinskii Peterburg, pl. 60.
159. L. M. Tarasov, “A. M. Volkov” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1958), 631-46 (figs. 635, 637). See also A. F. Chernyshev, Petersburg Marketplace (1851) in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 331; and a lithograph of street sellers at the great Vauxhall in Ekaterinhof near the capital in Nouvelle collection: quarante-deux vues de Saint-Petérsbourg et de ses environs (St. Petersburg, 1826): RNBOE, Sobranie I. I. Rybakova, E1-227. For the Hay-market milieu, see Jahn, “St. Peterburger Heumarkt.”
160. Fiziologiya Peterburga, with engravings by Thimm, Agin, Sto chetyre risunki, pp. 38-50. Dostoevsky’s Poor Folk (1846) contains one of the many vignettes of the courtyard in the fiction of the era.
161. Ruble, “St. Peterburg’s Courtyards and Washington’s Alleys,” 3.
162. Pushkinskii Peterburg, pls. 5-6, 9-10, 13, 14, 29, 32, 34. Patersen (variant spellings, 1750-1815), a Swedish Russophile, spent many years in Petersburg from 1787. See also the lithograph Ferry Slip (1841) by the Academy’s Ferdinand Perrot of the boat dock at the Academy of Arts with ferrymen at work and passengers embarking: Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 39.
163. Custine, Letters from Russia, 38-39.
164. Sadovnikov, Vidy Peterburga, No. 5; Shevchenko, Khudozhnik, 372 (Montferrand). For depictions of work processes in European art, which were well developed by the eighteenth century, see Craske, Art in Europe, 126-27.
165. RKh, 223-24; Kondakov, Spisok, 67; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 152-53 fig. 51.
166. Jahn, Fromme Pilger, artige Arme, und streunende Gauner.
167. On such objections in literature, see Herman, Poverty of the Imagination, 216 n. 11 and passim.
168. For this and other examples ranging from 1832 to 1857, see Nekrylova, Russkie narodnye gorodskie prazdniki, 90, 142-43, 162-63, 166-67.
169. V. R. Zotov, “Peterburg v sorokovykh godakh,” IV (Feb. 1890) 324-27.
170. Cris de Petérsbourg: RNBOE: Kollektsiya I. I. Rybakova, papka 10 (possibly modeled after Cries of London which I have not seen). For many more contemporary graphic representations of the city, see RNBOE: Sobranie Rybakova, papka 7, “Martynov, A. E.: aquarelles” (reprinted and with commentary in Martynov, Saint-Pétersbourg; and Vidy S.-Peterburga i okrestnostei.
171. Bulgarin cited in Ely, This Meager Nature, 38-39. Courtyard sales: Stolpyanskii, “Torgovlya lyudmi v starom Peterburge,” 42. See also Leblanc, “Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate.”
172. Burke, Eyewitnessing, 23.
173. Stapp, Robert Cornelius; Jenkins, Images and Enterprise.
174. Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 7-10; Barchatova [Barkhatova], “Die ersten Photographien in Russland,” 24-29; Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 109. The most sumptuous of recent collections is Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya.
175. Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 10-13, 34-38; RNBOE, Sobranie Levitskogo: early Russian photographs; Saburova, "Frühe Meister,'' 31-40.
176. Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 14-18, 39-40; Saburova, “Fruhe Meister”; Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 52-54. Compare the renowned Isabey 1814 oil portrait of Sergei Volkonsky, the Decembrist (in Mazour, Women in Exile, 58) with an 1856 photograph of him (in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 50). See also Alfred d’Avignon's photograph of Volkonsky, taken in Irkutsk in 1845: Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya, 37.
177. Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 56-57. See cover of Roosevelt, Apostle of Russian Liberalism; Tyutchev in RNBOE, Sobranie Levitskogo; Shcherbina in Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya, 36.
178. Females: Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya, 38 top right; Barchatova [Barkhatova], Portrait of Tsarist Russia, 39, 41. The tinted photo recalls Walter Benjamin’s remark about “the retouched negative ... the bad painter’s revenge against photography”: “Little History of Photography,” 515.
179. Christoff, Introduction, vol. 3: Aksakov, 10, 102, 132; Barchatova, Portrait of Tsarist Russia, 48. The Herzen photo is found in many books about nineteenth-century revolutionary Russia, e.g. Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution, facing p. 34.
180. Lyons, Russia in Original Photographs, 4; Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya, 25 top (workers), 38 top left; idem, Portrait of Tsarist Russia, 42 (workers), 52.
181. Obolensky, Russian Empire: a Portrait in Photographs, 45, 164 (Fenton; Carrick: Kamenka Fair); Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 53; Lyons, Russia in Original Photographs, 38-39 (Carrick).
182. Exhibit, “British Photography in India,” Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C., Spring, 2000. See also Ryan, Picturing Empire; Cannadine, Ornamentalism.
183. Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 18-20; Saburova, “Fruhe Meister.”
184. Krymskaya voina, 1853-1856; Barkhatova, Russkaya fotografiya, 39.
185. Cited in Crofton, Dictionary of Art Quotations, 141.
186. Cited in Janson, History of Art, 907.
187. Williams, Confounding Images: Photography and Portraiture, 8, 17, 38, 41.
188. OZ, 11 (1849) 138 (s.p.)—Shchepkin; F. Ponomarev, “Istorii fotografii,” Svetopis, i (Jan. 1858); Yurkevich, “Iz vospominanii peterburgskago starozhila,” 160-61 (Senkovsky). Yurkevich erroneously puts the show in 1837. Quotations: Saburova, “Fruhe Meister,” 34 (Stasov); Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 23 (Art Gazette) and 27 (Stasov).
189. Andrei Osipovich Karelin; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 244; Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 14, 30-31, 33, 53; Krivtsova, “Iz istorii khudozhestvennoi zhizni.”
190. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 158; Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 29. See also Zaryanko’s “parado-realist” portrait of General K. A. Shilder (1845) in Alekseeva, Khudozhniki, 255 (reproductions do not do justice to the distortion displayed in this work); and G. Yu. Smirnov, “Sergei Konstantinovich Zaryanko” in Leonov, Russkoe iskusstvo (1958), 369-86. Reproduced here are lesser-known works such as the portrait of the singer Osip Petrov in 1849 (p. 375) and a study of the Law School lobby in 1840-41 (p. 371).
191. Kramskoi, Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoi, 3-40 (autobiographical notes and a memoir by M. B. Tulinov), qu. 21 (see above, chapter 3, note 84, for the word zhid; L. M. Afanasev, “Izobrazitelnoe iskusstvo” in Ocherki istorii voronezhskogo kraya, 452-60; Morozov, Russkaya khudozhestvennaya fotografiya, 32-33. The famous nightscapist Arkhip Kuindzhi also started out as a photo retoucher. Ivan Shishkin used the medium as a guide in painting: Ely, This Meager Nature, 187.
192. Valkenier, “The Intelligentsia and Art,” 157.
Chapter 9. When Did the Real Day Dawn?
1. RV (Feb. 1858) 236-39. The report is also cited, with a few errors, in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 269. Herzen in Kolokol (Feb. i, 1859) 280. The subsequent lot of the Meshkov brothers remains a mystery. Vikenty was not self-taught. He had played abroad and both brothers had studied at a private music school in Kursk and had performed at the Gentry Club in that town in 1850: Bugrov, Svetkurskikhramp, 2:18-19.
2. Turgenev: Confino, Société et mentalités collectives, 294 n. 1; Dobrolyubov, Sobranie sochinenii, 2:120; Herzen: Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 10; Efros, Shchepkin, 56; Soboleva, “Pros and Cons: the Thoughts and Dreams of Madame Count Counsellor Lisitsyna” in Kelly, Anthology of Russian Women’s Writing, 89.
3. Field, End of Serfdom; Emmons, Russian Gentry. Figures in Confino, Société et mentalités collectives, 295 n. 5.
4. Balmuth, Censorship in Russia, 42, 78, 126; Burmistrova, Provintsialnaya gazeta; Dobrolyubov in Selected Philosophical Essays, 389-441.
5. Engel, Mothers and Daughters; Tishkin, Zhenskii vopros v Rossii v 50-60gg XIX v.; Stites, Women's Liberation Movement; Maegde-Soep, Emancipation of Women; Rosenholm, Gender Awakening.
6. Egorov, “Reaktsionnaya politika tsarizma v voprosakh universitetskogo obrazovaniya.” See Gleason, Young Russia; Brower, Training the Nihilists; Venturi, Roots of Revolution; Belliustin, Description of the Clergy in Rural Russia.
7. Emmons, Zemstvo in Russia; Frieden, Russian Physicians; Wortman, Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness.
8. Zelnik, “Sunday School Movement in Russia, 1859-1862”; Kimball, “Conspiracy and Circumstance in Saratov, 1859-1864.”
9. Freeze, Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia, 146. See also Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 23-24 and passim.
10. Wortman, Scenarios of Power, 1:402.
11. Mikhail Shatsillo, “Labor Relations in Merchant Moscow” in West, Merchant Moscow, 88.
12. Starr, “Russian Art and Society,” 98.
13. Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia, 29-52; Dowler, Dostoevsky, Grigor’ev, and Native Soil Conservatism, passim. Nicholas Riasanovsky and others long ago traced the common ground of the “nationalist” wing of Official Nationalism and the Slavophiles: see his Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia and “Pogodin and ō evyrëv in Russian Intellectual History.”
14. Clowes, “Merchants on Stage and in Life,” 147; Taruskin, Stravinsky, 1:46.
15. Bradley, “Merchant Moscow After Hours,” 134; Nikitenko, Diary, 102.
16. An observation made long ago by Michael Karpovich in the introduction to Zetlin, Decembrists, 7.
17. Balzer, Russia's Missing Middle Class; Clowes, Between Tsar and People.
18. Shestakova, “Poslednye gody zhizni i konchina M. I. Glinki”; Dennis, Beethoven in German Politics; Brown, Tchaikovsky, 1:18; see also P. I. Chaikovskii, a photographic record; Findeizen, Rubinshtein, 47-57.
19. Shteinpress, Alyabev, 150 (Scholtz); Stasov, Selected Essays, 144; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto, 18-19, 191 n. 29 (Kashin); Afanasev, “Vospominaniya,” IV, 41 (Aug. 1890) 274; Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:246-59; E. Barutcheva, “Anton Rubinshtein i Peterburgskaya Konservatoriya: tri vstrechi” in Anton Grigorevich Rubinshtein: sbornik statei, 27-36.
20. Puzyrevskii, Imperatorskoe Russkoe Muzykalnoe Obshchestvo, 4-5, 7 (qu.); idem, Ocherk pyatidesyatiletiya deyatelnosti S.-Peterburgskoi Konservatorii, 8-32; Findeizen, Ocherk, 11-17; Dunlop, Russian Court Chapel Choir, 93. Lvov was apparently miffed at not being appointed to the board of the Russian Musical Society.
21. Rubinstein, Autobiography, 85-102; Ridenour, Nationalism, 35-37; Findeizen, Ocherk, 17-29.
22. Soboleva: Kelly, Anthology of Russian Women’s Writing, 89, 91 (qu.); Rubinstein article translated as “The State of Music in Russia” in Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 64-73; G. Nekrasova, “Rubinshtein i 'Moguchaya kuchka”' in Anton Grigorevich Rubinshtein, 36-46.
23. Rubinshtein, Avtobiograficheskiya vospominaniya, 46-47; idem, Autobiography, 91-92.
24. Stressed by Taruskin: Stravinsky, 1:46.
25. Findeizen, Ocherk, 9. See also Wirtschafter, Social Identity, 87 and passim for the status of other professions.
26. Gozenpud, “Pogibshii talant (A. S. Gussakovskii).”
27. Campbell, Odoevsky, 145 (Maria Nikolaevna); Rubinstein, Autobiography, 103-11; “Russkii Muzei: Avtobiografiya,” St. Petersburg TV, Channel 2, Jan. 22, 1998. According to Rubinstein, the organizers avoided the word “conservatory” out of a fear of “kvass patriotism” among antiforeign opponents: Avtobiograficheskiya vospominaniya, 51.
28. Ridenour, Nationalism, 37-40. For Jews living in St. Petersburg, see Nathans, Beyond the Pale.
29. Olkhovsky, Stasov, 94.
30. A. L. Revyakin, Moskva v zhizni i tvorchestve A. N. Ostrovskogo, 358, 362. European conservatories, though names varied, had begun to proliferate in the eighteenth century—usually growing out of singing academies. Italy had the oldest ones. Leipzig opened a Singakademie in 1771. France followed embryonically in 1783 and fully in 1795 with the Paris Conservatoire, the first modern national, secular conservatory. These were followed by Prague, Vienna, and Graz in the 1810s; Milan in 1824; Britain in 1830; an upgraded Leipzig school in 1843; Munich in 1846; Berlin and Dresden in the 1850s; Frankfurt in 1861; St. Petersburg in 1862 and Moscow in 1866: NG, 6:18-21.
31. Asafiev cited in Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:132. At the unveiling of the statue of Anton Rubinstein at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1902, speakers called him “a great Russian artist and a major public figure” and “a musical Tale of Bygone Years, a fanatic of musical life”: GTsMMKRO, f. 59, inv. 117, n. 7848; inv. 116, n. 7848.
32. Stasov, “Uchilishche pravovedeniya”; Zetlin, The Five, 1-19; Wortman, Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, 201 (qu.), 204-22. Stasov, like Rubinstein, had a close brush with the law in 1849 by attending the Petrashevsky Circle: Delo Petrashevtsev, 2:149, 224, and 3:412: Zetlin, The Five, 49-52. There exists as yet no satisfactory critical biography of Stasov. Soviet studies were too tolerant of his nationalist diatribes; Olkhovsky’s volume is useful but somewhat schematic. The best guide to Stasov’s my-thologizing role in Russian music and art is to be found throughout Taruskin, Stravinsky, vol. 1; and Ridenour, Nationalism.
33. Stasov qu.: Selected Essays, 7, and Olkhovsky, Stasov, 10.
34. Articles in Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 73-80 (qu. 78); and Stasov, Selected Essays, 81-84 and passim.
35. Stanislavsky, My Life in Art, 110.
36. In Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 74.
37. Stasov, “Uchilishche pravovedeniya,” 581 and 599-600 (his use of both zhid and evrei). For these slippery terms, see chapter 3, note 84.
38. Olkhovsky, Stasov, 88, 171 n. 9. For the intelligentsia’s hatred of Jacques Offenbach, whose operettas were beginning to sweep Russia in the 1860s, see Billington, Mikhailovsky and Russian Populism, 76-78.
39. Barenboim, Rubinshtein, 1:236; Nekrasova, “Rubinshtein i 'Moguchaya kuchka',” 38, 41.
40. Not Georgian, as is commonly held: Popova, Borodin, 9-10.
41. Olkhovsky, Stasov, 13.
42. Serov: ERJ, 1:367-68; REE, 1:253; Stasov, “Uchilishche pravovedeniya,” 599600; Ridenour, Nationalism, 65-108; Campbell, Russians on Russian Music, 80-85; Taruskin, Musorgsky, 97, 99 n. 6, 379.
43. For one of numerous Soviet treatments, see Gordeeva, Moguchaya kuchka. For expert demythologization, see Ridenour, Nationalism, 81-92; Taruskin, Stravinsky, vol. 1; and idem, Defining Russian Musically.
44. Garden, Balakirev, 22-51; Norris, Russian Piano Concerto, 56-60; Piano Concerto in F-sharp minor on M. Balakirev, N. Medtner, Igor Zhukov; Zetlin, The Five, 5659.
45. Ridenour, Nationalism, 127-29; Olkhovsky, Stasov, 91-93; Zetlin, The Five, 128-31; Garden, Balakirev, 22-51.
46. Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, 17-29, 60 (qu.).
47. Taneev, “Iz proshlogo imperatorskikh teatrov,” 872-86; S. S. Danilov, “Materialy po istorii russkogo zakonodatelstva o teatre” in Danilov, O teatre, 177-200 (see pp. 179-80).
48. Mikhailova, “Vopros o teatralnoi monopolii,” 79.
49. Ibid.; Swift, Popular Theater, 48-49. The state theater monopoly in England ended in 1843, but in fact had long been unofficially encroached on by various performance sites: Donohue, Theatre in the Age of Kean. By 1850 there were twenty-one theaters in London and about seventy-five in the provinces: Williams, Long Revolution, 261-63. The monopoly in France ended in 1864 and in the Germanies in the late 1860s.
50. Volf, Khronika peterburgskikh teatrov, 1:162; Roosevelt, Apostle of Russian Liberalism, 158; Senelick, Serf Actor, 217, 224.
51. Mikhailova, “Vopros o teatralnoi monopolii”; Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 18, 26, 28-29; Pobedonostsev, Sochineniya, 80-82; Swift, Popular Theater, 118 and passim.
52. Shipov, “Istoriya moei zhizni,” RS (May 1881) 133-48 (a neglected example of an informed serf trader); Knight, “Science, Empire, and Nationality”; Istoricheskii ocherk deyatelnosti Korpusa Voennykh Topografov, 1822-1872 (St. Petersburg, 1872).
53. Maksimov, “Literaturnaya ekspeditsiya”; Clay, Ethos and Empire; Konstantin: Lincoln, Vanguard of Reform, 141-48; Fateev, Mikhail Mikhailov, 162-68. For the Volga journey of the Chernetsov brothers, see above, chapter 8.
54. Clay, Ethos and Empire, passim; Morozov, “A. A. Potekhin” in Minuvshii vek, 392-415 (405-6); Moser, Pisemsky, 67-73; Hoover, Ostrovsky, 23-24.
55. Potekhin, “Iz teatralnykh vospominanii" in Sochineniya, 12:319-38. Ethnographic stories ibid., vol. 12. General works: Morozov, “A. A. Potekhin” in Minuvshii vek; Glinskii, ”Aleksei Antipovich Potekhin“; S. V. Kastorskii, ”Pisatel-dramaturg A. A. Potekhin''; and Donskov, Changing Image of the Peasant, 43-66.
56. Potekhin, Sud lyudskoi—ne bozhii, 77 (qu.); idem, “Iz teatralnykh vospominanii,” Sochineniya, 12:322.
57. Kastorskii, “Pisatel-dramaturg A. A. Potekhin,” 185 n. 19.
58. Potekhin, “Iz teatralnykh vospominanii,” Sochineniya, 12:326, 332; review by V. Stoyunin in MTV (Jan. 1, 1856) 29; Morozov, “A. A. Potekhin” in Minuvshii vek; Kastorskii, “Pisatel-dramaturg A. A. Potekhin,” 195, cites performance figures on the immense popularity of this play in the years 1855-81. See also Tinsel (written during the Literary Expedition and published in 1858), so scathing an indictment of provincial corruption that it was not staged till the 1870s: Potekhin, Mishura. Grigorev, Teatralnaya kritika, 202-4 (qu. 202) and passim.
59. Pisemskii, “Gorkaya sudbina”; Milovidov, “Dve chukhlomskikh dramy.”
60. Moser, Pisemsky, 94-104. The ending that Pisemsky adopted was suggested to him by the actor Martynov. Lower-class reaction to this play is hard to come by. P. V. Medvedev makes no mention of Bitter Fate, but he saw Pisemsky’s Hypochondriac in 1857 in a full house when the author was called on stage three times: “Dnevnik.” Bitter Fate did better in the provinces that in the capitals.
61. Woodhouse, “Tales from Another Country,” 181 (qu.); see also Jenkins, ''Pisemsky's Bitter Fate"; Cynthia Marsh, “Realism in the Russian Theatre, 1850-1882” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 149.
62. Hoover, Ostrovsky, 15-32; Ward, Moscow and Leningrad, 2:200, 263; Dowler, Dostoevsky, Grigor’ev, and Native Soil Conservatism, 27-28 and passim; N. V. Berg, “Salon E. Rostopchinoi,” in Brodskii, Literaturnye salony, 410-23.
63. Ostrovskii, “Puteshestvie po Volge ot istokov do Nizhnego-Novgoroda” in Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 10:322-47, 630-33; GTsTMRO, f. 200, n. 2679 (letter of commission) and nn. 3245-94 (sketches, unnumbered); Hoover, Ostrovsky, 23-24.
64. Ostrovsky, Plays, 213-305; Hoover, Ostrovsky, 33-37; Kate Sealy Rahman, “Aleksandr Ostrovsky—Dramatist and Director” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 168; Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 203. Family Affair was produced in Irkutsk in 1858 while under the ban: S. S. Danilov, Russkii dramaticheskii teatr, 2:158. The morose quality of the original Family Affair proved no obstacle to staging it as a musical comedy at the Koleso theater in Moscow in our own time: Teatralnyi Zhurnal, 2 (1999) 30-32.
65. Burdin, “Vospominaniya,” 146; Hoover, Ostrovsky, 42.
66. The Storm in Reeve, Anthology of Russian Plays, 1:315-74 (qu. 329); Stites, Women's Liberation Movement in Russia, 47.
67. Volf, Khronika peterburgskikh teatrov, 1:156-57.
68. Senelick, Russian Dramatic Theory, xx.
69. Varneke, History, 367-79; Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 111-12. For a still useful review of the Ostrovsky team, see Varneke, Istoriya, 571-94.
70. Ignatov, Teatrizriteli, 336, 337, 338.
71. Senelick, Serf Actor, 185-92; Malnick, “Actors Shchepkin and Sosnitsky,” 307-8.
72. Varneke, Istoriya, 571-78; Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia, 35 (Pechkin's). See a recollection of Sadovsky written forty years after his performances as Tortsov in Senelick, National Theater, 365-66; Voronezh: Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 73; Gorbunov, Sochineniya, 3:24.
73. Early Russian Cinema.
74. Altschuller, “Actors and Acting,” 104-5, 114.
75. Kate Sealy Rahman, “Aleksandr Ostrovsky—Dramatist and Director” in Leach, History of Russian Theatre, 166-81.
76. For example in Poor Bride (1852): Hoover, Ostrovsky, 37-40.
77. Dobrolyubov, Selected Philosophical Essays, 218-373 and 549-635.
78. Hoover, Ostrovsky, 40-42. See also Christoff, Introduction, vol. 3: Aksakov, 344; Senelick, “Theatre,” 267.
79. Dowler, Dostoevsky, Grigor’ev, and Native Soil Conservatism, 12, 33, 121, 127; Senelick, National Theater, 368; see also Feoktistov, “Glava iz vospominianii.”
80. Ignatov, Teatr i zritel, 332 (qu.), 334.
81. As noted by Edwards in Russians at Home, 155-57. For a welcome corrective to the Ostrovsky-Dobrolyubov depiction of merchant women, see Muriel Joffe and Adele Lindenmeyr, “Daughters, Wives, and Partners: Women of the Moscow Merchant Elite” in West, Merchant Moscow, 95-108.
82. Ignatov, Teatr i zriteli, 332 (qu.); Hoover, Ostrovsky, 132-38; Swift, Popular Theater, 217, 220, 223-24.
83. For an example from an earlier period see Jules Guex, Theatre et la société française.
84. Petrovskaya, Teatr izritel provintsialnoi Rossii, 40-41 (qu. 41).
85. Cited in Lotman, Velikosvetskie obedy, 154.
86. Stasov, Izbrannye sochineniya, 2:51. See Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 5 6-62, for a judicious treatment of Stasov.
87. Cited in A. Zotov, “Puti razvitiya russkogo iskusstva,” 71.
88. Kelly, Anthology of Russian Women’s Writing, 71-113 (qu. 80).
89. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis.
90. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 7.
91. Savinov, “Akademicheskaya zhivopis,” 121-28.
92. Valkenier, "Peredvizhniki," 249-50. The theme of social inferiority runs through her Russian Realist Art, where she argues convincingly that it played a much greater role than politics in the emergence of the realist generation.
93. Edwards, Russians at Home, 154.
94. ISAKh, 45; Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 18; Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 162-63.
95. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 163. As an unprecedented public comment on this common practice, Pukirev’s canvas set off a big discussion: Maegd-Soep, Emancipation of Women, 96-97.
96. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, 11, and unnumbered plates; Fateev, Mikhail Mikhailov; IIRR, introduction, 1-15, and plates. Many of the “forgotten” works are stored in the attic archive of the Russian Museum.
97. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 155-59; Dmitrieva, Moskovskoe uchilishche, 90; Valkenier, “Intelligentsia and Art,” 161. A fine collection of his reproductions can be found in Shumova, Vasily Perov.
98. Hilton, “Art of Ilia Repin.” 1:22; Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 74.
99. Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 72. See Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 160-62 and figs. 56-58 for further analysis. Clerical ferment: Belliustin, Description of the Clergy in Rural Russia.
100. Gray, Russian Genre Painting, 175.
101. Shumova, Russkaya zhivopis, 11.
102. The whole issue is handled with great insight in her Russian Realist Art, 18-23, and in “Peredvizhniki,” 247-65.
103. Zaitsev, Shevchenko, 252-68. See Grabowicz, Poet as Mythmaker, 8-ii and passim, for Shevchenko’s deep ambivalences about life, authority, and creativity. On Elena Pavlovna: Lincoln, “Circle of Grand Duchess Yelena Pavlovna”; idem, Vanguard of Reform, 148-62; idem, “Karlovka Reform.”
104. Ann Pullan, “For Publicity and Profit” in Rosenthal, Prospects for the Nation, 264; Florence: International Herald Tribune (July 15-16, 2000) 7; Boime, Academy and French Painting, 15, 63, 100, 180; Becker, Art Worlds, 95.
105. The artists also suffered police interrogation and surveillance. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 33-34; Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 121, 124. The seceders: Ivan Kramskoi, V. V. Venig, A. K. Grigorev, N. D. Dmitrev-Orenburgsky, F. S. Zhuravlev, A. I. Korzukhin, K. V. Lemokh, N. S. Shustov, N. P. Petrov, A. D. Kitovchenko, K. E. Makovsky, A. I. Morozov, M. I. Peskov, and V. P. Kretyan—a sculptor.
106. Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898),” 121.
107. Krivtsova, “Iz istorii khudozhestvennoi zhizni,” 94.
108. Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, 37-134, offers the best demythologization. See also Ezerskaya, Peredvizhniki.
109. Sternin, Khudozhestvennaya zhizn Rossii, 29-30.
110. Valkenier, “Peredvizhniki,” 255, 259; idem, “Intelligentsia and Art,” 153-71.
111. Ely, This Meager Nature, 255, 257, 265.
112. Nochlin, Realism, 13 and passim.
113. Macleod, Art and the Victorian Middle Class, passim, based on a sample of 146 males.
114. Mayer, Persistence of the Old Regime.
115. Norman, “Pavel Tretiakov and Merchant Art Patronage,” 93-95; “Kozma Terentevich Soldatenkov (1818-1901)” in Sobirateli imetsenaty, 272-86.
116. Norman, “Pavel Tret’iakov (1832-1898).” This dissertation is indispensable for an understanding of the art world in the late nineteenth century.
117. Field, “The Year of Jubilee” in Eklov, Russia's Great Reforms, 1855-1881, 40-41.
118. Blum, End of the Old Order, 329.
119. Field, End of Serfdom, 208.
120. Fitzpatrick, “Ascribing Class,” and her numerous other works on the Stalin period.
121. The Russian Musical Society opened branches in Moscow, Kiev, and Kazan in the 1860s; in Kharkov, Pskov, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov, Omsk, Tobolsk, and Tomsk in the 1870s; and in Tambov, Tiflis, and Odessa in the 1880s. By the early twentieth century, about forty towns had affiliates: Findeizen, Ocherk, 17-29. For the spread of provincial orchestras, see ME, 4:795.
122. Petrovskaya, Teatr i zritel provintsialnoi Rossii, passim.
123. Ely, This Meager Nature, 171; Bowlt, “Moscow Art Market” in Stavrou, Art and Culture, 108-28; Imperatorskaya Akademiya Khudozhestv: Muzei, i-xxvi; Norman, “Pavel Tretiakov and Merchant Art Patronage,” 93, 98, 105.
124. Sternin, Khudozhestvennaya zhizn Rossii, 19-28.
125. David Solkin has applied this interpretation to art publics in Painting for Money, 2-3, 247-76, and passim.
126. Golub, Recurrence of Fate, 29; Filaret: F. D. Bobkov, “Iz zapisok byvshago krepostnogo cheloveka,” IV (May 1907) 472.
127. V. V. Lvov, “Zheleznaya doroga”; Leikin, Aktëry-lyubiteli.
128. Vodovozova, Na zare zhizni, 2:73-75 (qu. 74); Repin cited in Kelly, Refining Russia, 105; Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist, 105-6.
129. Taruskin, Stravinsky, 1:23-75 (qu. 64). The once militant member of the Mighty Five, César Cui, became director of the Russian Musical Society a few years after Rubinstein, its founder, stepped down; Valkenier, Russian Realist Art, passim.