Notes

Abbreviations

· ASC Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (cited by manuscript and year)

· BL London, British Library

· PL Patrologia Cursus Completus, Series (Latina) Prima, ed. J.-P. Migne, 221 vols (Paris, 1844–64)

· TNA London, The National Archives

Preface

1. R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (London: Penguin, 1994); R. R. Davies, First English Empire: Power and Identities in the British Isles 1093–1343 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

Chapter 1: Beginnings: Strange Men from a Strange Land, Normandy, c.911–42

1. Dudo of St-Quentin, Historia Normannorum, II.25–9, ed. J. Lair (Caen, 1865).

2. On Dudo: B. Pohl, Dudo of St Quentin’s Historia Normannorum: History, Tradition and Memory (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2015); on his reports: J. L. Nelson, ‘Normandy’s Early History since Normandy before 1066’, in Normandy and its Neighbours, 900–1250: Essays for David Bates, ed. D. Crouch and K. Thompson (Turnhout: Brepols, 2011), 3–15, at 9–12; and on the site: Dudo of St Quentin: History of the Normans, trans. E. Christiansen (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1998), 195 n. 201.

3. For excellent introductions to the Vikings: N. Price, The Children of Ash and Elm: A History of the Vikings (London: Allen Lane, 2020); C. Jarman, River Kings: The Vikings from Scandinavia to the Silk Road (London: William Collins, 2021).

4. S. Coupland, ‘From Poachers to Gamekeepers: Scandinavian Warlords and Carolingian Kings’, Early Medieval Europe 7 (1998), 85–114.

5. See J. Le Maho, ‘Rouen à l’époque des incursions Vikings (841–911)’, Bulletin de la Commission des Antiquités de la Seine Maritime 43 (1995), 143–202, followed by F. Neveux, The Normans: The Conquests that Changed the Face of Europe, trans. H. Curtis (London: Robinson, 2008), 55–63. For words of caution: P. Bauduin, La Première Normandie (X^e–XI^e siècles) (Caen: Presses Universitaires de Caen, 2nd edn, 2004), 110–12; Nelson, ‘Normandy’s Early History’, 12–15. On Viking activity in West Francia (France) and Brittany: J. L. Nelson, ‘The Frankish Empire’, in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings, ed. P. H. Sawyer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 19–47; N. S. Price, The Vikings in Brittany (London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 1989).

6. Recueil des actes de Charles III le Simple, roi de France (893–923), ed. P. Lauer (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1940–9), nos 51, 53, 92. The former and latter charters are preserved as Paris, Archives nationales, K 16/5, and Paris, Archives nationales, K 16/9. On the latter in context, see G. Koziol, The Politics of Memory and Identity in Carolingian Royal Diplomas: The West Frankish Kingdom (840–987) (Turnhout: Brepols, 2012), 436–9. See also F. Lifshitz, ‘The Migration of Neustrian Relics in the Viking Age: The Myth of Voluntary Exodus, the Reality of Coercion and Theft’, Early Medieval Europe 4 (1995), 175–92.

7. Flodoard, Annales, s.a. 923–4, ed. P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). On Charles’ politics: F. McNair, ‘After Soissons: The Last Years of Charles the Simple (923–9)’, Reti Medievali Rivista 18.ii (2017), 29–48, esp. 38–40.

8. Flodoard, Historia Remensis ecclesiae, IV.14, ed. M. Stratmann, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 36 (Hanover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1998).

9. L. Abrams, ‘Early Normandy’, Anglo-Norman Studies 35 (2013), 45–64.

10. Cf. M. Townend, Language and History in Viking Age England: Linguistic Relations between Speakers of Old Norse and Old English (Turnhout: Brepols, 2002), esp. 181–211.

11. Richer of Saint-Rémi, Historiae, I.4, ed. H. Hoffmann, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 38 (Hanover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2000). See further, D. Bates, Normandy Before 1066 (London: Pearson, 1982); F. Lifshitz, ‘La Normandie carolingienne, essai sur la continuité, avec utilisation de sources négligées’, Annales de Normandie 48 (1998), 505–52; R. Allen, ‘The Norman Episcopate 989–1110’ (PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, 2009), 6–28.

12. Flodoard, Annales, s.a. 923.

13. Flodoard, Historia Remensis ecclesiae, IV.14.

14. PL, cxxxii, cols 661–74, with Nelson, ‘Normandy’s Early History’, 4–9; M.-C. Isaïa, ‘Hagiographie et pastorale: la collection canonique d’Hervé archevêque de Rheims (m. 922)’, Mélanges de Science Religieuse 67 (2010), 27–48.

15. E. van Houts, ‘Exogamy and Miscegenation in the Norman Worlds’, in The Normans and the ‘Norman Edge’: Peoples, Polities and Identities on the Frontiers of Medieval Europe, ed. K. J. Stringer and A. Jotischky (London: Routledge, 2019), 129–47.

16. E. van Houts, ‘The Planctus on the Death of William Longsword (943) as a Source for Tenth-Century Culture in Normandy and Aquitaine’, Anglo-Norman Studies 36 (2014), 1–22, with an edition of the text at 18–20. The Planctus – our only strictly contemporary source – describes William being born ‘across the sea’ (transmarino), but that he had a French rather than Welsh or Irish mother (as per van Houts) may be the case in the light of William’s name. Indeed, the Plactus merely says that he was born abroad, not that his mother was foreign. That said, it is possible that William was a baptismal name (Rollo had taken the name Robert upon conversion).

17. F. McNair, ‘The Politics of Being Norman in the Reign of Richard the Fearless, Duke of Normandy (r. 942–96)’, Early Medieval Europe 23 (2015), 308–28. See also Bates, Normandy, 13–15.

Chapter 2: Consolidating a Colony: Rollo’s Heirs, Normandy, 942–1026

1. Dudo of St-Quentin, Historia Normannorum, III.61–3. See also Flodoard, Annales, s.a. 943.

2. McNair, ‘Politics of Being Norman’.

3. M. Hagger, ‘How the West Was Won: The Norman Dukes and the Cotentin, c.987–1087’, Journal of Medieval History 28 (2002), 20–55, esp. 20–3.

4. Pohl, Dudo, 109–24.

5. M. Fauroux, ‘Deux Autographes de Dudon de Saint-Quentin (1011, 1015)’, Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Chartes 111 (1953), 229–34. For two further possibilities, see Recueil des actes des ducs de Normandie de 911 à 1066, ed. M. Fauroux (Caron, 1961), nos 11, 58, with E. Z. Tabuteau, Transfers of Property in Eleventh-Century Normandy (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 7–8.

6. Bauduin, La Première Normandie, 75–83.

7. M. Hagger, Norman Rule in Normandy, 911–1144 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2017), 266–88.

8. B. Pohl, ‘Poetry, Punctuation and Performance: Was There an Aural Context for Dudo of Saint-Quentin’s Historia Normannorum?’ Tabularia 15 (2016), 177–216. More generally: A. Plassmann, ‘Tellus Normannica und dux Dacorum bei Dudo von St-Quentin: Land und Herrscher als Integrationsfaktor für die Normandie’, in Die Suche nach den Ursprüngen: Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters, ed. W. Pohl (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2004), 233–51; R. Canosa, Etnogenesi normanne e identità variabili: il retroterra culturale dei Normanni d’Italia fra Scandinavia e Normandia (Turin: Silvio Zamorani, 2009), 41–64.

9. Recueil des actes des ducs, ed. Fauroux, nos 15, 18. The latter survives as Rouen, Archives départmentales de la Seine-Maritime, 14 H 917 B. See further K. Cross, Heirs of the Vikings : History and Identity in Normandy and England, c.950–c.1015 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2018), 165–8.

10. J. Benham, ‘The Earliest Arbitration Treaty? A Re-Assessment of the Anglo-Norman Treaty of 991’, Historical Research 93 (2020), 189–204.

11. ASC CDE 1001 <ASC CDE 1001>, ed. C. Plummer, Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892–9); William of Jumièges, Gesta Normannorum ducum, V.4, ed. E. M. C. van Houts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992–5).

12. Dudo, Historia Normannorum, I.68.

13. Richer of Saint-Rémi, Historiae, IV.108. See similarly ibid., II.20, 28, 30.

14. P. Bauduin, ‘Richard II de Normandie: figure princière et transferts culturels (fin dixième–début onzième siècle)’, Anglo-Norman Studies 37 (2015), 53–82. See also Pohl, Dudo, 156–223; Cross, Heirs of the Vikings, 61–84.

Chapter 3: Queen Emma, Jewel of the Normans: England, 1002–42

1. P. Stafford, ‘The King’s Wife in Wessex 800–1066’, Past and Present 91 (1981), 3–27.

2. For the date: S. Keynes, The Diplomas of King Æthelred ‘the Unready’: A Study in Their Use as Historical Evidence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 210 n. 203; L. Roach, ‘Ælfthryth – England’s First Queen’, BBC History Magazine May 2017, 38–41.

3. The best accounts of Emma’s life and reign are P. Stafford, Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women’s Power in Eleventh-Century England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), 209–54; S. Keynes, ‘Introduction to the 1998 Reprint’, in Encomium Emmae reginae, ed. A. Campbell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), [xxxiii]–[xxxiv].

4. ASC CDE 1003.

5. Ibid., 1002. See L. Roach, Æthelred the Unready (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 191–200.

6. ASC CDE 1013.

7. S. Keynes, ‘The Æthelings in Normandy’, Anglo-Norman Studies 13 (1991), 173–205, at 176–7, 181–3.

8. Keynes, ‘Introduction’, in Encomium Emmae reginae, ed. Campbell, [xxii]–[xxix]. On Cnut’s reign, see T. Bolton, Cnut the Great (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

9. BL Stowe 944, fol. 6r., with C. E. Karkov, Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004), 121–45.

10. Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum, VI.2, ed. D. Greenaway (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).

11. E. Treharne, Living Through Conquest: The Politics of Early English, 1020–1220 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 9–90; Bolton, Cnut the Great, 92–128.

12. A. Kennedy, ‘Cnut’s Law Code of 1018’, Anglo-Saxon England 11 (1983), 57–81.

13. T. Bolton, ‘Ælfgifu of Northampton: Cnut the Great’s “Other Woman”’, Nottingham Medieval Studies 51 (2007), 247–69. On marriage regulations: D. d’Avray, Papacy, Monarchy and Marriage 860–1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); S. McDougall, Royal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800–1230 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

14. On Godwin and Leofric: S. Keynes, ‘Cnut’s Earls’, in The Reign of Cnut: King of England, Denmark and Norway, ed. A. R. Rumble (London: Leicester University Press, 1994), 43–88, esp. 84–7.

15. P. Sawyer, ‘Scandinavia in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History, iv, c.1024–c.1198, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), vol. ii, 290–303, at 296–7.

16. Encomium Emmae reginae, III.2–6, with Stafford Queen Emma, 241–2, 245; Keynes, ‘Introduction’, [xxxiii]–[xxxiv], [lxii]–[lxv].

17. P. Grierson, ‘The Relations between England and Flanders before the Norman Conquest’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th ser. 23 (1941), 71–112; E. Oksanen, Flanders and the Anglo-Norman World, 1066–1216 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 7–18.

18. Encomium Emmae reginae, III.8–9.

19. BL Add. 33241, fol. 1v. See Karkov, Ruler Portraits, 146–55.

Chapter 4: Edward the Confessor: A King Across the Sea, England 1041–66

1. J. R. Maddicott, ‘Edward the Confessor’s Return to England in 1041’, English History Review 119 (2004), 650–66.

2. M. K. Lawson, ‘Harthacnut [Hardecanute] (c.1018–1042)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, xxv, 602–3. See also S. Keynes and R. Love, ‘Earl Godwin’s Ship’, Anglo-Saxon England 38 (2009), 185–223.

3. Recueil des actes des ducs, ed. Fauroux, nos 69–70, 76, 85, with Keynes, ‘Æthelings in Normandy’; E. van Houts, ‘Edward and Normandy’, in Edward the Confessor: The Man and the Legend, ed. R. Mortimer (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2009), 63–76, at 68–70.

4. T. Licence, Edward the Confessor (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2020), 80–118; D. Woodman, Edward the Confessor: The Sainted King (London: Allen Lane, 2020), 21–36.

5. On Ralph and Godgifu: A. Williams, ‘The King’s Nephew: The Family and Career of Ralph, Earl of Hereford’, in Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown, ed. C. Harper-Bill, C. Holdsworth and J. L. Nelson (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1991), 327–43; van Houts, ‘Edward and Normandy’, 63–8.

6. T. Licence, ‘Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop in Exile (1052–5)’, Anglo-Saxon England 42 (2013), 311–29.

7. William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi, I.14, ed. and trans. R. H. C. Davis and M. Chibnall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); William of Jumièges, Gesta Normannorum ducum, VII.13(31); Eadmer, Historia novorum in Anglia, I, ed. M. Rule, Rolls Series (London, 1884), 5–7. Cf. G. Garnett, Conquered England: Kingship, Succession, and Tenure 1066–1166 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 1–44.

8. ASC C 1051, D 1052 (= 1051), E 1048 (= 1051).

9. Vita Ædwardi regis, I.3, ed. and trans. F. Barlow, The Life of Edward Who Rests at Westminster (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, rev. edn, 1992). On which: T. Licence, ‘The Date and Authorship of the Vita Ædwardi regis’, Anglo-Saxon England 44 (2016), 259–85.

10. ASC E 1048 (= 1051), D 1052 (= 1052); Vita Ædwardi regis, I.3, with Stafford, Queen Emma, 262–6. Cf. S. Foot, Veiled Women (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), ii, 215–31.

11. S. Baxter, The Earls of Mercia: Lordship and Power in Late Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), esp. 17–60; Licence, Edward the Confessor, 160–248.

12. J. Blair, Building Anglo-Saxon England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 399–400. For the wider context: ibid., 387–400.

13. S. Keynes, ‘Giso, Bishop of Wells (1062–88)’, Anglo-Norman Studies 19 (1997), 203–70, at 205–13; B. Savill, ‘Prelude to Forgery: Baldwin of Bury meets Pope Alexander II’, English Historical Review 132 (2017), 795–822, at 814–15.

14. C. P. Lewis, ‘The French in England before the Conquest’, Anglo-Norman Studies 17 (1995), 123–44.

15. Vita Ædwardi regis, I.11.

16. BL Stowe 944, fol. 29r., with T. Licence, ‘Edward the Confessor and the Succession Question: A Fresh Look at the Sources’, Anglo-Norman Studies 39 (2017), 113–27. See also S. Baxter, ‘Edward the Confessor and the Succession Question’, in Edward the Confessor, ed. Mortimer, 77–118.

17. K. Ubl, ‘Der kinderlose König. Ein Testfall für die Ausdifferenzierung des Politischen im 11. Jahrhundert’, Historische Zeitung 292 (2011), 323–63.

18. William of Malmesbury, Gesta pontificum Anglorum, I.73, ed. and trans. M. Winterbottom (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Cf. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, I.228, ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors with R. M. Thomson and M. Winterbottom (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

19. E. Fernie, ‘Edward the Confessor’s Westminster Abbey’, in Edward the Confessor, ed. Mortimer, 139–50. See further E. Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Blair, Building Anglo-Saxon England, 402–4.

Chapter 5: William I: A Conquering King, Normandy and England, 1035–66

1. Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, VII.16, ed. and trans. M. Chibnall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969–80); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.283. For discussion: D. Bates, William the Conqueror (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 483–512.

2. E. M. C. van Houts, ‘The Origins of Herleva, Mother of William the Conqueror’, English Historical Review 101 (1986), 399–404.

3. S. McDougall, Royal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800–1230 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). See also D. Bates, ‘The Conqueror’s Adolescence’, Anglo-Norman Studies 25 (2003), 1–18.

4. Hugh of Flavigny, Chronicon, s.a. 1047, ed. G. H. Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 8 (Hanover, 1845); William of Jumièges, Gesta Normannorum ducum, VII.3(6). In general: Bates, William, 53–4; and, on the Truce: G. Koziol, The Peace of God (Leeds: Arc Medieval Press, 2018), 89–127.

5. van Houts, ‘Origins of Herleva’.

6. ASC D 1052 (= 1051), with P. Stafford, After Alfred: Anglo-Saxon Chronicles and Chroniclers, 900–1150 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), 222–7, 233–67. See further Garnett, Conquered England, 2007), 7–9, 40–4; Bates, William, 108–22.

7. Bates, William, 129–33.

8. Ibid., 144–5. See further J. Gillingham, ‘William the Bastard at War’, Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. Allen Brown, ed. C. Harper-Bill, C. Holdsworth and J. L. Nelson (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1989), 141–58, at 151–3.

9. Cf. G. Garnett, ‘ “Ducal” Succession in Early Normandy’, in Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt, ed. G. Garnett and J. Hudson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 90–110.

10. Eadmer, Historia novorum in Anglia, 5–7, with Baxter, ‘Edward the Confessor’, in Edward the Confessor, ed. Mortimer, 107–8; M. Morris, The Norman Conquest (London: Hutchinson, 2012), 116–19.

11. A. Gautier, ‘Harold, Harald, Guillaume et les autres: prétentions et prétendants à la succession d’Édouard le Confesseur (1042–1066)’, Annales de Normandie 69 (2019), 29–56.

12. A. Gautier, ‘Comment Harold prêta serment: circonstances et interprétations d’un rituel politique’, Cahiers de civilisation médiévale 55 (2012), 33–57.

13. However, see A. Williams, ‘The Art of Memory: The Posthumous Reputation of King Harold II Godwineson’, Anglo-Norman Studies 42 (2020) 29–43, at 30–1, now raising the possibility of a later coronation.

14. Bates, William, 219–22. Note the recent arguments of D. Armstrong, ‘The Norman Conquest of England, the Papacy, and the Papal Banner’, Haskins Society Journal 32 (2021), 47–72, which considerably complicate the matter.

15. Les Actes de Guillaume le Conquérant et de la reine Mathilde pour les abbayes caennaises, ed. L. Musset (Caen: Société des antiquaires de Normandie, 1967), no. 2 (= Recueil des actes des ducs, ed. Fauroux, no. 231), with C. Letouzey-Réty, ‘Les Abbesses de la Trinité de Caen, la reine Mathilde et l’Angleterre’, Annales de Normandie 69 (2019), 57–69. See also Bates, William, 226–8.

16. E. M. C. van Houts, ‘The Ship List of William the Conqueror’, Anglo-Norman Studies 10 (1988), 159–183.

17. See most recently J. Gillingham, ‘1066 and Warfare: The Context and Place (Senlac) of the Battle of Hastings’, in 1066 in Perspective, ed. D. Bates (Leeds: Royal Armouries, 2018), 109–22, at 114–15.

18. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.262.

19. William of Poitiers, Gesta Giullelmi, II.6, with Morris, Norman Conquest, 166–8.

20. ASC E 1066, TNA, E 31/1/3 (Little Domesday), fol. 14r.

21. B. S. Bachrach, ‘Some Observations on the Military Administration of the Norman Conquest’, Anglo-Norman Studies 8 (1986), 1–25.

22. M. Strickland, ‘Military Technology and Conquest: The Anomaly of Anglo-Saxon England’, Anglo-Norman Studies 18 (1997), 353–82, and ‘La Chevalerie des Normands? La conquête et la conduite de la guerre dans le monde normand’, in 911–2011: penser les mondes normands médiévaux, ed. D. Bates and P. Bauduin (Caen: Presses Universitaires de Caen, 2016), 293–308.

23. Carmen de Hastingae proelio, ll. 533–50, ed. C. Morton and H. Muntz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972).

24. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, I.3, ed. M. Guéret-Laferté (Paris: Champion, 2011). On Harold’s death, see M. K. Lawson, The Battle of Hastings (3rd edn, published online, 2016: https://archive.org/details/LawsonBattleofHastings3rdedn), 181–6, 203–13; Bates, William, 241–2. On Amatus: G. A. Loud, ‘Introduction’, in Amatus of Montecassino: The History of the Normans, trans. P. N. Dunbar with G. A. Loud (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004), 1–42.

Chapter 6: Court Propaganda: The Case for Conquest, 1066–84

1. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.247; John of Worcester, Chronicon, s.a. 1066, ed. R. R. Darlington and P. McGurk (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995–8).

2. ASC D 1066. On the post-Hastings campaign: P. Dalton, ‘After Hastings: William the Conqueror’s Invasion Campaign, 15 October–25 December 1066’, Viator 48 (2017), 139–78.

3. John of Worcester, Chronicon, s.a. 1066. John’s source is a copy of the Chronicle similar to the D version, itself drawn up in Ealdred’s circles. The silence of the latter may reflect new sensibilities after William’s accession in late 1066, when the archbishop – who went on to anoint William too – had every reason to downplay his earlier involvement in Harold’s regime.

4. Garnett, Conquered England, 33–44. See also Bates, William, 221–3.

5. William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi, I.14.

6. Ibid. I.41.

7. Councils and Synods With Other Documents Relating to the English Church, 871–1204, ed. D. Whitelock, M. Brett and C. N. L. Brooke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), ii, 581–4, with Garnett, Conquered England, 5–9. See also S. Hamilton, The Practice of Penance, 900–1050 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2001), 194–6.

8. Regesta regum Anglo-Normannorum: The Acta of William I (1066–87), ed. D. Bates (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), no. 180.

9. Anglo-Saxon Writs, ed. F. E. Harmer (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1952), no. 71. It is significant that this was in favour of Giso of Wells: S. Keynes, ‘Giso, Bishop of Wells (1061–88)’, Anglo-Norman Studies 19 (1997), 203–71; G. Garnett, The Norman Conquest: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 50–2. More generally: Garnett, Conquered England, 9–18.

10. C. Lewis, ‘Audacity and Ambition in Early Norman England and the Big Stuff of the Conquest’, Anglo-Norman Studies 40 (2018), 25–51, at 37–8, 49–51.

11. TNA E 31/2/2 (Great Domesday Book), fol. 100v.

12. See most recently S. Baxter, ‘The Domesday Controversy: A Review and a New Interpretation’, Haskins Society Journal 29 (2018), 225–93, and ‘How and Why was Domesday Made?’, English Historical Review 135 (2020), 1085–131.

13. TNA E 31/2/2 (Great Domesday Book), fol. 38r.

Chapter 7: The Bayeux Tapestry: Embroidered History, 1066–97

1. C. Hicks, The Bayeux Tapestry: The Life Story of a Masterpiece (London: Chatto & Windus, 2006). On the Tapestry, the best recent guides are P. Bouet and F. Neveux, La Tapisserie de Bayeux: révélation et mystères d’une broderie du Moyen Âge (Rennes: Ouest-France, 2013); L. Provero, Dalla guerra alla pace: L’Arazzo di Bayeux e la conquista normanna dell’Inghilterra (secolo XI) (Florence: Firenze University Press, 2020); D. Musgrove and M. Lewis, The Story of the Bayeux Tapestry: Unravelling the Norman Conquest (London: Thames & Hudson, 2021).

2. R. Gameson, ‘The Origins, Art, and Message of the Bayeux Tapestry’, in The Study of the Bayeux Tapestry, ed. R. Gameson (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1997), 157–211, at 161–74; C. Hart, ‘The Bayeux Tapestry and Schools of Illumination at Canterbury’, Anglo-Norman Studies 22 (2000), 117–67.

3. C. Norton, ‘Viewing the Bayeux Tapestry, Now and Then’, Journal of the British Archaeological Association 172 (2019), 52–89. See further, C. Norton, ‘The Helmet and the Crown: The Bayeux Tapestry, Bishop Odo and William the Conqueror’, Anglo-Norman Studies 43 (2021), 123–49.

4. N. Brooks with H. E. Walker, ‘The Authority and Interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry’, Anglo-Norman Studies 1 (1979), 1–34, 191–9; S. Lewis, The Rhetoric of Power in the Bayeux Tapestry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 116–31; H. M. Thomas, ‘Turold, Wadard and Vitalis: Why are They on the Bayeux Tapestry?’, Anglo-Norman Studies 28 (2016), 181–97. Among the (vast) further literature, especially valuable perspectives are to be found in D. J. Bernstein, The Mystery of the Bayeux Tapestry (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986); H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Towards an Interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry’, Anglo-Norman Studies 10 (1988), 49–65; Gameson, ‘Origins, Art and Message’; L. Ashe, Fiction and History in England, 1066–1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 35–49; Bouet and Neveux, Tapisserie de Bayeux; Musgrove and Lewis, Story of the Bayeux Tapestry.

5. Gameson, ‘Origins, Art and Message’, 172–4.

6. Cowdrey, ‘Towards an Interpretation’.

7. Baudri of Bourgueil (Baldricus Burgulianus), Carmina, l. 463, Editiones Heidelbergenses 19, ed. K. Hilbert (Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter, 1979).

8. Cf. N. Marafioti, The King’s Body: Burial and Succession in Late Anglo-Saxon England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 232–9.

9. Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, VII.15.

10. Recueil des actes des ducs, ed. Fauroux, nos 227 (Odo), 229 (Odo and Robert), 230 (Robert), 231 (Odo).

11. van Houts, ‘Ship List’. See also C. W. Hollister, ‘The Greater Domesday Tenants-in-Chief’, in Domesday Studies, ed. J. C. Holt (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1987), 219–48, at 221–2, 243.

12. C. M. Nakashian, Warrior Churchmen of Medieval England, 1000–1250: Theory and Reality (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2016), 125–57; D. M. G. Gerrard, The Church at War: The Military Activities of Bishops, Abbots and other Clergy in England, c.900–1200 (London: Routledge, 2017), 35–40.

13. William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi, II.14, 37. See further D. R. Bates, ‘The Character and Career of Odo, Bishop of Bayeux (1049/50–1097)’, Speculum 50 (1975), 1–20.

14. Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, VII.8; William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.277; Guibert of Nogent, Dei gesta per Francos, VII.15, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum: Continuatio Medievalis 127A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1996). See Bates, William, 441–5.

Chapter 8: The Fate of the English: Conquest to Colonisation, 1066–84

1. J. Gillingham, The English in the Twelfth Century: Imperialism, National Identity and Political Values (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2000), 209–31; M. Strickland, War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy, 1066–1217 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

2. William of Poitiers, Gesta Guillelmi, II.32.

3. H. J. Tanner, ‘The Expansion of the Power and Influence of the Counts of Boulogne under Eustace II’, Anglo-Norman Studies 14 (1992), 251–86, esp. 272–4. Cf. R. Fleming, Kings and Lords in Conquest England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 217–26.

4. R. Higham, ‘William the Conqueror’s Siege of Exeter in 1068’, Transactions of the Devonshire Association, 146 (2014), 93–132.

5. Exeter, D.C. 2528, Regesta, ed. Bates, no. 138. See further, T. Gale, J. Langdon and N. Leishman, ‘Piety and Political Accommodation in Norman England: The Case of the South-West’, Haskins Society Journal 18 (2007), 110–31. A similar set of charters, also strongly echoing the Confessor’s, was issued shortly after the siege in 1068: Regesta, ed. Bates, nos 181, 286, with S. Keynes, ‘Regenbald the Chancellor (sic)’, Anglo-Norman Studies 10 (1988), 185–222, at 218–20.

6. On Eadnoth and his family: A. Williams, The English and the Norman Conquest (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1995), 119–22.

7. Morris, Norman Conquest, 217–18.

8. Orderic Vitalis, Historia Ecclesiastica, IV.214–18. Edgar’s movements are difficult to reconstruct. He does not attest the charters William issued at his Pentecost court (in which both Edwin and Morcar appear), on which grounds it is often suggested that he’d sought out refuge at the court of Malcolm: Regesta, ed. Bates, nos 181, 286, with N. Hooper, ‘Edgar the Ætheling: Anglo-Saxon Prince, Rebel and Crusader’, Anglo-Saxon England 14 (1985), 197–214, at 204. However, Edgar had never attested the Confessor’s charters, so it is unclear why he should suddenly attest those of the Conqueror.

9. ASC D 1069; Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, IV.228. See further N. Arnold, ‘The Defeat of the Sons of Harold in 1069’, Transactions of the Devonshire Association 145 (2013), 33–56.

10. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Pontificum, III.99.

11. Bates, William, 313–21. Cf. D. M. Palliser, ‘Domesday Book and the “Harrying of the North”’, Northern History 29 (1993), 1–23.

12. Bates, William, 297, 350–1. See further, Williams, English and the Norman Conquest; H. M. Thomas, ‘The Significance and Fate of the Native English Landholders of 1086’, English Historical Review 118 (2003), 303–34.

13. Garnett, Norman Conquest, 73–89; Fleming, Kings and Lords, 215–31; S. Baxter and C. P. Lewis, ‘Domesday Book and the Transformation of English Landed Society, 1066–86’, Anglo-Saxon England 46 (2017), 343–403.

14. The Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough, ed. H. Rothwell (London: Offices of the Royal Historical Society, 1957), 216, with M. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066–1307 (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 3rd edn, 2012), 41–5. More generally: N. Vincent, ‘More Tales of the Conquest’, in Normandy and its Neighbours, ed. Crouch and Thompson, 271–301, at 290–9.

Chapter 9: Church and State in Conquered England: Romancing the Stone, 1066–87

1. F. Barlow, The English Church 1000–1066: A History of the Later Anglo-Saxon Church (London: Longman, 1979). See also M. F. Giandrea, Episcopal Culture in Late Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2007).

2. H. E. J. Cowdrey, Lanfranc: Scholar, Monk, and Archbishop (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 29–45.

3. Cf. Alexander’s letter to William: PL, cxlvi, col. 1413, with H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Lanfranc, the Papacy and Canterbury’ (1993), repr. in and cited from H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes and Church Reform in the 11th Century (Aldershot: Routledge, 2000), no. X, 449–56.

4. For the relevant sources (with discussion): Councils and Synods, ed. Whitelock, Brett and Brooke, ii, 563–81.

5. H. Vollrath, Die Synoden Englands bis 1066 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1986), 193–290. See also C. Cubitt, ‘Bishops and Councils in Late Saxon England: The Intersection of Secular and Ecclesiastical Law’, in Recht und Gericht in Kirche und Welt um 900, ed. W. Hartmann (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2007), 151–67.

6. Cowdrey, Lanfranc, 1–28.

7. Garnett, Conquered England, 33–44.

8. The Letters of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, ed. H. Clover and M. Gibson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), no. 1.

9. Acta Lanfranci, ed. J. Bately, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: MS A (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1986), 84.

10. The essential guide remains Fernie, Architecture of Norman England, 89–193. See also Garnett, Norman Conquest, 91–114; R. Gem, Studies in English Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque Architecture (London: Pindar Press, 2003).

11. Fernie, Architecture, 98–102.

12. Raoul Glaber, Historiarum libri quinque, III.13, ed. and trans. J. France, Rodulfus Glaber Opera (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). See J. Howe, Before the Gregorian Reform: The Latin Church at the Turn of the First Millennium (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 86–111.

13. Fernie, Architecture, 121. See further, Lewis, ‘Audacity and Ambition’, 28–30; E. Fernie, ‘1066 and Ecclesiastical Architecture’, in 1066 in Perspective, ed. Bates, 187–203, at 194–7; R. Plant, ‘Ecclesiastical Architecture, c.1050 to c.1200’, in A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World, ed. C. Harper-Bill and E. van Houts (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003), 215–53, at 229–30.

14. Garnett, Norman Conquest, 103–4. See also Fernie, Architecture, 292, 294.

15. Fernie, Architecture, 131–40. See also M. Thurlby, ‘The Roles of the Patron and the Master Mason in the First Design of the Romanesque Cathedral of Durham’, in Anglo-Norman Durham: 1093–1193, ed. D. Rollason, M. Harvey and M. Prestwich (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1994), 161–84.

16. J. Bilson, ‘Durham Cathedral, the Chronology of its Vaults’, Archaeological Journal 2nd ser. 29 (1922), 101–60, at 101.

17. O. H. Creighton, ‘1066 and the Landscape’, in 1066 in Perspective, ed. Bates, 213–37, at 219–23.

18. ASC E 1086.

19. Cf. M. G. Shapland, Anglo-Saxon Towers of Lordship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019); D. Roffe, ‘Castle Construction, Conquest and Compensation’, Anglo-Norman Studies, 41 (2019), 175–92.

20. R. Eales, ‘Royal Power and Castles in Norman England’, in Medieval Knighthood 3 (1990), 49–78, at 54–7.

Chapter 10: Settling the South: Ironarm in Italy, c.1030–45

1. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.262.

2. G. A. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest (London: Longman, 2000), 81–91.

3. F. Panarelli, ‘Goffredo Malaterra’, Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, 57 (2001), 541–5. Cf. K. B. Wolf, Making History: The Normans and Their Historians in Eleventh-Century Italy (Philadelphia, PA: University of Philadelphia Press, 1995), 143–71.

4. Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae comitis et Roberti Guiscardi ducis fratris eius, I.5–6, ed. E. Pontieri (Bologna: N. Zanichelli, 2nd edn, 1927–8).

5. Amatus of Montecassino, Ystoire de li Normant, I.16–21.

6. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, I, ll. 11–57, ed. M. Mathieu (Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, 1961).

7. Adémar of Chabannes, Chronicon, III.55, ed. P. Bourgain with R. Landes and G. Pon, Corpus Christianorum: Continuatio Medievalis 129 (Turnhout; Brepols, 1999); Raoul Glaber, Historiae, III.3–4.

8. H. Hoffmann, ‘Die Anfänge der Normannen in Süditalien’, Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken, 49 (1969), 95–144; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, 61–6. Cf. J. France, ‘The Occasion of the Coming of the Normans to Southern Italy’, Journal of Medieval History 17 (1991), 185–205.

9. G. A. Loud, ‘Southern Italy in the Tenth Century’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History, ii, c.900–1024, ed. T. Reuter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 624–45, at 636–41.

10. P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London: Bodley Head, 2012), 57–70; A. Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 231–79.

11. Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, I.7.

Chapter 11: Robert Guiscard: A Cunning Count, c.1040–85

1. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, III.262. (The translation is my own, adapted from that of Thomson and Winterbottom.)

2. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, III.9.

3. Ibid., IV.18. Cf. Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, I.16–17. For discussion: G. A. Loud, ‘Anna Komnena and her Sources for the Normans of Southern Italy’ (1991), repr. in G. A. Loud, Conquerors and Churchmen in Norman Italy (Aldershot: Routledge, 1999), no. XIII, 54–6; H. Taviani-Carozzi, La Terreur du monde: Robert Guiscard et la conquête normande en Italie, mythe et histoire (Paris: Fayard, 1996), 184–92.

4. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, III.11.

5. Malaterra, De rebus gestis, I.13; William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, II, ll. 78–80. Cf. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, III.15–19.

6. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, II, ll. 82–266; Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, III.39–41, with C. Guzzo, ‘La battaglia di Civitate: un rilettura’, Archivio normanno-svevo 5 (2017), 69–83.

7. For this and the following: Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, 119–30.

8. P. Skinner, ‘ “Halt! Be Men!”: Sikelgaita of Salerno, Gender and the Norman Conquest of Southern Italy’, Gender and History 12 (2000), 622–41.

9. C. Hervé-Cummereuc, ‘La Calabre dans l’état normand d’Italie du sud (XI^e–XII^e siècles)’, Annales de Normandie 45 (1995), 2–25. See also Taviani-Carozzi, Terreur du mond, 255–9.

10. G. M. Cantarella, ‘Liaisons dangereuses: il papato e i Normanni’, in Il papato e i Normanni: temporale e spirituale in età normanna, ed. E. D’Angelo (Florence: SISMEL edizioni del Galluzzo, 2011), 45–58.

11. On German involvement: G. A. Loud, ‘German Emperors and Southern Italy during the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries’, in “Quei maledetti Normanni”: studi offerti a Errico Cuozzo per i suoi settant’anni da Colleghi, Allievi, Amici, ed. J.-M. Martin and R. Alaggio (Naples: Centro Europea di Studi Normanni, 2016), 583–605.

12. H. E. J. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius: Montecassino, the Papacy, and the Normans in the Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 107–76.

13. Le Liber censuum de l’église romaine, ed. P. Fabre and L. Duchesne (Paris: Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome, 1889–1952), i, 421–2. Cf. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, II, ll. 400–5.

14. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, III, ll. 132–8. See C. D. Stanton, Norman Naval Operations in the Mediterranean (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2011), esp. 40–4, and ‘The Norman Kingdom of Sicily: Projecting Power by Sea’, in Warfare in the Norman Mediterranean, ed. G. Theotokis (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2020), 177–94.

15. Taviani-Carozzi, Terreur du mond, 373–8; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, 163–5; J. C. Birk, Norman Kings of Sicily and the Rise of the Anti-Islamic Critique: Baptized Sultans (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 33–138; M. King, ‘Holy War in the Central Mediterranean: The Case of the Zirids and the Normans’, in The Normans in the Mediterranean, ed. E. A. Winkler and L. Fitzgerald (Turnhout: Brepols, 2021), 229–47. Cf. P. E. Chevedden, ‘ “A Crusade from the Start”: The Norman Conquest of Islamic Sicily, 1060–91’, Al-Masāq 22 (2010), 191–225.

16. Taviani-Carozzi, Terreur du mond, 349–88; Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, 165–85; Metcalfe, Muslims, 99–108.

17. Geoffey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, III.31, 36.

Chapter 12: Under a Byzantine Banner: Into Asia Minor, 1038–77

1. A. Kaldellis, Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019); P. Sarris, Byzantium: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), esp. 19–40, 94–113.

2. Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 21–228.

3. A. D. Beihammer, Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040–1130 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), esp. 49–168. See also S. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1971), 69–142.

4. Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 171–3; J. Shepard, ‘Byzantium’s Last Sicilian Expedition: Scylitzes’ Testimony’, Rivista di studi bizantini e neoellenici n.s. 14–16 (1977–9), 145–59.

5. John Skylitzes, Synopsis Historiarum, XXIII.4, ed. J. Thurn (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973); Anna Komnena, Alexias, I.5, ed. D. R. Reinsch and A. Kambylis (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2001); Skylitzes Continuatus, VI.21, ed. and trans. E. McGeer, Byzantium in the Time of Troubles: The Continuation of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (1057–1079) (Leiden: Brill, 2020). See also J. Shepard, ‘The Uses of Franks in Eleventh-Century Byzantium’, Anglo-Norman Studies 15 (1993), 275–305, at 283–4.

6. G. Theotokis, ‘Rus, Varangian and Frankish Mercenaries in the Service of the Byzantine Emperors (9th-11th C.)’, Byzantina Symmeikta 22 (2012), 126–56, at 142. See also Shepard, ‘Uses of Franks’, 285–7.

7. Michael Psellos, Chronographia, VII.24, ed. S. Impellizzeri (Milan: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, 1984); Anna Komnena, Alexias, V.6.

8. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, II. ll. 46–74; William of Poitiers, Gest Guillelmi, I.59.

9. Skylitzes, Synopsis Historiarum, XXIII.4. On Hervé’s career: J.-C. Cheynet, ‘Le Rôle des Occidentaux dans l’armée byzantine avant la Première Croisade’, in Byzanz und das Abendland im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert, ed. E. Konstantinou (Cologne: Böhlau, 1997), 111–28, at 119–21.

10. W. Seibt, ‘Übernahm der französische Normanne Hervé (Erbebios Phrangopolos) nach der Katastrophe von Manzikert das Kommando über) die verbliebene Ostarmee?’, Studies in Byzantine Sigillography 10 (2006), 89–96. Matthew of Edessa (Matt’ēos Uѓhayec’i records the alternative tradition that he was drowned on the orders of Constantine IX Doukas: T. L. Andrews, Matt’ēos Uѓhayec’i and His Chronicle: History as Apocalypse in a Crossroads of Cultures (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 93–4.

11. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, I.5–8. On the ‘commander of the cavalry of Rome’: J. F. O’Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 26 (with n. 13).

12. Michael Attaleiates, Historia, ch. 18, ed. I. Pérez Martín and trans. A. Kaldellis and D. Krallis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012). See also Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 243.

13. Attaleiates, Historia, ch. 21. Cf. Psellos, Chronographia, VII.39. For discussion: Shepard, ‘Uses of Franks’, 297–8.

14. For the size of imperial forces (and, in particular, tagmata): J. F. Haldon, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204 (London: Routledge, 1999), 103–4.

15. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, I.9.

16. Our main sources for the rebellion are Attaleiates, Historia, ch. 23; and Nikephoros Bryennios, Historiarum libri quattuor, II.4, 14–24, ed. P. Gautier (Brussels: Byzantion, 1975). See further Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 256–61; Beihammer, Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, 208–13.

17. L. Neville, Heroes and Romans in Twelfth-Century Byzantium: The Material for History of Nikephoros Bryennios (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 46–59.

Chapter 13: Bohemond and the Balkans: ‘A Marvel to Behold’, 1081–5

1. Anna Komnena, Alexias, XIII.10.

2. Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, VII.7–8, 20, with Taviani-Carozzi, Terreur du monde, 317–21.

3. H. Bibicou, ‘Une Page d’histoire diplomatique de Byzanze au XI^e siècle: Michel VII Doukas, Robert Guiscard et la pension de dignitaires’, Byzantion 29/30 (1959–60), 43–74. See also Amatus, Ystoire de li Normant, VII.26.

4. Anna Komnena, Alexias, XIII.10.

5. On Bohemond: L. Russo, Boemondo: figlio del Guiscardo e principe di Antiochia (Avellino: Sellino, 2008); G. Theotokis, Bohemond of Taranto: Crusader and Conqueror (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2021).

6. Y.-M. Bercé, Le Roi cache: sauveurs et imposteurs: mythes politiques populaires dans l’Europe modern (Paris: Fayard, 1990); R. Bartlett, Blood Royal: Dynastic Politics in Medieval Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 360–78.

7. G. Theotokis, The Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, 1081–1108 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2014), 137–84. See further, Loud, Age of Robert Guiscard, 213–23; Taviani-Carozzi, Terreur du monde, 424–49, 468–85; Russo, Boemondo, 20–8; Theotokis, Bohemond, 19–61.

8. Anna Komnena, Alexias, III.9.

9. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, IV, ll. 270–505; Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, III.26–8.

10. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, IV, ll. 506–26; Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, III.33–4. On Byzantine fears in this connection: A. Kolia-Dermitrazi, ‘The Norman Factor in the Gradual Alienation of East and West’, in The Fourth Crusade Revisited, ed. P. Piatti (Vatican City: Liberia editrice vaticana, 2008), 32–53, at 41–2.

11. In addition to the works already cited: M Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204, (London: Longman, 2nd edn, 1997), 129–31; P. Stephenson, Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 165–72.

12. William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi, V, ll. 143–228. See also Anna Komnena, Alexias, VI.5–6.

Chapter 14: The First Crusade: Eastern Promises, 1096–1108

1. Good overviews can be found in J. France, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); T. Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); C. Tyerman, God’s War: A History of the Crusades (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 27–164. Refreshing new perspectives are offered by J. Rubenstein, Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse (New York: Basic Books, 2011); Frankopan, Call from the East; M. Wittow, ‘Pirenne, Muhammad, and Bohemond: Before Orientalism’, in Crusading Europe: Essays in Honour of Christopher Tyerman, ed. G. E. M. Lippiatt and J. L. Bird (Turnhout: Brepols, 2019), 17–49; Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 280–301.

2. L. Kjaer, ‘Conquests, Family Traditions and the First Crusade’, Journal of Medieval History 45 (2019), 553–79. See also Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 283–7.

3. Tyerman, God’s War, 110–11.

4. Frankopan, Call from the East, 57–70. On Gregory VII’s plans: H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s “Crusading” Plans of 1074’ (1982), repr. in H. E. J Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London: Hambledon Continuum, 1984), no. X; and on the deeper causes of crusade in Europe: C. Erdmann, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. M. W. Baldwin and W. Goffart (Princeton: NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977); M. Bull, Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade: The Limousin and Gascony c. 970–c. 1130 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993); Tyerman, God’s War, 27–57.

5. Frankopan, Call from the East, 71–86; Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 287–9.

6. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Urban II’s Preaching of the First Crusade’ (1970), repr. in Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders, no. XVI.

7. J. Flori, Pierre l’Ermite et la première croisade (Paris: Fayard, 1999); R. Chazan, In the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews (Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publication Society, 1996). See also R. Chazan, ‘ “Let Not a Remnant or a Residue Escape”: Millenarian Enthusiasm in the First Crusade’, Speculum 84 (2009), 289–313.

8. Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum, I.4, ed. R. Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962); Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, IV.24; Codice diplomatico barese, v.1, Le pergamene di S. Nicola di Bari (1075–1194), ed. F. Nitti di Vito (Bari: Commissione provinciale di archaeologia e storia patri, 1902), no. 22, with Russo, Boemondo, 59–62. For doubts: France, Victory in the East, 82; Tyerman, God’s War, 76–7; Frankopan, Call from the East, 109–10. See also L. Russo, ‘Norman Participation in the First Crusade: A Re-examination’, in Warfare in the Norman Mediterranean, ed. G. Theotokis (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2020), 195–209; A. V. Murray, ‘The Enemy Within: Bohemond, Byzantium and the Subversion of the First Crusade’, in Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World, ed. K. Hurlock and P. Oldfield (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2015), 32–47, at 35–7, who (like Russo) is willing to trust the anonymous here.

9. Albert of Aachen, Historia Ierosolimitana, II.14, ed. and trans. S. B. Edgington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Anna Komnena, Alexias, X.9, with Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, 291–2.

10. J. Shepard, ‘When Greek meets Greek: Alexius Comnenus and Bohemond in 1097–98’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 12 (1988), 185–277. See also J. H. Pryor, ‘The Oaths of the Leaders of the First Crusade to Emperor Alexius I Comnenus: Fealty, Homage – πίστις, δουλεία’, Parergon 2 (1984), 111–41.

11. Anna Komnena, Alexias, XI.3.

12. S. B. Edgington, Baldwin I of Jerusalem, 1100–1118 (London: Routledge, 2019), 38–58. Cf. Frankopan, Call from the East, 150–3.

13. Frankopan, Call from the East, 157–72; Murray, ‘Enemy Within’, 41–7.

14. For the battle: France, Victory in the East, 260–96; on the relic: J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (London: Athlone Press, 1986), 95–8; T. Asbridge, ‘The Holy Lance of Antioch: Power, Devotion and Memory on the First Crusade’, Reading Medieval Studies 33 (2007), 3–36; and on the impact of victory: Rubenstein, Armies of Heaven, 205–27; A. D. Buck, ‘ “Weighed by Such a Great Calamity, They were Cleansed for their Sins”: Remembering the Siege and Capture of Antioch’, in Remembering the Crusades in Medieval Texts and Songs, ed. A. D. Buck and T. W. Smith (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2019), 1–16.

15. T. S. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 1098–1130 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2000), 129–54, 163–80; A. V. Murray, ‘The Nobility of the Principality of Antioch, 1098–1187: Names, Origins and Identity’, in Normans and the ‘Norman Edge’, ed. Stringer and Jotischky, 162–90; A. D. Buck, The Principality of Antioch and its Frontiers in the Twelfth Century (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2017), 62–85.

16. A. V. Murray, ‘Norman Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099–1131’, Archivio normanno-svevo 1 (2008), 61–86.

17. G. A. Loud, ‘Norman Italy and the Holy Land’ (1992), repr. in Loud,Conquerors and Churchmen, no. XIV; L. Russo, ‘Bad Crusaders? The Normans of Southern Italy and the Crusading Movement in the Twelfth Century’, Anglo-Norman Studies 38 (2016), 169–80; P. Z. Hailstone, Recalcitrant Crusaders? The Relationship Between Southern Italy and Sicily, Crusading and the Crusader States, c.1060–1198 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2020).

18. N. Paul, To Follow in Their Footsteps: The Crusades and Family Memory in the High Middle Ages (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012).

19. William of Tyre, Chronicon, XI.29, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (Turnhout: Brepols, 1986), with Murray, ‘Norman Settlement’, 75–80. See also Edgington, Baldwin I, 182–5.

20. See further Buck, Principality of Antioch, 69–77, 88–101.

21. L. Russo, ‘Il viaggio di Boemondo d’Altavilla in Francia (1106): un riesame’, Archivio storico italiano 163 (2005), 3–42; J. Rubenstein, Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream: The Crusades, Apocalyptic Prophecy, and the End of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 7–20.

22. B. Whalen, ‘God’s Will or Not? Bohemond’s Campaign Against the Byzantine Empire (1105–1108)’, in Crusades: Medieval Worlds in Conflict, ed. T. F. Madden et al. (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 111–26. See also Russo, Boemondo, 177–95; Theotokis, Norman Campaigns, 200–14; J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London: Bloomsbury, 2nd edn, 2014), 80–5.

Chapter 15: A Bridge Too Far? North Africa, 1142–59

1. Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, ed. and trans. (into Italian) M. Amari (Turin, 1880), i, 450–2; Geoffrey of Malaterra, De rebus gestis, IV.3. Sadly the only English translation is partial, starting with the years of the First Crusade: The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the Crusading Period, trans. D. S. Richards (Farnham: Ashgate, 2006–8). On the campaign: H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Mahdia Campaign of 1087’ (1977), repr. in Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders, no. XII.

2. F. Micheau, ‘Le Kitāb al-kāmil fī l-tā’rīkh d’Ibn al-Athīr: entre chronique et histoire’, Studia Islamica 104/5 (2007), 81–101.

3. D. Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean (London: Allen Lane, 2011), 241–369. See also M. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce AD 300–900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

4. D. Abulafia, ‘The Norman Kingdom of Africa and Norman Expeditions to Majorca and the Muslim Mediterranean’, Anglo-Norman Studies 7 (1985), 26–49, at 26–30. See further, D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the Economy under Roger II and His Successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 37 (1983), 1–14, esp. 3–5; C. Dalli, ‘Bridging Europe and Africa: Norman Sicily’s Other Kingdom’, in Bridging the Gaps: Sources, Methodology and Approaches to Religion in History, ed. J. Carvalho (Pisa: Pisa University Press, 2008), 77–94, at 80–4.

5. J. Johns, Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 80–90, 215–18, 282–3; B. A. Catlos, ‘Who was Philip of Mahdia and Why Did He Have to Die? Confessional Identity and Political Power in the Twelfth-Century Mediterranean’, Mediterranean Chronicle 1 (2011), 73–103; Birk, Norman Kings of Sicily, 139–71. More generally: C. D. Stanton, ‘Roger de Hauteville, Amir of Sicily’, Mediterranean Historical Review 25 (2010), 113–32.

6. Stanton, Norman Naval Operations, 61–2, 65–6, 75.

7. H. Houben, Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West, trans. G. A. Loud and D. Milburn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 8–50.

8. Ibid., 60–75.

9. Annales Erphesfurtenses, s.a. 1135, ed. O. Holder-Egger, Monumenta Erphesfurtensia saec. XII. XIII. XIV. (Hanover: Hahn, 1899).

10. Metcalfe, Muslims, 160–80. See also M. King, ‘The Norman Kingdom of Africa and the Medieval Mediterranean’ (PhD thesis, University of Minnesota, 2018), 102–35.

11. Ibn al-Athīr, Chronicle, s.a. 544 (=A.D. 1149–50), trans. D. S. Richards, ii, 32.

12. J. Johns, ‘Malik Infrīqiya: The Norman Kingdom of Africa and the Fāṭimids’, Libyan Studies 18 (1987), 89–101. See also M. King, ‘The Norman Kings of Africa?’, Haskins Society Journal 28 (2016), 143–66.

13. Metcalfe, Muslims, 172–8; King, ‘Norman Kingdom’, 135–45.

14. Hugo Falcandus, Liber de regno Sicilie, ed. G. B. Siragusa (Rome, 1897), 27–8. See further, G. A. Loud, ‘William the Bad or William the Unlucky? Kingship in Sicily 1154–1166’, Haskins Society Journal 8 (1996), 99–114.

15. Hugo Falcandus, Liber de regno Sicilie, 6.

16. D. Abulafia, ‘The End of Muslim Sicily’, in Muslims under Latin Rule, ed. J. Powell (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 103–33. See also Metcalfe, Muslims, 181–92; Birk, Norman Kings, 265–324.

Chapter 16: Northern Wales: A Wolf in Wolf’s Clothing, 1068–98

1. Vita Giffini filii Conani, chs 10–13, ed. and trans. P. Russell (Cardiff, 2005).

2. M. Lieberman, The March of Wales, 1067–1300: A Borderland of Medieval Britain (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2008). See also R. R. Davies, The Age of Conquest: Wales 1063–1415 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 24–110; M. Lieberman, ‘The Medieval “Marches” of Normandy and Wales’, English Historical Review 125 (2010), 1357–81.

3. T. M. Charles-Edwards, Wales and the Britons 350–1064 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 552–69; B. Guy, ‘The Pattern of English Policy Towards Wales in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries’, Offa’s Dyke Journal 4 (forthcoming, 2022).

4. K. L. Maund, ‘The Welsh Family Alliances of Earl Ælfgar of Mercia and his Family in the mid-Eleventh Century’, Anglo-Norman Studies 11 (1989), 181–90. See further K. L. Maund, Ireland, Wales, and England in the Eleventh Century (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1991), 120–55; Baxter, Earls of Mercia, 42, 46–7, 58–9, 86–7; C. P. Lewis, ‘The Shape of the Norman Principality of Gwynedd’, in Normans and the ‘Norman Edge’, ed. Stringer and Jotischky, 100–28; R. Thomas, ‘The View from Wales: Anglo-Welsh Relations in the Time of England’s Conquests’, in Conquests in Eleventh-Century England: 1016, 1066, ed. L. Ashe and E. J. Ward (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2020), 287–306.

5. Cf. D. Stephenson, Medieval Wales c. 1050–1332: Centuries of Ambiguity (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2019), 48.

6. Davies, Age of Conquest, 88–92; Lieberman, March of Wales, 18–20.

7. C. P. Lewis, ‘Hugh d’Avranches (d. 1101)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, iii, 1–3.

8. C. P. Lewis, ‘The Formation of the Honor of Chester’, Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society 71 (1991), 37–68. See also C. P. Lewis, ‘The Early Earls of Norman England’, Anglo-Norman Studies 13 (1990), 207–22, esp. 219.

9. TNA E 31/2/2 (Great Domesday Book), fol. 269r. See Lewis, ‘Principality of Gwynedd’.

10. See J. R. Davies, ‘Aspects of Church Reform in Wales, c.1093–c.1223’, Anglo-Norman Studies 30 (2008), 85–99.

11. Brut y Tywysogion or the Chronicle of Princes: Peniarth MS 20 Version, s.a. 1090 (=1093), ed. and trans. T. Jones (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1941–52); John of Worcester, Chronicon, s.a. 1093.

12. Gruffudd ap Cynan: A Collaborative Biography, ed. K. L. Maund (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1997). See also Maund, Ireland, Wales, and England, 82–90, 141–55; Thomas, ‘View from Wales’, 297–305.

13. Orderic Vitalis, Historia ecclesiastica, VI.2.

14. Ibid., VIII.3.

15. Matthew Paris, Chronica majora, s.a. 1250, ed. H. R. Luard, (London, 1872–80).

16. R. R. Davies, ‘Kings, Lords and Liberties in the March of Wales, 1066–1272’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 29 (1979), 41–61. See further Davies, Age of Conquest, 82–107, 271–88; Stephenson, Medieval Wales, 10–12, 63–83; Lieberman, March of Wales.

17. Cartae et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorganicia pertinent, ed. G. T. Clark (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1910), ii, 554.

18. H. Fulton, ‘Negotiating Welshness: Multilingualism in Wales Before and After 1066’, in Conceptualizing Multilingualism in England, c.800–c.1250, ed. E. M. Tyler (Turnhout: Brepols, 2012), 145–70.

Chapter 17: Southern Wales: Making a Mark, 1068–98

1. D. Crouch, ‘The Slow Death of Kingship in Glamorgan, 1067–1158’, Morgannwg 29 (1985), 20–41; A. G. Williams, ‘Norman Lordship in South-East Wales during the Reign of William I’, Welsh History Review 16 (1993), 445–66. See also Bates, William the Conqueror, 430–2.

2. K. L. Maund, ‘Bernard de Neufmarché (d. 1121×5?)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, xl, 459. See also Maund, Ireland, Wales, and England, 148–50.

3. Lieberman, Medieval March of Wales, 107–12.

4. On which, see Stephenson, Medieval Wales, 35–62, 85–120.

5. Gillingham, English in the Twelfth Century, 19–39; R. [R.] Davies, The Matter of Britain and the Matter of England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996). See further Davies, First English Empire, 32–53; H. Pryce, ‘British or Welsh? National Identity in Twelfth-Century Wales’, English Historical Review 116 (2001), 775–801.

6. H. Pryce, ‘Welsh Rulers and European Change, c.1100–1282’, in Power and Identity in the Middle Ages: Essays in Memory of Rees Davies, ed. H. Pryce and J. Watts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 37–51. See also C. Insley, ‘Kings, Lords, Charters, and the Political Culture of Twelfth-Century Wales’, Anglo-Norman Studies 30 (2008), 133–53.

Chapter 18: Iberia: ‘The Race of the Normans Declines No Labour’, 1147–8

1. S. Lay, The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 71–102. See further J. Mattoso, D. Afonso Henriques (Lisbon: Temas & Debates, 2006); K. V. Jensen, Crusading at the Edges of Europe: Denmark and Portugal c.1000–c.1250 (London: Routledge, 2017), 130–53.

2. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. and trans. C. W. David (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1936), with C. R. Cheney, ‘The Authorship of the De expugnatione Lyxbonensi’, Speculum 7 (1932), 395–7. See also H. Livermore, ‘The “Conquest of Lisbon” and its Author’, Portuguese Studies 6 (1990), 1–16, with the caveats raised by C. West, ‘All in the Same Boat? East Anglia, the North Sea World and the 1147 Expedition to Lisbon’, in East Anglia and its North Sea World in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Bates and R. Liddiard (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2013), 287–300, at 290–1.

3. J. Phillips, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 61–98. See further, Rubenstein, Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream, 101–22.

4. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. David, 56.

5. Ibid., 58–68. For the details of the visit to Compostela: S. B. Edgington, ‘The Lisbon Letter of the Second Crusade’, Historical Research 69 (1996), 328–39, at 337.

6. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. David, 68–84. See further, A. Forey, ‘The Siege of Lisbon and the Second Crusade’, Portuguese Studies 20 (2004), 1–13.

7. L. Villegas-Aristizábal, ‘Revisiting the Anglo-Norman Crusaders’ Failed Attempt to Conquer Lisbon c.1142’, Portuguese Studies 29 (2013), 7–20.

8. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi, ed. David, 106–10. I have adapted my translations from those given by David. See further B. Pohl, ‘Keeping it in the Family: Re-Reading Anglo-Norman Historiography in the Face of Cultural Memory, Tradition and Heritage’, in Norman Tradition and Transcultural Heritage: Exchange of Cultures in the ‘Norman’ Peripheries of Medieval Europe, ed. S. Burkhardt and T. Foerster (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013), 219–51.

9. G. Constable, ‘The Second Crusade as Seen by Contemporaries’, Traditio 9 (1953), 213–79, esp. 221–9.

10. Les Annales de Saint-Pierre de Gand et de Saint-Amand, ed. P. Grierson (Brussels: Palais des Académies, 1937), 111–12. See G. Constable, ‘A Note on the Route of the Anglo-Flemish Crusaders of 1147’, Speculum 28 (1953), 525–6.

11. Caffaro, Ystoria captionis Almerie et Turtuose, ed. L. T. Belgrano, Fonti per la storia d’Italia (Rome, 1890), 79–89; Chronica regia Colonensis, s.a. 1148, ed. G. Waitz, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 18 (Hanover, 2nd edn, 1880).

12. A. Virgili, ‘Angli cum multis aliis alienigenis: Crusade Settlers in Tortosa (Second Half of the Twelfth Century)’, Journal of Medieval History 35 (2009), 297–312. See further, L. Villegas-Aristizábal, ‘Anglo-Norman Intervention in the Conquest and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148–1180’, Crusades 8 (2009), 63–129.

13. Adémar of Chabannes, Chronicon, III.55; Chronique de Saint-Pierre-le-Vif de Sens, ed. R.-H. Bautier and M Gilles (Paris: Éditions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1979), 112–14. See further, L. Musset, ‘Aux Origines d’une classe dirigeante: les Tosny, grands barons normands du X^e au XIII^e siècle’, Francia 5 (1977), 45–80, at 52–6; M. Aurell, Les Noces du comte: mariage et pouvoir en Catalogne (785–1213) (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1995), 56–8; L. Villegas-Aristizábal, ‘Roger of Tosny’s Adventures in the County of Barcelona’, Nottingham Medieval Studies 52 (2008), 5–16.

14. L. Villegas-Aristizábal, ‘The Changing Priorities in the Norman Incursions into the Iberian Peninsula’s Muslim-Christian Frontiers, c.1018–c.1191’, in Normans in the Mediterranean, ed. Winkler and Fitzgerald, 81–119.

15. L. H. Nelson, ‘Rotrou of Perche and the Aragonese Reconquest’, Traditio 26 (1970), 113–33; L. Villegas-Aristizábal, ‘Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista c.1018–c.1248’ (PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, 2007), 112–33.

16. L. J. McCrank, ‘Norman Crusaders in the Catalan Reconquest: Robert Burdet and the Principality of Tarragona, 1129–55’, Journal of Medieval History 7 (1981), 67–82.

Chapter 19: Scotland: Honoured Guests, 1072–1153

1. PL, cxcv, cols 711–38. For the problems with this edition: D. Broun, ‘Attitudes of Gall to Gaedhel in Scotland before John of Fordun’, in Mìorun Mòr nan Gall, ‘The Great Ill-Will of the Lowlander’? Lowland Perceptions of the Highlands, ed. D. Broun and M. MacGregor (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2007), 49–82, at 69 n. 60.

2. G. Molyneaux, The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), esp. 15–47.

3. R. Fletcher, Bloodfeud: Murder and Revenge in Anglo-Saxon England (London: Allen Lane, 2002), 31–57; Charters of Northern Houses, ed. D. Woodman, Anglo-Saxon Charters 16 (Oxford: Oxford University Press/British Academy, 2012), 9–16.

4. Monasticon Anglicanum, ed. W. Dugdale et al. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1817–30), iii, 313. That the text is a forgery is noted by David X. Carpenter in the forthcoming critical edition of the charters of William II and Henry I (undertaken with Richard Sharpe).

5. A. Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, 789–1070 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), esp. 312–50; D. Broun, Scottish Independence and the Idea of Britain: From the Picts to Alexander III (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), 71–97; T. M. Charles-Edwards, ‘Picts and Scots’, Innes Review 59 (2008), 168–88. On Strathclyde: F. Edmonds, ‘The Expansion of the Kingdom of Strathclyde’, Early Medieval Europe 23 (2015), 43–66.

6. N. McGuigan, Máel Coluim III ‘Canmore’: An Eleventh-Century Scottish King (Edinburgh: John Donald, 2021), 167–207; D. Broun, ‘Southern Scotland as Part of the Scottish Kingdom: The Evidence of the Earliest Charters’, in The Battle of Carham: A Thousand Years On, ed. N. McGuigan and A. Woolf (Edinburgh: John Donald, 2018), 33–49.

7. M. Strickland, ‘Securing the North: Invasion and the Strategy of Defence in Twelfth-Century Anglo-Scottish Warfare’, Anglo-Norman Studies 12 (1990), 177–98.

8. McGuigan, Máel Coluim III.

9. Broun, Scottish Independence, 101–3; Bates, William the Conqueror, 360–2, 425–7.

10. R. Oram, Domination and Lordship: Scotland, 1070–1230 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), 56–7. On Henry I’s illegitimate offspring: K. Thompson, ‘Affairs of State: The Illegitimate Children of Henry I’, Journal of Medieval History 29 (2003), 129–51.

11. A. Taylor, The Shape of the State in Medieval Scotland, 1124–1290 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

12. PL, cxcv, cols 711–38, with Broun, ‘Attitudes of Gall to Gaedhel’, at 69–71.

13. William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, V.400, with B. Weiler, ‘William of Malmesbury on Kingship’, History 95 (2005), 3–22, at 9–10. See further, Weiler, ‘William of Malmesbury, King Henry I, and the Gesta regum Anglorum’, Anglo-Norman Studies 31 (2009), 157–76.

14. Symeon of Durham, Historia regum Anglorum, ed. T. Arnold, Symeonis monachi omnia opera, ii (London: Longman, 1885), 191–2.

15. John of Hexham, Historia, ch. 4, ed. T. Arnold, Symeonis monachi omnia opera, ii (London: Longman, 1885); Richard of Hexham, De gestis regis Stephani, s.a. 1138, ed. R. Howlett, Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry I, and Richard I, iii (London: Longman, 1886); Aelred of Rievaulx, Relatio de standardo, ed. Howlett, Chronicles of the Reigns, iii, 181–99; John of Worcester, Chronicon, s.a. 1138.

16. Jordan Fantosme’s Chronicle, ll. 1,175–8, ed. R. C. Johnston (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981); William of Newburgh, Historia regum Anglicarum, II.23, ed. and trans. P. G. Walsh and M. J. Kennedy (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1998–2007). See further, Bartlett, Making of Europe, 78–82; Gillingham, English in the Twelfth Century, 14–15, 41–58, 101–3; Strickland, War and Chivalry, 291–329, 337–40.

17. G. W. S. Barrow, The Anglo-Norman Era in Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); A. Grant, ‘At the Northern Edge: Alba and the Normans’, in Norman Expansion: Connections, Continuities and Contrasts, ed. K. J. Stringer and A. Jotischky (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013), 49–85; J. A. Green, ‘The Normans in the North’, in Normans and the ‘Norman Edge’, ed. Stringer and Jotischky, 53–75.

18. Broun, ‘Attitudes of Gall to Gaedhel’.

19. Davies, Domination and Conquest, 50–1. See further, B. Weiler, ‘Knighting, Homage, and the Meaning of Ritual: The Kings of England and Their Neighbors in the Thirteenth Century’, Viator 37 (2006), 275–300.

20. P. Dalton, Conquest, Anarchy and Lordship: Yorkshire, 1066–1154 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 88, 92–4, 96.

21. Regesta Regum Anglo-Normannorum, ii, 1100–1135, ed. C. Johnson and H. A. Cronne (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956), no. 648. See further, J. A. Green, ‘David I and Henry I’, Scottish Historical Review 75 (1996), 1–19.

22. The Charters of David I: The Written Acts of David I, King of Scots, 1124–53, and of his Son, Henry, Earl of Northumberland, 1139–52, ed. G. W. S. Barrow (Woodbridge; Boydell Press, 1999), no. 16, with Oram, Domination and Lordship, 65–6; Broun, ‘Southern Scotland’, 42–5; R. Sharpe, ‘People and Languages in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Britain and Ireland: Reading the Charter Evidence’, in The Reality Behind Charter Diplomacy in Anglo-Norman Britain, ed. D. Broun (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2011), 1–119, at 71–8.

23. Barrow, Anglo-Norman Era, 61–90. See also R. M. Blakely, The Brus Family in England and Scotland, 1100–1295 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2005), 8–27.

Chapter 20: The Power Behind the Throne: Scotland Under Ada de Warenne, 1153–78

1. William of Newburgh, Historia rerum Anglicarum, I.25.

2. V. Chandler, ‘Ada de Warenne, Queen Mother of Scotland (c.1123–1178)’, Scottish Historical Review 60 (1981), 119–39; J. A. Nelson, ‘Queens and Queenship in Scotland, circa 1067–1286’ (unpublished. PhD thesis, King’s College London, 2007), 91–125. Cf. D. Crouch, The Beaumont Twins: The Roots and Branches of Power in the Twelfth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 29–51; E. van Houts, ‘The Warenne View of the Past, 1066–1203’, Anglo-Norman Studies 26 (2004), 103–22.

3. Barrow, Anglo-Norman Era, 61–117; K. J. Stringer, ‘Aspects of the Norman Diaspora in Northern England and Southern Scotland’, in Normans and the ‘Norman Edge’, ed. Stringer and Jotischky, 9–47.

4. Cf. J. Bannerman, ‘The King’s Poet and the Inauguration of Alexander III’, Scottish Historical Review 68 (1989), 120–49, esp. 124–7, 132–3.

5. E. J. Ward, ‘Child Kingship in England, Scotland, France, and Germany, c.1050–c.1250’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2017), 31–3, 161–4. See further, Bartlett, Blood Royal, 114–23.

6. A Scottish Chronicle Known as the Chronicle of Holyrood, ed. M. O. Anderson and A. O. Anderson (Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1938), 124–5, with Oram, Domination and Lordship, 109–14.

7. C. J. Neville, ‘The Beginnings of Royal Pardon in Scotland’, Journal of Medieval History 42 (2016), 559–87.

8. BL Cotton Charter, xviii, 45 (Charters of David I, ed. Barrow, no. 16). For a reproduction: G. W. S. Barrow, Scotland and its Neighbours in the Middle Ages (London: Hambledon Continuum, 1992), pl. 1a. On address clauses: R. Sharpe, ‘Address and Delivery in Anglo-Norman Royal Charters’, in Charters and Charter Scholarship in Britain and Ireland, ed. M.-T. Flanagan and J. A. Green (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 32–52.

9. D. Broun, ‘The Writing of Charters in Scotland and Ireland in the Twelfth Century’, in Charters and the Use of the Written Word in Medieval Society, ed. K. J. Heidecker (Turnhout: Brepols, 2000), 113–31; ‘The Adoptions of Brieves in Scotland’, in Charters and Charter Scholarship, ed. Flanagan and Green, 164–83. Cf. H. Pryce, ‘Culture, Power and the Charters of Welsh Rulers’, in Charters and Charter Scholarship, ed. Flanagan and Green, 184–202; Insley, ‘Kings, Lords, Charters’.

10. D. Baker, ‘ “A Nursery of Saints”: St Margaret of Scotland Reconsidered’, Studies in Church History: Subsidia 1 (1978), 119–141; G. W. S. Barrow, ‘Scottish Rulers and the Religious Orders, 1070–1153’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 3 (1953), 77–100. See also Broun, ‘Writing of Charters’.

11. Taylor, Shape of the State.

12. Charters of David I, ed. Barrow, no. 16; Regesta regum Scottorum, ii, The Acts of William I, 1165–214, ed. G. W. S. Barrow with W. W. Scott (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971), no. 80. See Taylor, Shape of the State, 50–1, 177–84; S. Reynolds, ‘Fiefs and Vassals in Scotland: A View from Outside’ (2003), repr. in S. Reynolds, The Middle Ages without Feudalism: Essays in Criticism and Comparison on the Medieval West (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), no. iv; H. MacQueen, ‘Tears of Legal Historian: Scottish Feudalism and the ius commune’, Juridical Review, n.s. (2003), 1–28.

13. Davies, First English Empire, 170.

Chapter 21: Strongbow in Leinster: Stealing a March, 1167–71

1. Gerald of Wales, Topographia Hibernie, ed. J. J. O’Meara, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 52 (1948–50), 113–78, at 176–7. On Gerald’s ambitions: Bartlett, Gerald of Wales, 54–62.

2. ASC 1086 E (= 1087), ed. S. Irvine, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: MS E (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). See further Davies, First English Empire, 4–30.

3. Gerald of Wales, Itinerarium Kambrie, II.1, ed. J. S. Brewer, Giraldi Cambrensis: Opera, 8 vols. (London, 1861–91); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum, V.409.

4. Charles-Edwards, Wales and the Britons, 583–98; Broun, Scottish Independence, 124–57; D. Ó Corráin, The Irish Church, its Reform and the English Invasion (Dublin, 2017), 5–42.

5. Ó Corráin, Irish Church, 58–64; Cowdrey, Lanfranc, 144–7; M. T. Flanagan, Irish Society, Anglo-Norman Settlers, Angevin Kingship: Interactions in Ireland in the Late Twelfth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 7–55; M. Philpott, ‘Some Interactions between the English and Irish Churches’, Anglo-Norman Studies 20 (1998), 187–204; M. Brett, ‘Canterbury’s Perspective on Church Reform in Ireland, 1070–1115’, in Ireland and Europe in the Twelfth Century: Reform and Renewal, ed. D. Bracken and D. Ó Riain-Raedel (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2006), 13–35.

6. The Letters of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, ed. H. Clover and M. Gibson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), nos 9–10. On his background and training, see Brett, ‘Canterbury’s Perspective’, 33–5, with the response in E. Boyle, ‘The Twelfth-Century English Transmission of a Poem on the Threefold Division of the Mind, Attributed to Patrick of Dublin (d. 1084)’, in ‘A Fantastic and Abstruse Latinity?’ Hiberno-Continental Cultural and Literary Interactions in the Middle Ages, ed. W. R. Keller and D. Schlüter (Münster: Nodus Publikationen, 2017), 102–16, at 104–6.

7. Robert of Torigny, Chronica, s.a. 1155, ed. T. N. Bisson, The Chronography of Robert of Torigni (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020); Sigeberti Gemblacensis chronographiae auctarium Affligemense, s.a. 1156, ed. P. Gorissen (Brussels: Palais des Académies, 1952), with C. Veach, ‘Henry II and the Ideological Foundations of Angevin Rule in Ireland’, Irish Historical Studies 42 (2018), 1–25, at 5–6.

8. A. Duggan, ‘The Making of a Myth: Giraldus Cambrensis, Laudabiliter, and Henry II’s Lordship of Ireland’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, 3rd ser., 4 (2007), 107–70.

9. The Letters and Charters of Henry II, ed. N. Vincent (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), no. 1468. While the document itself is suspect (probably a forgery produced by Gerald of Wales), Henry’s grant of permission to recruit in Bristol is perfectly plausible (and is mentioned in other sources).

10. Cf. Oskanen, Flanders and the Anglo-Norman World, 179–218.

11. Letters and Charters, ed. Vincent, nos 691, 1071, 1986, 2006, 2653, with Flanagan, Irish Society, 112–17, 121–3; N. Vincent, ‘Did Henry II Have a Policy Towards the Earls?’, in War, Government and Aristocracy in the British Isles, c.1150–1500, ed. C. Given-Wilson et al. (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2008), 1–25 at 9.

12. I. Warntjes, ‘Regnal Succession in Early Medieval Ireland’, Journal of Medieval History 30 (2004), 377–410.

13. M. T. Flanagan, ‘Negotiating Across Legal and Cultural Borders: Aífe, Daughter of Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster, and Marriage, Motherhood and Widowhood in Twelfth-Century Ireland and England’, Peritia 30 (2019), 71–95. See also Flanagan, Irish Society, 112–36.

14. C. Downham, Medieval Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 81–113, 238–78.

Chapter 22: Hugh de Lacy: Lord of Meath, 1171–7

1. Gerald of Wales, Expugnatio Hibernica, chs 13–15, ed. and trans. A. B. Scott and F. X. Martin (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1978).

2. Ibid., ch. 28. Note, Letters and Charters, ed. Vincent, no. 1882, providing possible confirmation of Gerald on this point.

3. Letters and Charters of Henry II, ed. Vincent, no. 786. See also ibid., nos 244, 1011, 1076, 1133, 1434, with discussion in Flanagan, Irish Society, 114, 121–3.

4. For different (largely complementary) perspectives: Gerald of Wales, Expugnatio Hibernica, chs 30–2; La Geste des Engleis en Yreland, ll. 2,577–756, ed. E. Mullaly (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2002), 119–23. See Flanagan, Irish Society, 167–228.

5. S. Duffy, ‘Ireland’s Hastings: The Anglo-Norman Conquest of Dublin’, Anglo-Norman Studies 20 (1998), 69–85.

6. P. Gleeson, ‘Making Provincial Kingship in Early Ireland: Cashel and the Creation of Munster’, in Power and Place in Europe in the Early Middle Ages, ed. J. Carroll, A. Reynolds and B. Yorke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 346–68.

7. D. P. McCarthy, The Irish Annals: Their Genesis, Evolution and History (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2008), 188–96; N. Evans, The Present and the Past in Medieval Irish Chronicles (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2010), 45–66.

8. M. T. Flanagan, ‘Henry II, the Council of Cashel and the Irish Bishops’, Peritia 10 (1996), 184–211.

9. Ó Corráin, Irish Church, 104–15. See also M. T. Flanagan, The Transformation of the Irish Church in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2010).

10. Veach, ‘Henry II’. See also N. Vincent, ‘Angevin Ireland’, in The Cambridge History of Ireland, i, 600–1550, ed. B. Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 185–221, at 209–11.

11. Ó Corráin, Irish Church, 108–9.

12. N. Vincent, ‘Regional Variations in the Charters of King Henry II (1154–89)’, in Charters and Charter Scholarship in Britain and Ireland, ed. Flanagan and Green, 70–106, at 74–5. Particularly noteworthy is that the formula does not appear in Henry II’s grant of Dublin to the men of Bristol: Letters and Charters, ed. Vincent, no. 313.

13. Letters and Charters, ed. Vincent, no. 1440.

14. C. Veach, Lordship in Four Realms: The Lacy Family, 1166–1241 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2014), 33.

15. Expugnatio Hibernica, ch. 41; Mac Cartaig’s Book, s.a. 1173, ed. S. Ó hInnse, Miscellaneous Irish Annals (A.D. 1114–1437) (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1947).

16. Veach, Lordship in Four Realms, 31–2.

17. Gerald of Wales, Expugnatio Hibernica, chs 13–15, with Gillingham, English in the Twelfth Century, 41–2; M. Saunton, The Historians of Angevin England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 96–100; C. Veach, ‘Aristocratic Violence and the English Invasion of Ireland’, in The English Invasion of Ireland, ed. S. Duffy and P. Crooks (forthcoming). On Gerald and his family: H. Pryce, ‘Giraldus and the Geraldines’, in The Geraldines and Medieval Ireland: The Making of a Myth, ed. P. Crooks and S. Duffy (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2016), 53–68; C. Veach, ‘The Geraldines and the Conquest of Ireland’, in ibid., 69–92, at 69–77.

18. Saunton, Historians of Angevin England, 353–61.

19. Veach, ‘Henry II’, 17–21.

20. H. M. Thomas, The English and the Normans: Ethnic Hostility, Assimilation, and Identity 1066–c.1220 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). See also Sharpe, ‘Peoples and Languages’, 19–21.

21. Gillingham, English in the Twelfth Century, 145–60.

22. Veach, Lordship in Four Realms, 47–73.

23. S. Church, King John: England, Magna Carta and the Making of a Tyrant (London: Macmillan, 2015), 9–32.

24. C. Veach, ‘King John and Royal Control in Ireland: Why William de Briouze had to be Destroyed’, English Historical Review 129 (2014), 1051–78.

Chapter 23: The End of Empire? John and Normandy, 1204

1. Annales de Margam, s.a. 1202, ed. H. R. Luard, Annales Monastici, i, Rolls Series (1864), 1–40, with M. Morris, King John: Treachery, Tyranny and the Road to Magna Carta (London: Hutchinson, 2015), 153.

2. Morris, King John, 7–13, 39–45. See also M. Powicke, The Loss of Normandy, 1189–1204: Studies in the History of the Angevin Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2nd edn, 1960), 253–6.

3. D. Power, ‘La Chute de la Normandie ducale (1202–4): un réexamen’, in La Guerre en Normandie (XI^e–XV^e siècle), ed. A. Curry and V. Gazeau (Caen: Presses universitaires de Caen, 2020), 37–62.

4. N. Vincent, John: An Evil King? (London: Allen Lane, 2020), 100–1.

5. T. K. Moore, ‘The Loss of Normandy and the Invention of Terre Normannorum, 1204’, English Historical Review 125 (2010), 1071–109; D. Crouch, William Marshal (London: Routledge, 3rd edn, 2016), 109–16.

6. J. A. Green, ‘Unity and Disunity in the Anglo-Norman State’, Historical Research 62 (1989), 115–34, esp. 130–3; D. Crouch, ‘Normans and Anglo-Normans: A Divided Aristocracy?’, in England and Normandy in the Middle Ages, ed. D. Bates and A. Curry (London: Hambledon Continuum, 1994), 51–67.

7. N. Vincent, Peter des Roches: An Alien in English Politics, 1205–1238 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), esp. 34–41.

8. Church, King John, 140–3; Morris, King John, 96–9.

9. G. Duby, The Legend of Bouvines: War, Religion and Culture in the Middle Ages, trans. C. Tihanyi (Oxford: Polity Press, 1990); J. France, ‘The Battle of Bouvines 27 July 1214’, in The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach, ed. G. I. Halfond (Farnham: Ashgate, 2015), 251–71.

10. J. C. Holt, The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John (Oxford: Clarendon Press, rev. edn, 1992), 100.

11. D. Carpenter, Magna Carta (London: Penguin, 2015).

12. N. C. Vincent, ‘English Liberties, Magna Carta (1215) and the Spanish Connection’, in 1212–1214, el trieno que hizo a Europa (Pamplona: Institución Príncipe de Viana D.L, 2011), 243–62.

13. Carpenter, Magna Carta, 235–44. See also Veach, ‘King John’.

14. Davies, First English Empire, 20–30, 74–88, 142–71. See also C. Veach, ‘The Angevin Empire in the British Isles’, in The Angevin Empire: New Interpretations, ed. S. D. Church and M. Strickland (forthcoming).

Chapter 24: ‘Wonder of the World’: Emperor Frederick II, 1198–1250

1. Frederick’s Sicilian identity comes through strongly in D. Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor (London: Allen Lane, 1988); and O. B. Rader, Friedrich II: Ein Sizilianer auf dem Kaiserthron: Eine Biographie (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2010).

2. Peter of Eboli, Liber ad honorem Augusti, II.43, ll. 1,377–8, ed. M. Strähl, Petrus de Ebulo: Liber ad honorem Augusti sive de rebus Siculis. Codex 120 II der Burgerbibliothek Bern (Sigmaringen: Jan Thorbecke, 1994); Annales Casinenses, s.a. 1195, ed. G. H. Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 19 (Hanover, 1866); Iohannis Codagnelli Annales Placentini, s.a. 1211, 1212, 1226, ed. O. Holder-Egger (Hanover: Impensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1901), with W. Stürner, Friedrich II. 1194–1250 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, rev. edn, 2009), i, 41–9; Abulafia, Frederick II, 90. Cf. Rader, Friedrich II., 50.

3. P. Csendes, Heinrich VI. (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1993), 144–58; T. Foerster, ‘Romanorum et regni Sicilie imperator. Zum Anspruch Kaiser Heinrichs VI. auf das normannische Königreich Sizilien’, Archiv für Diplomatik 54 (2008), 37–46.

4. T. Kölzer, ‘Constanza d’Altavilla’, in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, xxx (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana, 1984), 346–56.

5. G. Baaken, ‘Die Verhandlungen zwischen Kaiser Heinrich VI. und Papst Coelestin III. in den Jahren 1195–1197’, Deutsches Archiv 27 (1971), 457–513; B. Bolton, ‘Celestine III and the Defence of the Patrimony’, in Pope Celestine III (1191–1198): Diplomat and Pastor, ed. J. Doran and D. J. Smith (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 317–53.

6. DD Ks 43, 44, in Die Urkunden der Kaiserin Konstanze, ed. T. Közler, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Diplomata regum et imperatorum Germaniae 11.3 (Hanover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1990).

7. B. Wiedemann, ‘Papal Authority and Power during the Minority of Emperor Frederick II’, in Authority and Power in the Medieval Church, c.1000–c.1500, ed. T. W. Smith (Turnhout: Brepols, 2020), 67–77.

8. Stürner, Friedrich II., i, 85–105.

9. Rader, Friederich II.

10. B. Schneidmüller, Die Welfen: Herrschaft und Erinnerung (819–1252) (Stuttgart: Urban-Taschenbücher, 2000), 263–7.

11. T. Broekmann, Rigor iustitiae: Herrschaft, Recht und Terror im normannisch-staufischen Süden (1050–1250), (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2005); T. Foerster, ‘Imperial Tradition and Norman Heritage: Cultures of Violence and Cruelty’, in Norman Tradition, ed. Burkhardt and Foerster, 161–88.

12. Broekmann, Rigor iustitiae, 260–368; B. Weiler, Kingship, Rebellion and Political Culture: England and Germany, c.1215–c.1250 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), esp. 3–10, 39–75.

13. Broekmann, Rigor iustitiae, 25–259. See also Strickland, ‘La Chevalerie des Normands?’; Foerster, ‘Imperial Tradition’.

14. E. Kantorowicz, Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite (Berlin: Bondi, 1927–31), with M. Ruehl, ‘ “In This Time without Emperors”: The Politics of Ernst Kantorowicz’s Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite Reconsidered’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 63 (2000), 187–242; R. E. Lerner, Ernst Kantorowicz: A Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), esp. 68–116.

Afterlives of the Normans: A Europe Transformed

1. S. Sønnesyn, ‘The Rise of the Normans as Ethnopoiesis’, in Norman Tradition, ed. Burkhardt and Foerster, 203–18.

2. Van Houts, ‘Exogamy’.

3. R. H. C. Davis, The Normans and Their Myth (London: Thames & Hudson, 1976).

4. G. A. Loud, ‘The “Gens Normanorum” – Myth or Reality?’, Anglo-Norman Studies 4 (1982), 104–16, 204–6; A. Plassmann, Origo gentis. Identitäts- und Legitimitätsstiftung in früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Herkunftserzählungen (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2006). See also M. Bennett, ‘Norman Conquests: Nature, Nurture, Normanitas’, in Normans in the Mediterranean, ed. Winkler and Fitzgerald, 43–65.

5. Bartlett, Making of Europe. See also D. C. Douglas, The Norman Achievement 1050–1100 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969), and The Norman Fate 1100–1154 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1976).